Cell Cycle

and
Cell Divisions
Do you know that 28 days from now,
every single layer of skin that covers
your body will all be gone and
replaced by a set of completely new
ones?
And that you begun as a single cell
called a zygote? The zygote is the
product of the union of your fathers
sperm and your mothers egg cells. It
is but one tenth of a millimeter. How
did you reach the size you now have?
Thats the question!!!
For multicellular organisms like you,
cell division, which causes an increase
in cell number, can lead to growth or
repair of damaged body parts.
For unicellular organisms like
protozoa and simple algae, cell
division is a form of asexual
reproduction that produces new
individuals.
Therefore cell division is as
important as life itself without which
life cannot be continued.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL DIVISION
a) Reproduction. An amoeba, a singlecelled eukaryote, is dividing into two
cells. Each new cell will be an
individual organism.
b) Growth and development. A sand
dollar embryo shortly after the
fertilized egg divided, forming two
cells.
c) Tissue renewal. These dividing bone
marrow cells will give rise to new
blood cells.
MITOSIS: Making Copies of Itself

Allows one parent cell to divide in

order to produce two new daughter
cells.

Every time a cell divides, it must

ensure that a complete and faithful
copy of genetic information found in
the DNA (packaged into
chromosomes) is passed on to the
daughter cells.
Mitosis ensures that each daughter
cell receives a complete set of
chromosomes.
Every part of your body, every cell in
your skin, muscle or blood, originated
from but one cell and hence contains
identical sets of chromosomes and
copies of genetic information.
Cells go through a cycle of alternating
stages of division and rest from
division.
The non-dividing stage is called
INTERPHASE, which is devoted
largely to cell growth.
o

Most actively dividing cells spend

some 90 percent of their time at
interphase.

When cells divide, two parts may be

involved namely: the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
In mitosis, nuclear division involves
four stages namely, prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.

 CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION, also called

as cytokinesis, may or may not
occur.
If it does, it happens simultaneously
with the last stage of nuclear division
and uninucleate daughter cells
(cells with one nucleus each) are
produced.
If cytokinesis does not follow nuclear
division, cells become multinucleate,
or contain more than one nucleus.
Epithelial cells on the inner linings of
your cheek and walls of your digestive
organs are made up of uninucleate
cells. The cells of your skeletal
muscles, on the other hand, are
multinucleate.
Some cells complete this cycle of
interphase and mitosis within 24
hours, while others may take years
before they go through the process of
cell division.
However, cell division may not always
go on as it normally should. Some
cells may divide too fast, while others
may divide too slowly or not at all.
When cells divide faster than they
should, they may develop into
cancerous growth.
When cell divide too slowly, wounds
take a while to heal, damaged tissues
are not repaired soon enough.
If the nerve cells in our brain ceased
to divide, this results to memory loss.
STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE
INTERPHASE is the stage between
two successive cell divisions.
o

Interphase includes three phases

and are as follows:
Gap 1
Synthesis phase
Gap 2

INTERPHASE (GROWTH PHASE)

Gap 1 (G1) phase is the period when
the cell increases in size in preparation
for cell division.
Synthesis (S) phase is the period
during which the DNA is synthesized
and chromosomes are duplicated.
o

Each strand of the double stranded

chromosome produced is called a
sister chromatid.

Gap 2 (G2) phase is the period when

the cell synthesizes proteins and
continues to increase in size.
o

Although DNA synthesis is confined

to a narrow window at S phase, the
synthesis of organelles occurs
throughout interphase.

MITOSIS (NUCLEAR DIVISION)

PROPHASE is when chromosomes coil
up into rod shaped structures, nucleoli
and nuclear membrane disappear.

Prophase:
o

chromosomes condense

nuclear envelope disappears

centrioles move to opposite ends of

the cell

Spindle fibers are formed

METAPHASE involves the alignment

of the double stranded chromosomes
at the equatorial plate, with the
kinetochores attaching the
chromosomes to the spindle fibers.
ANAPHASE begins with the division of
the kinetochores and ends with the
migration of single stranded
chromosomes to the poles.
TELOPHASE is also known as reverse
prophase, hence involves the
uncoiling of chromosomes, reappearance of the nucleoli and nuclear

membrane and disappearance of the

spindle fibers.
CYTOKINESIS in plant cells involves
the formation of a cell plate that
eventually develops into the cell wall
and the middle lamella.
On the other hand, cytoplasmic
division in animal cells occurs with
the formation of a cleavage furrow.
MEIOSIS: Reduction in Chromosome
Number
SOMATIC CELLS = body cells
Cells of the human body contain 46
chromosomes while body cells of
fruit flies, cats and dogs have 8
chromosomes, 38 chromosomes and
78 chromosomes, respectively.
Prior to nuclear division, particularly
during mitosis, each chromosome is
copied or replicated and allowed the
resulting daughter cells to remain
diploid (have two sets of
chromosomes).
Aside from the somatic cells, our body
has another group of cells called the
reproductive cells.
o

These cells are destined to become

either mature sperms or eggs
and have their way to reduce the
chromosome number into half
(haploid as opposed to diploid).
This process is called meiosis,
which is designed to produce
gametes or sex cells.

MEIOSIS makes a possible way of

conserving the chromosome number
from generation to generation.
On the other hand, doubling of
chromosome sets in zygote, to
become diploid, was facilitated upon
the union of functional mature sperm
and egg during fertilization.
HOMOLOGUE = has the same length
and shape resembles each other.

Homologous chromosomes have the

same set of genes that may carry
different allele or alternative form of
genes on the same position.
By lining up, the homologous
chromosomes sets into pairs. Human
body cells have two sets of 23
chromosomes.
Virtually, each set is inherited
separately from male and female
parents. In humans, the first 22 pairs
are called somatic chromosomes
while the remaining pair refers to sex
chromosomes.
Two different sex chromosomes may
be present in males that is X and Y
chromosomes while two similar X
(XX) chromosomes are present in
females.
STAGES OF MEIOSIS
Unlike mitotic cell division, meiosis
occurs in two distinct phases, meiosis
I and meiosis II, wherein no DNA
replication happened as the second
phase commences.
This stage between the end and the
beginning of two phases is known as
interkinesis.
During maturation of the sex cells
from both parents, homologous
chromosomes had a chance to
exchange genetic materials during
meiosis I.
Specifically, this happened at
prophase I, wherein the coiled and
shorten chromosomes paired with
their respective homologues to form
synapse.
Each homologous pair is so close with
each other forming a tetrad, which
looks like only one chromosome.
At some points between the sister
chromatids from each homologue
overlapped and known as chiasmata.

 These are the points wherein crossingover of genetic information occurs

between the two non-sister
chromatids from each tetrad.
This event follows slight separation of
the non-sister chromatids revealing
the chiasma, the point where genetic
recombination happened.
At this point, separation of chiasma
towards the end of tetrad continues
while the nuclear envelop breaks down
and spindle fibers begin to interact
with the tetrad.
PROPHASE I
Chromosomes begin to condense, and
homologs loosely pair along their
lengths. aligned gene by gene.
Crossing over (the exchange of
corresponding segments of DNA
molecules by non sister chromatids) is
completed while homologs are in
synapsis, held tightly together by
proteins along their lengths.
Synapsis ends in mid-prophase. and
the chromosomes in each pair move
apart slightly.
Each homologous pair has one or
more chiasmata, points where
crossing over has occurred and the
homologs are still associated due to
cohesion between sister chromatids
(sister chromatid cohesion).
Centrosome movement, spindle
formation, and nuclear envelope
breakdown occur as in mitosis.
In late prophase I, microtubules from
one pole or the other attach to the two
kinetochores, protein structures at the
centromeres of the two homologs. The
homologous pairs then move toward
the metaphase plate.
METAPHASE I
Pairs of homologous chromosomes are
now arranged on the metaphase plate,

with one chromosome in each pair

facing each pole.
Both chromatids of one homolog are
attached to kinetochore microtubules
from one pole; those of the other
homolog are attached to microtubules
from the opposite pole.
ANAPHASE I
Breakdown of proteins responsible for
sister chromatid cohesion along
chromatid arms allows homologs to
separate.
The homologs move toward opposite
poles. guided by the spindle
apparatus.
Sister chromatid cohesion persists at
the centromere, causing chromatids to
move as a unit toward the same pole.
TELOPHASE I and CYTOKINESIS
At the beginning of telophase I, each
half of the cell has a complete haploid
set of replicated chromosomes. Each
chromosome is composed of two sister
chromatids; one or both chromatids
include regions of non sister chromatid
DNA.
Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)
usually occurs simultaneously with
telophase I. forming two haploid
daughter cells.
In animal cells, a cleavage furrow
forms. (In plant cells, a cell plate
forms.)
In some species, chromosomes
decondense and the nuclear envelope
re-forms.
No replication occurs between meiosis
I and meiosis II.

A short stage between telophase I

and prophase I happened but no
synthesis of genetic material occurs.

Each daughter cell is independently

undergoing meiosis II that resembles
the different stages of mitosis. Thus,

the haploid chromosome number of

each daughter cell remains haploid at
the end of meiosis II that forms a total
of four haploid cells at the end of
meiosis II.
MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE II
A spindle apparatus forms.
In late prophase II, chromosomes,
each still composed of two chromatids
associated at the centromere, move
toward the metaphase II plate.
ANAPHASE II
Breakdown of proteins holding the
sister chromatids together at the
centromere allows the chromatids to
separate. The chromatids move
toward opposite poles as individual
chromosomes.
TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINESIS
Nuclei form, the chromosomes begin
decondensing, and cytokinesis occurs.
The meiotic division of one parent cell
produces four daughter cells, each
with a haploid set of un-replicated
chromosomes.
Each of the four daughter cells is
genetically distinct from the other
daughter cells and from the parent
cell.
LIFE CYCLES and MEIOSIS
Mitosis as a type of cell division
responsible for growth, repair of
tissues and in some cases the
formation of new organisms .
The significant feature of mitosis was
that the chromosome number did not
change during the division so that the
daughter cells carried the same
number of chromosomes as the parent
cell.
In contrast, meiosis is summarized as
resulting in daughter cells with half

the chromosome number of the parent

cell and is thus often referred to as a
reduction division.
In animals, meiosis is directly
responsible for the production of sex
cells or gametes. In plants, meiosis
leads to a haploid stage, the spore,
which later gives rise to a multicellular
haploid gametophyte, which in turn
produces gametes.
Eventually a mating process leads to
the fusion of male and female
gametes or syngamy resulting in a
cell known as a zygote. The zygote
will have the 2n or diploid
chromosome number in its nucleus.
Development of the zygote through
mitosis results in the formation of the
mature organism.

 Genetics is the science of heredity

and variation.
Heredity pertains to the transmission
of traits called genes, from parent to
offspring in the course of reproduction.
Variation refers to the differences
among species.
The ideas and methods of inheritance
were initiated by Gregor Mendel
through his experiments using the
garden pea.
He discovered the existence of
discrete hereditary elements and the
rules in determining their transmission
from parent to offspring.
MENDELS LAW OF INHERITANCE
Mendels first law is called the law of
segregation.
It affirms the existence of a pair of
factors that control each trait.
These traits must separate at gamete
formation and randomly fused
together at fertilization.
This theory gave us the idea that the
concept of hereditary factors as
discrete physical entities are not
blended or altered when present in the
same individual.
The law applies only to diploid
organisms that form haploid gametes
during sexual reproduction.
Moreover, it applies only to traits
controlled exclusively by a single gene
pair in which one of the two alleles is
dominant over the other.

Genetics
and
Inheritance
WHAT IS GENETICS?

Mendels second law, called the law

of independent assortment,
expresses the concept that traits are
inherited independently.
It generally shows the way how one
pair of factors assorts independently
during gamete formation.

 This law applies only to gene pairs on

different pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
That is, one gene pair on one pair of
homologous chromosomes and the
other gene pair on another pair of
homologous chromosomes
THE GENE AND INFORMATION
PROCESSING IN THE CELL
A gene is a unit of information that
directs the activity of a cell or
organism during its lifetime.
It passes the message along the
progeny when a cell or organism
divides or reproduces.
For this reason, the gene is also a unit
of inheritance.
In the classic experiments of George
Beadle and Edward Tatum, the gene
was shown to carry information
required to make a single enzyme or,
as the hypothesis was later modified,
a single protein.
Actually, a single gene carries the
information for the synthesis of a
single polypeptide chain, whereas
many proteins consist of a number of
polypeptide chains.
The complex activities of single cell
and multicellular organisms are
controlled and guided by set of genes
in the chromosomes.
Essentially, the blueprints contain
information for synthesis of the
species proteins.
Since proteins make up both
cytoarchitechture and the enzymes
direct metabolism, the nature of
proteins made will determine the
structural and functional
characteristics of the cell or organism.
DNA can explain the entire agenda of
information encoding, processing,
replication and modification of a cell.

DNA is a blueprint that directs the

destiny of a cell during its lifetime.
It is also the material of immortality
since DNA passes from generation to
the next in order to maintain genetic
continuity between the parent and the
progeny.
DNA creates a messenger molecule of
complementary structure rather than
perform the job of creating proteins
directly.
The necessity of using a messenger
lies in the importance of DNA, the
primary gene material, and the
dangers that lurk in the cytoplasm
where protein synthesis occurs.
Although DNA is a relatively stable, it
can be degraded by enzyme DNAses
or altered by changes in its immediate
environment.
1) A eukaryotic cell has multiple
chromosomes, one of which is
represented here. Before
duplication, each chromosome
has a single DNA
2) Once replicated, a chromosome
consists of two sister
chromatids connected along
their entire lengths by sister
chromatid cohesion. Each
chromatid contains a copy of
the DNA molecule.
3) Mechanical processes separate
the sister chromatids into two
chromosomes and distribute
them to two daughter cells.
Just as a soldier does not enter the
thick of battle during a war, DNA is
sequestered behind the lines of
nuclear membrane.
It is a protected site to produce one,
none or many copies of messenger
molecule that will affect the
production of specific protein.
The production of a messenger
molecule from a DNA template is
called transcription.

 The messenger molecule is a

particular species of RNA called
messenger RNA (mRNA).
The mRNA will later join with the
ribosomes of the cytoplasm and some
other accessory molecules to
synthesize a protein. This step is
called translation.
Thus, the specialized information or
code for the assembling of amino
acids into a protein is first transcribed
from DNA onto an RNA and then
translated into a protein.
The DNA itself undergoes replication
whenever a cell divides so that the
information of one generation may be
passed along to every member of the
next generation.
A high fidelity is required during the
process of encoding information and
transmitting that information to
assemble protein and replicate the
blueprint.
If the message becomes garbled at
any step, lack of coherency in proteins
will occur.
However, some changes in message is
possible within the conservative
nature of information apparatus.
Physical alteration in the substructure
of DNA leads to changes in the coded
sequence called mutations.
These mutations provide new genetic
sequences to be tested in the course
of evolutionary modifications.
TYPES OF MUTATION: MODIFICATION OF
INFORMATION

A change in the sequence of triplet

codons is termed as mutation.
Addition of an extra base.
This insertion of an extra base drops
the reading frame one letter back from
the point of insertion and thus change
all the codons subsequent to it.
It can be in two forms:
If the insertion occurs in the beginning
of the gene message, it will probably
halt production of the protein. This is
the kind of mutation that may underlie
a number of genetic diseases in
human, which an enzyme is missing.
Should the insertion occur towards the
end of the gene tape, then only
one or several terminal amino acids
would be affected and a functional but
slightly altered protein would be
produced.
For example, CCT GGA GGA may
change to CCA TGG GGA G. This is
commonly occurred in the
retroviruses, which probably explain
the fast emerging of their new strains.
Deletion of a base from a gene.
A similar shift in the reading frame
would occur if a base were deleted
from the gene.
In this case, the reading frame would
advance one letter and all the
subsequent codons would be changed.
In this type of mutation, there is a
strong probability that no functional
protein would be produced.

The message in DNA is read in terms

of the linear array of bases in one
direction along the coding strand.

For example, it could have no effect

and/or helpful or it could be fatal if it
leads to malformation or lack of
production of the important proteins.

Each word or codon is consists of

triplet of bases. For instance ACT, TAG
and CAT.

Substitution, is a type of mutation in

which one base is substituted for
another.

 This type of mutation is less likely to

eradicate the synthesis of a protein.
In such an event, an amino acid is
substituted for another, because only
a single codon is changed.

Ultraviolet light, which is a highenergy radiation, although not

energetic enough to strip electrons
from an atom.
GENETIC ENGINEERING

If the new amino acid is similar in its

properties to the original one, no
damage would be expected to result.

Refers to a broad group of procedures

by which the machinery of genetic
information is intentionally altered.

Example, in humans, the blood

disease sickle-cell anaemia is caused
by the substitution of valine for the
usual glutamine.

The biologist becomes an engineer

and reconstructs the DNA molecule or
the whole genome within the nucleus
for purposes of ameliorating specific
genetic diseases or gaining a better
understanding of the genetic
apparatus.

Although only one base substitution

and one amino acid change occur, the
properties of valine are sufficiently
different from those of the glutamine
that haemoglobin produced cannot
adequately carry out its oxygen
transport function.

Alterations of chromosome structure

a) A deletion removes a
chromosomal segment
b) A duplication repeats a segment.
c) An inversion reverses a segment
within a chromosome.
d) A translocation moves a segment
from one chromosome to a
nonhomologous chromosome. In a
reciprocal translocation, the most
common type, nonhomologous
chromosomes exchange fragments.
In a nonreciprocal translocation,
which is less common, a
chromosome transfers a fragment
without receiving a fragment in
return.
The agents that cause mutations are
known as mutagens.
Among the most potent of mutagens
are various chemical and ionizing
radiation, such as x-rays and cosmic
rays; alpha, beta and gamma rays,
which are ionizing radiant produced by
a variety of radioactive elements.

DNA RECOMBINANT PROCEDURES

The best known examples of genetic
engineering.
DNA from a foreign organism, usually
an entirely different species, is
introduced to and integrated with an
existing genome.
A new, hybrid genome is obtained with
characteristics of the donor organism
reflected in the recipient.
For recombinant DNA studies, the
major tools are restriction enzymes,
plasmids and viruses.
Restriction enzymes were isolated
and act like a pair of scissors to permit
the DNA to be cut at precise regions.
A plasmid is a small circular piece of
DNA lying outside the chromosome in
bacteria and some yeast.
It may contain a single gene, a few
genes or many genes.
In many bacteria the plasmid contains
genes that confer resistance to many
kinds of antibiotics
In one recombinant technique, foreign
DNA is incubated with plasmids that
have been opened by restriction
enzymes.

 These enzymes create in the plasmids

sticky ends that readily permit a
reassembling of DNA strands.

Non-reproductive tissues are used

in cloning entire individuals thus,
sexual recombination is not involved.

The foreign DNA is incorporated into

the plasmids, which then close and are
taken up by recipient bacteria.

Cloning in carrots for instance, was

carried out by using fully differentiated
cells from the vascular tissue of the
plant, which are ordinarily not capable
of producing a new organism.

When the bacteria divide, the plasmid

undergoes replication and passes on
to each daughter cell.
Another technique for bringing foreign
DNA into a bacterium is the use of
viral particles as a vector.
Viral DNA is incubated with foreign
DNA fragments and incorporates this
foreign DNA into its genome.
The virus then invades a bacterial cell
and integrates its total genome,
foreign and viral DNA, into bacterial
chromosome.
This technique is called transduction.

GENETIC ENGINEERING INVOLVING THE

WHOLE GENOME

By manipulating the medium in which

these cells were grown, mature cells
were retuned to the embryonic
conditions in which they could produce
all the components of a new carrot.
In the case of vertebrates, the cloning
of frogs has been achieved, but only
by placing nuclei of mature cells into
eggs of the organism from which the
transplanted nucleus was taken.
The only purpose of the egg cytoplasm
seems to provide, is a hospitable
environment for growth and
development.
With advancing technology, scientists
have been able to successfully clone
small animals such as mice and have
recently cloned an adult mammal.

Has been carried out in the union of

nuclei from different species.
Usually the chromosomes of one
species remain functional, while those
of the other species tend to break
down.
However, some chromosomes of the
second species may continue to
function within the combined nucleus
These experiments are most useful for
delineating the specific functions of
the genes on the few chromosomes of
the second species that continue to
function.
CLONING
A technique in which many copies of a
single gene, chromosome or whole
individual may be produced.

Tissue organization
Cell shape varies in both plants and
animals.
The shape of the cell is highly
correlated to its function, location and
its relationship with other cells.
For example, the tubular shape of the
xylem is located from the tip of the
roots to the tip of the leaf blade, which
generally functions to transport water
all over the plant body.
In animals, the spherical shape of the
red blood cells (RBC) allows faster
rate of circulation within the blood

vessels for quick exchange of gaseous

materials (carbon dioxide-oxygen)
needed by the other cells throughout
the body.
In multicellular organisms, similar cells
are organized into loose sheets or
bundles and perform a specific
function. These groups of cells are
called tissues which are further
arranged in discrete structures of
definite shape known as organs.
Organs carry out specific function
within the organism.
A number of organs may be
associated to form an organ system.
PLANT TISSUES
Plant tissues are classified into general
classifications: meristematic and
permanent tissues.
Meristematic tissues are found at
the growing ends of roots and stems
as well as in the peripheral areas of
stems. These tissues have the
tendency to contain undifferentiated,
small and compact cells.
Permanent tissues are made of
differentiated cells that can be further
grouped into as lining tissues,
fundamental tissues and vascular
tissues.
Lining tissues are generally called as
epidermis.
o

This is a thin-walled layer of cells

that is used for protection.

On some epidermal layers, a thick

cuticle of wax is secreted to
prevent water loss of the plant.

In some older plants, the surface of

the roots and stems consist of a
tissue made-up of several corky
cells that are resistant to water
called periderm.

Fundamental tissues are located at

the interior of the plant. This kind of

tissue is further classified into three:

parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.
The most abundant and widely
distributed are the parenchyma,
which is characterized by a thin-walled
cells and highly diffuse in
arrangement.
Most of the tissues that you eat in the
fruit, roots of the carrots and stem of
the potato are made of parenchyma
cells.
PARENCHYMA
Mature parenchyma cells have
primary walls that are relatively thin
and flexible, and most lack secondary
walls.
When mature, parenchyma cells
generally have a large central vacuole.
Diagrams of "typical" plant cells often
depict parenchyma cells because they
are the least specialized structurally.
Parenchyma cells perform most of the
metabolic functions of the plant,
synthesizing and storing various
organic products.
For example, photosynthesis occurs
within the chloroplasts of parenchyma
cells in the leaf. Some parenchyma
cells in stems and roots have colorless
plastids that store starch.
The fleshy tissue of many fruits is
composed mainly of parenchyma cells.
Most parenchyma cells retain the
ability to divide and differentiate into
other types of plant cells under
particular conditions-during wound
repair, for example.
It is even possible for scientists to
grow an entire plant from a single
parenchyma cell.
Cells with irregular thickening make up
the collechyma that makes the stem
of the pechay hard to chew.

 Sclerenchyma, on the other hand is

made of thick-walled cells that impart
structural support for the plant.
This may form a fibrous layer that can
also exist as the hard part of many
seed shells and pits.
The gritty particles that you can feel in
your mouth when you eat the fruits of
chico or pear are actually
sclerenchyma cells.
COLLENCHYMA
Grouped in strands or cylinders,
collenchyma cells help support
young parts of the plant shoot.
Collenchyma cells have thicker
primary walls than parenchyma cells,
though the walls are unevenly
thickened.
Young stems and petioles often have
strands of collenchyma cells just
below their epidermis (for example,
the "strings" of a celery stalk, which
is a petiole).
Collenchyma cells lack secondary
walls, and the hardening agent lignin
is absent from their primary walls.
Therefore, these cells provide flexible
support without restraining growth.
At maturity, collenchyma cells are
living and flexible, elongating with the
stems and leaves they support-unlike
sclerenchyma cells.
SCLERENCHYMA
Also functioning as supporting
elements in the plant, but with thick
secondary walls that are usually
strengthened by lignin,
sclerenchyma cells are much more
rigid than collenchyma cells.
Mature sclerenchyma cells cannot
elongate, and they occur in regions of
the plant that have stopped growing in
length.

Sclerenchyma cells are so specialized

for support that many are dead at
functional maturity, but they produce
secondary walls before the protoplast
(the living part of the cell) dies.
The rigid walls remain as a
"skeleton" that supports the plant, in
some cases for hundreds of years.
Two types of sclerenchyma cells,
known as sclereids and fibers, are
specialized entirely for support and
strengthening.
Sclereids which are shorter than
fibers and irregular in shape, have
very thick, lignified secondary walls.
Sclereids impart the hardness to
nutshells and seed coats and the
gritty texture to pear fruits.
Fibers, which are usually arranged in
threads, are long, slender, and
tapered.
Some are used commercially, such
as hemp fibers for making rope and
flax fibers for weaving into linen.
The vascular tissues are primarily
the xylem and phloem.
Xylem serves as a continuous
passageway for the transport of
water and dissolved solutes in an
upward direction. Xylem loses their
living material upon maturity but
still retain its function.
Phloem transports the food within
the plant body until it remains alive
to perform its function.
ANIMAL TISSUES
The four general tissue types found in
animals are epithelia, connective,
nerve and muscle.
Epithelia are covering tissues
Connective are supports and
connects to other tissues
Nerve are conducting tissues

 Muscles are contracting tissues

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Have a very little intercellular
substance, which is composed of
densely packed cells that cover or line
the body surfaces and cavities.

Skeletal muscle produces voluntary

movement
Smooth muscle effects most
involuntary movement
Cardiac muscle forms the muscles of
the heart.

It serves as barrier that monitors and

regulates the absorption of materials.
Epithelia is often use for filtering
protection from dehydration, cold
temperature and microbial invasion.
Epithelia rest on an extracellular
basement membrane (basal lamina)
that separates them from an
underlying connective tissue layer, the
lamina propia.
They are continuously renewed and
replaced, wherein those found near
the basement membrane undergo
continuous mitosis of which resulting
cells replace the surface cells.

NERVOUS TISSUE
Made up of neurons, which may be
over a meter long.
Nerve impulses pass from the cell
body of the neuron along its axon and
toward the cell body of the next
neuron through its dendrites.
Three types of neurons are present in
an animals body namely sensory,
motor and association neurons.

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Can be distinguished by their
mechanical properties that include
binding together,
compartmentalization, support and
physical as well as immunologic
protection of tissues and organs.
The different tissue types differ in
microscopic appearance but are all
consist of cells, fibers and ground
substance.
They are classified according to the
amounts, types and proportions of
these components.

Sensory neurons are specialized

to respond to specific stimuli.

Motor neurons are responsible for

activating muscular response and
mostly coordinated with sensory
neurons through association
neurons.

It is generally widespread
throughout the body particularly in
the brain and spinal cord.

QUIZ
1. The non-dividing stage is called
___________, which is devoted largely to cell
growth.
a. Mitosis

The fibers and ground substance

constitute the extracellular matrix of
the connective tissue.

b. Meoisis

MUSCLE TISSUE

d. Interphase

A contractile tissue comprising of

three distinct types namely skeletal
or striated muscle, smooth muscle
and cardiac muscle.

c. Cytokinesis

2. The period during which the DNA is

synthesized and chromosomes are
duplicated.
a. Gap 1

b. S phase
c. Gap 2
d. Prophase
3. Which of the following is NOT happening
during metaphase?
a. alignment of the double stranded
chromosomes at the equatorial plate

9. In one recombinant technique, foreign

DNA is incubated with plasmids that have
been opened by restriction enzymes.
10. Cloning in carrots for instance, was
carried out by using fully differentiated cells
from the vascular tissue of the plant, which
are ordinarily not capable of producing a new
organism.
IDENTIFICATION

b. kinetochores attaching the

chromosomes to the spindle fibers

11. Group of cells that function as one unit.

c. division of the kinetochores and ends

with the migration of single stranded
chromosomes to the poles

12. Serves as a continuous passageway for

the transport of water and dissolved solutes
in an upward direction.

d. None of the above

13. Can be distinguished by their mechanical

properties that include binding together,
compartmentalization, support and physical
as well as immunologic protection of tissues
and organs.

4. CYTOKINESIS in plant cells involves the

formation of a cell plate that eventually
develops into the cell wall and the middle
lamella.
a. Synthesis phase
b. Interphase
c. Gap 2
d. Cytokinesis
5. Begins with the division of the
kinetochores and ends with the migration of
single stranded chromosomes to the poles.

14. Responsible for activating muscular

response and mostly coordinated with
sensory neurons through association
neurons.
15. Specialized for support that many are
dead at functional maturity, but they
produce secondary walls before the
protoplast (the living part of the cell) dies.
ANSWER KEY

a. Prophase

1. D

b. Metaphase

2. B

c. Anaphase

3. C

d. Telophase

4. D

TRUE OR FALSE

5. A

6. Heredity pertains to the transmission of

traits called variation, from parent to
offspring in the course of reproduction.

6. False

7. The ideas and methods of inheritance

were initiated by Gregor Mendel through his
experiments using the garden pea.

8. True

8. A plasmid is a small circular piece of DNA

lying outside the chromosome in bacteria
and some yeast.

7. True

9. True
10.True
11.Tissue
12.Xylem

13.Connective tissue
14.Motor neuron
15.Sclerenchyma

b) Reproductive parts include

flowers, fruits and seeds
MONOCOT AND DICOT

PARTS OF A TYPICAL PLANT

ROOTS

PLANT FORMS and

FUNCTIONS
GENERAL BODY PLAN
Plants are eukaryotic, multicellular,
photosynthetic and non-motile
organisms.

The roots is a cylindrical structure that

originated from the radicle (embryonic
root).
This generally developed into tap or
fibrous root type system.
Tap root has distinct primary root
Fibrous root, the primary root is not
well distinct from the secondary roots.

This includes the angiosperms

(flowering plants), gymnosperms
(cone-bearing plants), ferns and
bryophytes (mosses and liverworts).

A root is typically a non-green

structure usually found beneath the
surface of the soil.

Green algae has recently included

under the plant kingdom.

Plant roots are typically used for their

anchorage in the substratum.

A typical plant body of an angiosperm

is generally divided into two major
systems namely, root system and
shoot system.

It is also used for absorption of water

and inorganic salts to continue their
metabolic activities.

The root system is generally

found below the ground although
some have modifications to grow
above the ground like those found
in orchids (epiphytes).
The shoot system includes all the
plant structures above the ground,
which can be grouped as
vegetative and reproductive parts.
a) Vegetative parts consist of
the stems and leaves

Other roots are modified to perform

other functions such as:
support (brace, prop and clinging
roots)
food storage (enlarged roots of
carrots and sweet potatoes)
photosynthesis (green aerial
roots of orchids)
reproduction (adventitious roots)
protection (with presence of
spines).

STEMS
Stem is the continuation of the root
above the soil.
There is no sharp demarcation line
that exists between the root and the
stems.
Generally, stems conduct water and
minerals from the roots to other parts
of the plant. It is also the site of
production and support of the leaves.
Stems also perform photosynthesis
(with green pigments) and storage of
food materials.
Stem can be considered as
herbaceous if it is generally soft and
green, short-lived and with stomatabearing epidermis.
The monocot groups mostly have
this kind of stem (i.e. grasses, rice
and corn).
On the other hand, it is said to be
woody if it is hard and generally
covered with cork.
Shrubs and trees, typically dicots,
possess this kind of stem.
Externally, the swollen part of the
stem is called node, where branches,
buds and leaves originate.
Internode is the portion of the stem
between two nodes.
At the tip of the stem, underdeveloped
structures that typically give rise into
leaves, shoots or flowers is located
and known as buds.
Leaf axil is the angle formed between
the stem and petiole of the leaf.
When the leaf has fallen, the mark
that remains in the stem is called
leaf scar. In some cases, especially
in herbaceous stems, pores may be
located on the stem called lenticels
that function for gaseous exchange.

Like roots, there are also some

modifications in the stems of other
plants and are as follows:
Runners allowed the stem to
develop new roots and leaves
wherein a node of the stem
touches the soil (i.e. strawberry
plant; bermuda grass).
Rhizomes are underground,
horizontal stem where new shoots
develop (i.e. ferns; ginger).
Tubers have a short terminal
portion of an underground stem
that develop buds at the nodes (i.e.
potato).
Bulbs consist of small piece of
stem that bears fleshy leaves (i.e
onion)
Corms are short, bulky, vertical
stem that can be differentiated
from a bulb (i.e. gladiolus; gabi).
LEAVES
A leaf is an expanded, dorso-ventrally
flattened structure attached to the
node of the stem.
It is usually contains the green
pigment (chlorophyll), although other
plants have other color pigment like
yellow (xantophyll) and orange
(carotene), that primarily use for
photosynthesis.

A typical leaf has the following parts:

Leaf blade it is also called as
lamina and refers to the thin, flattened
part of the leaf. The lamina is
characterized by the presence of veins
composed of vascular tissues.
Petiole it is the cylindrical stalk or
sometimes appeared as narrow
structure that supports the blade.
Stipules this are typically an
outgrowth found at the base of the
petiole in dicot plants.

 Ligules sheet-like extension at the

base of the leaf blade of monocot
plants.
FLOWER
A flower is defined as a modified twig,
which is derived from a bud.
It is highly adapted for reproduction
(sexual) thus producing fruit and
seeds (perpetuation of species).
A typical flower is composed of two
main parts namely essential parts
and accessory parts.
Essential parts are divided into two
main types namely, pistil and
stamen.
Pistil the female reproductive part
that consists of the following:
a. Stigma enlarged tip with opening
and function for acceptance of the
pollen grains

If the flower possesses all the

essential and accessory parts, it is
said to be complete flower,
otherwise an incomplete flower.
Incomplete flower that only contain
the female parts are called
pistillate flower while staminate
flower if only the male parts are
observed in the flower.
In cases that staminate and
pistillate flowers are found in
separate plant body, it is said to be
dioecious. Plants with both
staminate and pistillate flowers are
also known as monoecious.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen
grains from anther to the stigma of the
same flower.
Before pollination, the pollen grain
mother cell and the egg mother
cell must undergo meiosis.

b. Style slender, tube-like part

above the ovary where matured
pollen grain traverses

Pollen grains become haploid and

then divide mitotically two times
producing tube nucleus and two
sperm nuclei.

c. Ovary the swollen basal portion

containing ovules

The haploid egg cell produces an

eight-nucleated embryo sac.

Stamen the male reproductive part

that consists of the following:

This is followed by fertilization,

the union of male and female
gametes.

a. Anther the site for pollen grain

production
b. Filament the stalk that supports
the anther
On the other hand, accessory parts
do not participate directly during
reproduction but highly contribute to
the success of fertilization in plants.
Sepals commonly green-colored,
leaf-like parts that form the
outermost floral whorl; collectively
known as calyx.
Petals it forms the floral whorl
next to the sepals; collectively
known as corolla.

Double fertilization occurs in

plants, one sperm nucleus fertilized
the matured egg while the other
sperm nucleus fertilized the two
polar cells.
After fertilization, the seed that
houses an immature plant develops
and becomes enclosed in a
protective structure called fruit.

A fruit is the ripened ovary and

the seed is the matured ovule.

PLANTS BASIC PHYSIOLOGIC

ACTIVITIES

 Plants are generally autotrophs and

obtain raw materials from their
environment.
Water and dissolved minerals from soil
move into roots in the root hair region.
Nutrients then move through the
cortex and into the stele via
endodermis.
From the stele, most minerals moved
along with water in xylem, which is
continuous throughout the plant.
In contrast, animals are
heterotrophic, meaning that they
must obtain their food (pre-fabricated
organic compounds) from the
environment.
They cannot manufacture their own
food.
Examples of heterotrophs include
mycotrophs (plants that obtain
their nutrient source from a fungus
like Indian pipes (Monotropa),
decomposers (fungi, bacteria),
carnivores, and herbivores.
Some parasitic plants
(holoparasites like dodder
(Cuscuta) and dwarf mistletoe that
lack chlorophyll are obligate
heterotrophs that can only obtain
their nutrients from another plant.
Other parasites, like mistletoe
(Phoradendron) and Indian
paintbrush are green and can make
their own organic compounds but
obtain water and minerals from a
host plant (Hershey).
Finally, some plants, like the
carnivorous species, feed both
autotrophically and
heterotrophically.
The transport of water is governed by
differences in water potential, the
potential energy of water molecules;
the differences account for water

movement from cell to cell over long

distances in the plant.
Gravity, pressure and solute
concentration also contribute to
water potential.
The movement itself is facilitated
by osmosis, root pressure and
adhesion-cohesion of water
molecules.
In order for the roots to absorb more
water and minerals, large surface
areas is needed to be present in their
surroundings. Thus, leaves need to
expose more surface area to sun for
photosynthesis.
In this condition, plants need to be
efficient in obtaining and conserving
water for their cells and tissues.
Plants contain about 80% to 90%
water but the daily amount that
plant needs for growth and
maintenance of tissue is small
compared to the amount lost
during guttation (loss of liquids
from the ends of the vascular
tissues in the margin of the leaf)
and transpiration (evaporation of
water from the plant surface).
If the water loss from leaves is not
replaced by the water transported up
from the roots, the plant wilt and die.
Water diffuses out of the plant during
transpiration through the stomata.
Most of the water absorbed by
roots is lost by transpiration.
During the transpiration, energy
from the sun evaporates water
from cell walls.
Although this results in a movement of
water in the xylem, this energy is
neither stored nor used to bring about
vital reactions involved in the
synthesis of foods, in assimilation,
growth and reproduction.

 Water may also evaporate through

cuticle of the leaf (cuticular
transpiration) or through the lenticels
in the stem (lenticular transpiration).

The water lost in the two pathways is

considerably smaller than that through
the stomates.