Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

The history education in Cambodia is an interesting one. Before WWII, under French
rule, there was one high school in Phnom Penh and not one university. King Sihanouk made
significant changes in the field of education during his reign and between 1953 and 1968, the
number of primary school students grew from 300,000 to one million, while the number of
secondary students grew from 5,000 to one million, and nine universities were opened (Higher
Education and Vocational Training in Cambodia, Ministry of Education, 1979). Before the
educational system could find its feet, The Pol Pot regime stamped it out, killing many of the
qualified teachers and scholars. By 1979 Cambodia had only around 3000 secondary school
teachers remaining.
The same source stated that war has slowed the development of Cambodia and human
resources are still at a low level. New, Cambodia is recovering from the devastation of war. It
is paying attention to matters of government and the system of education, both of which have
been gradually improving since the 80s. Currently, the adult literacy rate hovers around forty
percent but tends to fluctuate, especially in the provinces. Poverty is the central problem.
Furthermore, there is a disparity between the number of males and females in the educational
system due to the focus on education for males and the expectations placed upon women. In
the same book, it was mentioned that in general, women are expected to manage the
household, and receive little if any encouragement to pursue studies, especially beyond the
primary levels. The too, is changing gradually as woman are needed in a growing economy.
The focus of this paper is on the specific issues that prevent people, particularly girls,
from pursuing education. We examine the working of four universities in order to find
1

strengths weaknesses in the educational field. Furthermore, it is necessary to understand key

issues in the area of higher education and find ways of dealing with them. Well-trained
university graduates can a great deal for Cambodia. They can help the country recover from
the terrible of war and rebuild a strong economic and social system. The Ministry of Youth and
Sport is ex tending its hand to help the public universities and encourage the universities to
provide important and necessary skills to their students. Is understands that education is the
key which opens the door to development resources and of economics and preservation of
culture.

Background of the Study

In our discussion we used documents from the Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sports (Survey on Girls Education in Cambodia, 1998), as well as the Ministry of Planning
(Cambodia Poverty Assessment, 1997). We got our testimonial On Being the Oldest
Daughter from Women Education in Cambodia for our study of the issues facing girl with
respect to education. We wanted to compare university profiles to discuss both advantages and
flaws of the system. We were helped by Social Sciences Books at the Royal University of
Phnom Penh, by Henri Locard (Phnom Penh, 3 December 1995), Education Sector, The
Review, The Royal Government of Cambodia, 1994.
We also found up-to-date information from the internet about how the lifestyle of a
person changes of getting higher education and were fortunate to be granted an interview with
Mr. Ly Saroun regarding the question on employment opportunities and significance of
education.

Statement of the Problem

This paper presents a situational analysis of the literacy in Cambodia and its
contributing factors, the key issues affecting higher education, the strategic plans of the
government through the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports to improve the quality and
efficiency of Higher Education, and the overall significance of Higher Education, and the
overall significance of higher education.
Specifically, the paper will answer the following questions:
1. What is the situation of literacy in Cambodia and the factors that contribute to it?
2. What are the key issues affecting higher education in Cambodia?
3. What are the plans of the government to improve the quality and efficiency of
higher education?
4. What are the significance of a higher education?

Significance of the Study

Education can make a difference in the world. A good education helps develop human
potential and human resources necessary to society as a whole. Education helps people to
understand the world they live in, and higher education gives them knowledge and skill to
make necessary changes. Knowledge is the key to thought and a tool for change. Higher
education allows people to come up with ideas for using available resources and discover new
resources to better the economy and pass on their knowledge to others.

This term paper will provide information of the general situation and systems being
implemented in higher education in Cambodia. In particular, this paper will help university
students gain more knowledge of the general situation, key issues and programs laid by the
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in order to improve the quality and efficiency of
higher education. We hope that this term paper will assist them in their studies.
Furthermore, this tern paper shows the significance of higher education and it is hoped
that this information will encourage high school students to pursue higher education.
It is also hoped that the general public will find the information mentioned in this term
paper valuable and useful to them.
This term paper has also given our group an understanding of the key issues in the area
of higher education and the significance of its purpose.

Scope and Delimitation of Study

The study focused only on the general situation of literacy in Cambodia and the
reasons affecting the high rate of illiteracy in Cambodia, the key issues affecting higher
education, the plan by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports to improve the quality and
efficiency of higher education, and the significance of a higher education. The information
used in this term was obtained from Banana Library, Norton Library, CDRI Library, Buddhist
Library, URPP Library, Senate Library Document Center Library, and internet websites.
In doing our research for this term paper, we had difficulty finding updated and
relevant resources. We also had difficulty in going from one library to another due to the
distance.
The

research

was

conducted

during

one-month

period.

Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LIERATURE
In our discussion of illiteracy in Cambodia, we drew heavily from the information
provided by the documents we got from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports for the
Report on the Assessment of the Functional Literacy Levels of the Adult population in
Cambodia published in 2000, as from Cambodia Poverty assessment Report (Ministry of
Planning, Phnom Penh, Cambodia). There reports were helpful in understanding the problem
of illiteracy. We also referred to the Chapter on Education in the 2003 edition of the Lonely
Planet publication on Cambodia written by Nick Ray, the editor of said publication, which
gives a brief review of the history of education up to now.
For our comparison of institution of higher learning we looked at Social Sciences at the
University of Phnom Penh by Henri Locard (Phnom Penh, 3 December 1995) and The Royal
Government of Cambodia, Education Sector Review, Vol. 2A, 1994 (Asian Development
Bank, Manila and Queensland Education Consortium, Australia)
The question of key issues in education was documented in the book Higher Education
in Cambodia edited by David Sloper and Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project (University
of Canberra, 1997), edited by Patricia A. Denham. We also referred to the document from the
Ministry of Education which was published in 1997 with the title Focus on Higher Education
and Vocational Training in Cambodia For our research on women and education we referred
to Using Both Hands, Women and Education in Cambodia, Asian Development Bank, (1995),
by Edward B. Fiske, Survey on Girls Education in Cambodia, published by the Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports, Department of Planning (July 1998). We also interviewed Mr. Ly
Saroun and Touch Chaun who were willing to give some information for purposes of this
study.
7

Chapter III
METHODOLOGY

The research for the term paper the two of us began in June, 2012. Our group had done
some researches on the topics relevant to our term paper at the Cambodian University for
Specialties (CUS) library, Norton Library, CDRI Library, URPP Library, Buddhist Library,
and Document Center Library. We also used relevant information from the internet. The
researches were directly related to our study of Higher Education in Cambodia.

Chapter IV
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

A Situational Analysis of Literacy in Cambodia

The estimated literacy levels in Cambodia vary, depending on survey methodology and
definition of literacy. According to the statistical data of the National Institute of Statistics,
Ministry of Planning, published in 1998, the estimated number of adult literates in the whole
of Cambodia is 81 percent for males and 57 percent for females. By year 2010, based on the
same statics is an expected minimal increase of two percent for males and a substantial
increase of nine percent for females. These figures are primarily based on the trend established
from the same survey. Despite these improvements; adult literacy rates in Cambodia are well
below many of its ASEAN neighbors, which have rates of around 95 percent in many cases.
An institution or societys definition of literacy to a great deal implies a definition of
culture collective of a particular society ( Report on the Assessment of the Functional
Literacy Levels of the Adult Population in Cambodia, Department of Non-Formal Education,
Ministry of Education,2000). At its most basic meaning, literacy means being able to read,
write and count. In Cambodia, for over a thousand years, literacy has been closely attached to
Buddhist education organized in and around the wats or pagodas children, youths, monks and
nuns (Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey, National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of
Planning, 1999).
In1995, for the purpose of statistical distinction, UNESCO made specific
differentiations of literacy in Cambodia; adult literacy and functional literacy. Adult literacy
rate refers specifically to the proportion in percentage of the population aged
9

fifteen years and above who are literate. A person is functionally literate when he/she has
acquired the essential knowledge and skills which enable him/her to engage in all those
activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning in his/her group and
community, and whose attainment in reading, writing and arithmetic make it possible for
him/her to continue to use these skills towards his/her own and the communitys development.
In the case of adult literacy, the same statistical figure as mentioned above with reports
by the National Institute of Statistics in1998. However, the survey on the Assessment of the
Functional Literacy of the Adult Population in Cambodia mentioned a much lower figure of
functional literacy rate for both sexes: 45 percent for females and 64 percent for males. These
figures show a parallel truth to the national perception that less Cambodians are actively
involved or are contributing less in the development of the country. Factors contributing to
these dismal functional literacy rates are explained below in the same survey by the National
Institute of Statistics.
The same survey revealed a relatively low literacy rate in rural and hard to reach areas.
Figures reported by the National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, 1998, that the
rural sector is characterized by the low participation in schooling and slow growth in specific
age enrollments beginning with 20 percent at the age of admission of 6 years and reaching 83
percent at the age of 11 years for both males and females. These figures show the overall rates
for Cambodia are low as they are determined primarily by the low enrollment rates of these
age group in the rural sector. Furthermore, the school enrollment rtes continue to increase until
the age of 11 and then to decline, indicating that although the minimum age for admission was
6 years, late admissions had continued for several years beyond the minimum age.
In contrast, Phnom Penh has the age specific enrollment rates as high as 90 percent for
both males and females in the age group 8-14 years. Beyond the age of 14 years, age specific
10

rates decline rates rapidly confirming that the drop our rates increase steadily in the transition
from primary to secondary and tertiary education and training.
The same survey stated that the main reason for not attending school or a training
institution is the lack of interest for non-attendance of children in both urban and rural sectors.
Moreover, the same survey noted that the second most important reason for not attending
school or a training institution is the responsibility of having to contribute to household
income. The fact is true for both in rural and urban sectors. This reason has prevented the
highest number of students in other urban areas from attending school or training institution
full time.
Another reason for not attending school or training institution given by the respondents
in a survey conducted by the Department of Non-Formal Education, MoEYS is adult
education. One of the major impacts that adult education produces is that it encourages
education. People who live in an illiterate environment tend very rapidly to forget what they
have learnt at school and relapse into illiteracy. By contrast, dropping our is less frequent and
knowledge is retained longer by those who have the opportunity to read and to maintain their
acquired store of knowledge. The result of the same survey revealed that a large number of
respondents had participated in formal schooling and literacy programmers.
The same survey specifically mentioned other reasons for not attending schools or
training institution. High of both male and female respondents surveyed are: parents poverty,
assistant at home, distance to school, and family migration. A minimal percentage of
respondents mentioned poor teaching and schooling is not useful as their reasons for not
attending schools or training institutions.
The Department of Non-Formal Education, Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport
summarized their finding about the literacy in Cambodia through their survey Report in the
Assessment of the Functional Literacy Levels of the Adult Education in Cambodia, 2000.
11

These finding are correlated with several other factors such as gender, age, health, income,
ethnicity, location and the environment:
a. In every group, women have a higher level of illiteracy than men.
b. 80 percent of the males and 60 percent of the females attended school at some
time. Of this group, 10 percent of the males and 16.5 percent of the females have
relapsed into illiteracy.
c. Occupation such as farmers, fishermen, laborers, and housewives showed high
level of illiteracy, especially among females.
d. Those in the age group 30-44 have a higher illiteracy rate than others, most likely
because they were deprived of education during the period of armed conflicts and
the Khmer Rouge era (1975-79).
e. People who have low literacy rates also have low income. Literacy levels are
especially low among the poor, the vulnerable and socially marginalized groups.
f. Illiteracy is highly apparent among socially disadvantaged and highland
minorities, and especially among the females in each group.
g. Certain provinces have high level of illiteracy, especially Mondulkiri, Kep,
Ratanakiri, Pailin, Preah Vihear, and Siem Reap.
h. There are a high correlation between illiteracy and poverty.

Key Issues affecting Higher Education in Cambodia

12

Geoffrey Coyne in his book entitled Education and Socio-Political Transitions in

Asia noted that the rapid transition of Cambodia from three former and very different
regimes has left the countrys education system in shamble and disarray. The infamous Pol
Pot regime has left a legacy of death of intellectuals and destruction of education materials.

This transition is a major challenge that the relevant ministry of government has to
overcome. The ministry of Education, Youth and Sport was created to oversee such transition,
but was ill-equipped and incapable to tickle the seemingly insurmountable tasks to provide
physical and financial provision of teaching and learning resources, proper building, libraries,
textbooks, and many more.
The MoEYS was also faced with the mounting challenges from the private sector,
losing qualified and experience teachers to private schools and institutions. The problem of
low salaries in government universities has forced lecturers to seek extra work to supplement
their income.
The country is still struggling to overcome the loss of human, physical and financial
resource of the war years while trying to move form a socialist to a market oriented economy.
Both of these aspects impact on the key issues affecting higher education in Cambodia. Key
issues include broad issues that impact on all sectors of the economy; and issues specific to
higher education.

Broad Issues

13

The major issues here are: i) the limited number of qualified, trained and experienced
Cambodians, most of whom have little of no tradition of public administration ; ii) public
service salaries that do not meet basic survival needs; iii) incomplete transfer procedures based
on central planning to those of a market economy; and iv) a lack of policy in many areas.
The administrative and managerial competence of the Ministry of Education, Youth,
and Sport is structurally weak (Report on Cambodias Education System, World Bank, 1994).
In the same book, it also mentioned that most MoEYS officials are former teachers lacking
management skills. The MoEYS itself has few effective systems of co-ordination and
supervision. It lacks competent staff, and has little in the way of up-to-date educational
resources and services.
Salaries for all public servants range from $US10-25 per month. According to a 1994
government survey in Phnom Penh, the average monthly household expenses were
$US 312, the average household consisting of 5.9 members ( Report on the Cambodia SocioEconomic Survey, National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, 1999).
To make up the difference in income, lecturers are forced to find other jobs outside
regular working hours or lured corrupt working practices, or both (Education and SocioPolitical Transitions in Asia, 1991).
According to the same author, the changeover to a more market oriented system has
caused confusion in the area of higher education. Under the former central system of planning
the university was told supply to supply the governments with a certain number of graduates
of fill the economic demand. The government is now silent on the matter of graduate needs,
and has withdrawn employment assistants, expect for teachers of English and French. Market
forces do not yet know that type of graduate, or how many, are needed for the economy. Thus,
the university continues to enroll a fixed number of students into various faculties, but
students have no guarantee of government employment and are largely unaware of earning
14

potential in the private sector. This is one reason for the strong push by students to be taught in
and learn the English language, to open the door to employment opportunities.
Finally, there is policy gap in many areas of current and planned development which
adds to the problems of higher education. Only recently, government guidelines and higher
education policies were introduced. Before that, initiatives came from donors (Education
Sector Review, 1994). These efforts were helpful to an extent but much of the work was
uncoordinated, leading to weakened

impact and poor networking. The end result was a

policy vacuum. For example, there is no clear government policy on the respective roles of
English and French thus, Francophone institutions are funded by the French government
Francophone (Commerce, Economics, Law), while others are a mixture of English and
French. The same source mentioned that there is no funding available for what should be
primary educational goals, the development of Khmer as a modern language.

Specific Issues
15

In this section, we the low quality of education, in part due to a lack of public spending
on higher education. Legal problems typically arise because of the flawed legislation
governing higher education. There is also a lack of cooperation, coordination and control
mechanisms across sectors. Finally, there is a lack of ad equate management at
the institutional level (Diakonia Partner National Gender and Development Conference, 1998).
The learning environment also suffers from poor teaching methods and adequate
resources. Most lecturers and students read neither English nor French, and there are no
books available in most subjects in Khmer. This means that lecturers often cannot prepare
properly for teaching or for examinations. Moreover, it is difficult for students to understand
the few texts that are available in these languages. (Locard, 1993; Ministry
Of Education, Youth and Sports, 1994).
Poor quality of education is also caused by under funding. Presently, eight percent of
the national budget is spent on education and of this, 27 percent is spent on higher, technical
and vocational education. The World Bank estimates that about $US 33 million was spent by
donor agencies in 1994 to upgrade and improve the educational system in Cambodia. This
represents only a small percentage (approximately seven percent which include costs of
learning materials) of total donor support to the country. Within the government budget, about
90 percent of the government budget goes to salaries and scholarship the remainder covers
administrative costs only. Learning materials are not funded by the government.
Management at institute level is inadequate, party because institutes are not
autonomous and ministries have a centralized system of management. Institutions have little
or no autonomy in financing their activities, planning their enrolments, or regulating their
curriculum. The result is poor management procedures, a lack of advisory bodies, poor
communications system for staff and students associations and inadequate control
mechanisms (Locard, 1994).
16

Other Issues
Selections for entry, particularly into the higher status faculties such as Commerce,
Law, and Medicines are subject to under the table payments (Women and Education in
Cambodia, 1995).
The same source mentioned that assessment at the university levels is subject to
interference by both teachers and students. Students routinely pay their teachers in order to
pass their exams. As a consequence, open cheating in examinations is common.
Geoffrey Coyne mentioned in his book entitled Education and Socio-Political
Transitions in Asia that another problems with assessment has a cultural basic. In the B. Ed
(TEFL) program, it is noted that Khmer teachers do not like the idea of grading their
students on a scale from A to F; they grade only A or B. Failed grades are unthinkable.
Furthermore, the basic of their assessment is simplistic. By the end of the course, lecturers
give half of the market in easy writing in English to spelling, grammar, punctuation and
handwriting.

Improving the quality and Efficiency of Higher Education

17

The ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in its Education Strategic Plan, 20002005, has initiated a program to improve the quality and efficiency of higher education. The
long-term goal of this program is to enable a growing public/private partnership to achieve
equitable access and improved quality in the management and delivery of higher education. A
related lone-term strategic objective will be to promote and encourage increased participation
of private sector providers in delivering high quality, accessible and cost-efficient programs in
high demand areas.
The government will continue to assume responsibility of increased access to higher
education in underserved areas and for disadvantaged group. A crosscutting long-term
objective will be to encourage increased participation of other public, NGO and private sector
interest in the governance, planning and management of higher education (e.g. work place
training, careers guidance and counseling). Another related strategic objective will be to
promote private sector investment in new forms of higher education (e.g. through matching
development grants for distance learning).
According to the same strategic plan by the MoEYS for 2000-2205, another long-term
goal is to increase the transparency and accountability of all financing of higher education,
including government contributions, student fees and private sector contributions in cash and
in kind. In order to protect government spending for basic education, beyond 2005, it is
critical to capture and effectively manage significant private contributions to higher education.
Accordingly, a long-term objective will be to put in
place effective management and accounting procedure for both public and private including
parental contributions. At the same time, this program will be complemented by a poverty
indexed scholarship and incentives program to offset the costs to students from the poorest
families.
18

One medium-term strategic objective of this program is to assure equitable access for
students from poor households, through provision of higher education institute operational
budget that offset the costs to parents. The targeted scholarships program will provide
additional support for the very poor. A second medium-term strategic objective is to improve
the quality and relevance of higher education through advice from potential employers on
governing bodies. A third medium-term objective is to provide improved legislation,
regulation and quality assurance of higher education provision.

The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in its Education Strategic Plan for 20002005 summarized the following operational objectives of the program:
a. Improved admission to higher education through a more efficient and transparent
admissions system based on performance in grade 12 examinations.
b. Increased opportunities for student transfer and progression and credit transfer
arrangements.
c. Improved quality of higher education through targeted use of annual operational
budget to institutions.
d. Improved relevance and standard of higher education through new quality
assurance systems, including standardized student assessment systems and
independent employer satisfaction surveys.
e. Improved capacity of higher education teachers through a capacity building plan,
including in-country training.
f. Reduced informal costs of students through government funding of items normally
required from students and parents.
g. Improved governance of higher educations through new governing bodies with
broad-based representation and effective support and training
h. Effective management of higher education institutions through improved systems
for planning and monitoring, including transparency in financial accounting and
reporting.
19

i. Enhanced capacity for strategic leadership and performance monitoring within the
Department of Higher Education through improved planning and financial
management systems and related staff training.

Significance of Higher Education in Cambodia

Opportunities to Study Abroad
Several companies and organization in Cambodia will sponsor one or more employees
to study abroad. If management considers the employees capable and clever, as well as

20

trustworthy and reliable, they will pay to send him abroad to further his studies and bring back
to the company all that he has learned (Lonely Planet Magazine, 2000 Publication).
This suggests that the company is serious about development and has an eye on its own
future as well as the countrys development. It is to the companys advantage to fulfill

the potential of an outstanding employee. The employee would be indebted to the company for
having helped him broaden his knowledge and skills. His continued education would give him
fresh ideas and insights. He would be able to apply his expertise in his own country, find ways
and means to bring something new to the market and help expand internationally. There are
many company directors who therefore want to develop their interest by spending their best
employees oversea both the company and the economy stand to benefit.

Better Salaries

Before the year 2004, the official government salaries were paid according to the level,
or position of the employee. Recently however, there has been a reform in salary
administration, giving government officer higher wages in accordance with their level of
education. If the employee has a degree, it shows he is educated in his field and will likely
have much to offer the company, in which case, his salary will be higher. This is a direct costbenefit of higher learning.

Increased Opportunities for Women

In the same article, Nick Ray mentioned that Khmer tradition remains strong in
Cambodia and classrooms at the university level are not evenly matched in term of women
and men. However, this is gradually changing. As increasing number of women entre the field
21

previously closed to them, for example, politics, economics, science and law, their influence is
apparent. Women have a lot to bring to the economy - first of all, they are
accustomed to hard work. The daily responsibilities for women are many. Women, as
traditional caregivers, may bring a peaceful nature to the workplace it is reported that
women prefer harmony in their relationships and will endeavor to avoid conflict and opt
instead for peaceful resolution. Women are considered good communicators, generally. In the
past, Khmer it was though that women were incapable of anything other than house- work.
That view is changing and it is believed that women can contribute greatly nit just at home but
on the work front as well. Women are increasingly encouraged to pursue education and apply
for jobs after they graduate. Some organizations give priority to women, and encourage them
to apply for job posting.

Change of Lifestyle
Education can change peoples lifestyle because education teaches people to know how
to lie in the society. According to Mr. Ly Saroun who works as a Deputy Chief of the
Provincial and Municipal Procurement Department of the Ministry of Economy and Finance,
22

getting a higher education has changed his life from being poor family to having some
comforts in life. He was born in Takeo Province and lived with his parents. His parents
worked hard and saved money to support him to go to school because they didnt want their
son to become illiterate. His parents told him that the life of a farmer never is comfortable. Mr.
Ly Saroun studied hard until he finished high school. He studied at the Faculty of Law and
Economics after high school.
Unfortunately, he studied at the university only for two years because of the civil war
in 1975. Then in 1989, he continued his studied and graduated at the same university. After his
graduation, Mr. Ly Saroun stayed in Phnom Penh and was able to get a job at the Ministry of
Economy and Finance.
After ten years of working at the ministry, his life became better than his parents and is
living a comfortable life. Mr. Ly Saroun said that education is very important to people. And
nowadays, he is trying to save money to send his children abroad for their students so that his
children will have a better future.

Chapter V
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion

23

In conclusion, higher education in Cambodia, although it still has a long way to go, has
never been in better shape. It is true that Civil War caused a lot of damage Cambodia is a
poor country in need of resources to rebuild the country on every level. With increased
understanding of the benefit of education, more money is being allocated for education.
The government supports the extension of universities, both public and private. Norton
is a well established private university, the first private university to open its doors
to students in Cambodia. NIM and Faculty of Business have also made major contributions.
The number of universities is growing steadily. Students have more choice in their area of
study, to increase their knowledge. As Cambodia is beginning to focus on developing its
potential many companies sponsor their best staff to study overseas. This ensures that their
employees will return to Cambodia and with an increased knowledge and skills, help their
country.
It is our hope that in the future the educational system in Cambodia will become
stronger and be recognized for its high quality and standard of education on an international
scale. We also hope that all Cambodia will be able to receive a higher education. Every person
is needed to help our country rebuild itself and further economic development on an
international scale.

Recommendations
In light of the finding and present situation of the higher education in Cambodia,
certain issues must be addressed to improve the literacy level of the people and improve the
quality and efficiency of higher education sector.
24

The National Action Plan of the Royal Government of Cambodia drawn with the help
of UNESCO and the World Bank in 1995 was a result of the consultative meeting of the donor
countries for the rehabilitation and development of Cambodia.
Highlighted in that meeting was the necessity to rehabilitate the education sector as a
pre-requisite to national development. Certain issues were discussed and specific solutions
were recommended. On the issue of proper legislation and structure, the government has
formulated a national policy on higher education that paves the way for a standard educational
system in Cambodia.
The exiting academic programs implemented by higher institutions should be reviewed
and revised in order to go along the path of internationalization. On the management side,
responsibilities of the various institutional management functions should be clearly defined as
well as the development of a standard administrative manual governing the operation
management function in institutions.
Concerning the issue of access to education, the government should develop policies
and procedures to increase the participation of females in higher education; review and revise
the exiting student financial assistance policies and procedures in favor of poor students,
provincial students, women, handicapped persons, and reform the admission criteria and
revision of the student recruitment process.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Public Documents
Cambodia Poverty Assessment. Prepared by the Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh. 1997.

25

Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey. Prepared by the National Institution of Statistics.

Ministry of Planning. 1999.
Diakonia Partners National Gender and Development Conference. Prepared by Diakonia
Partners in cooperation with the MoEYS. 1998.
Education Sector Review. Prepared by the Royal Government of Cambodia. 1194
Education Strategic Planning. Prepared by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports. 1999.
Higher Education and Vocational Training in Cambodia. Prepared by MoEYS. 1979.
Higher Education in Cambodia. Prepared by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in
cooperation with the World Bank. Phnom Penh. 1994.
Report on Cambodias Education System. Prepared by the Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sports in cooperation with the University of Canberra. 1997.
Report on the Assessment of the Functional Literacy Levels of the Adult Population in
Cambodia. Prepared by the Development of Non-Formal Education. Ministry of Education,
Youth and Sports. 2000.
Report on the Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey. Prepared by the National Institution of
Statistics. Ministry of Planning. 1999.
Survey on Girls Education in Cambodia. Prepared by the Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sports. 1998.
Women and Education in Cambodia. Prepared by Asian Development Bank, 1995.

Books
Conye, Geoffrey Education and Socio-Political Transitions in Asia Phnom Penh: Phnom Penh
Publishing House, 1991.
Locard, Henri. Social Sciences. Phnom Penh. Phnom Penh Printing House, 1995.
26

Using Both Hands. Prepared by Edward Fiske for the Asian Development Bank. Phnom Penh.
1995.
Interview with Mr. Ly Saroun, Deputy Chief, Provincial and Municipal Procurement Office,
Ministry of Economy and Finance.
Interview with Mr. Touch CHaun, Deputy Director, Department of Education, Vocational,
Technical, and Training, Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports.
Magazine
Nick Ray. Women Trafficking in Cambodia. Lonely Planet Magazine. 3 January 2000: 1216.

27