643946

research-article2016

ALXXXX10.1177/1045159516643946Adult LearningAdult Learning

ADULT LEARNING

November2016

Refereed Articles

Learning a New Language is Like Swiss Cheese

Learning to Learn English
Clarena Larrotta, PhD1, Ji Yoon Christine Moon, PhD1, and Jiuhan Huang, PhD2

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to

understand instructors viewpoints on the relevance
of learning to learn (L2L) in the settings where they
teach. Twenty-four instructors answered an online
qualitative survey about their experiences teaching
English to adults. Data analysis was informed by
narrative analysis procedures. Study findings include
teachers perspectives about how students learn,
teachers conception about L2L,
and benefits for adult learners.

instructors need to teach about how learning a

language works. Instructors and learners must also have
a mutual understanding about what knowledge means
in their discipline and what learning implies (Wingate,
2007). This article presents ESL instructors viewpoints
on the relevance of learning to learn (L2L). The research
questions guiding the article include the following:

Research Question 1: What do

teachers know about how their
Language
is
best
students learn to be able to help
Keywords: learning to learn, ESL
learned through them in L2L?
learning, ESL instructors
Question 2: What is
social interaction and Research
the
teachers
understanding of the
I explain to the students that
when used for social
concept of L2L?
learning a language is a
Research Question 3: What are
communication, and
process that takes time. I do this
the benefits of the L2L approach
so they wont get discouraged
the focus is on
for ESL learners?
because they feel they are not
communication not on
L2L is equated with inclusive
learning fast enough. I tell them
and lifelong learning (Karsten,
that learning a new language is
understanding how
2009; Wingate, 2007) or learning
like Swiss cheese . . . everyones
language
works.
throughout life. Wingate (2007)
holes are in different places.
discussed L2L as a way for
What one student knows,
learners to gain independence
another has missed . . . I also tell them that
and
become
competent
in constructing knowledge. In
learning a language is not an overnight event and
this article, L2L refers to explicitly teaching students the
it takes persistence. (Comment provided by one of
attributes of learning (e.g., resilience, resourcefulness,
the teachers participating in the study)
and reasoning) and providing them with tools to learn
on their own.
It is important for instructors to pause and think
e believe students and instructors need to
about what learning means and what it involves as a
engage in dialogue about their expectations
classroom practice. According to Slj (1979), learning
for the teachinglearning process and

DOI: 10.1177/1045159516643946. From 1Texas State University, San Marcos, and 2Regent University, Virginia Beach. Address correspondence
to: Clarena Larrotta, PhD, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, ASBS 324, San Marcos, TX 78666-4684, USA; email: cl24@txstate.edu.
For reprints and permissions queries, please visit SAGEs Web site at http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav.
Copyright 2016 The Author(s)
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ADULT LEARNING

Vol. 27 No. 4

is a multidimensional practice; it involves application of

knowledge and skills, constructing meaning, and has a
socialcultural component. Slj identified four
different conceptions of learning: (a) learning as
acquisition of facts, (b) learning due to the demands of
the context, (c) learning for life and learning in school,
and (d) the distinction between learning and real
learning or learning as understanding. By having
awareness of and utilizing these conceptions of
learning, teachers may be able to use them when
teaching English to adult learners.
Mackeracher (2004) noted learning is a natural
process that is social, dialectical, and cyclical. Learning
is social in that we engage in this process with others.
In addition, Mackeracher (2004) suggested that learning
is a process which requires a change in behavior and
may be attributed to several conditions such as going
through enough raw experiences, having adequate
time for learning to take place, and freedom from
threats inhibiting learning. More specifically,
Mackeracher (2004) defines learning as a process of
making sense of lifes experiences and giving meaning
to whatever sense is made (p. 7). Mackeracher agrees
with learning theories that assign experience a central
role for learning to take place (Dewey, 1938; Kolb,
1984). Learning should include a combination of the
adult learners experience, perception, cognition, and
behavior for learning to happen (Kolb, 1984).
Mackeracher (2004) describes five assumptions about
adult learning: (a) learners should move from
dependency toward self-directedness, (b) adults are
motivated to learn, (c) they should accumulate an
increasing reservoir of experience, (d) adults are
concerned about developing competence to achieve full
potential, and (e) they experience a sense of well-being
when they do learn and when their environment
supports and encourages learning. Similarly, Knowles
(1990) suggested adult learners (a)need to know why
they are learning something, (b)are self-directed and
responsible for their own decisions, (c) have a wealth of
life experiences and knowledge, (d) are ready to learn
when there is a specific need, (e)are goal oriented and
learn about what is relevant to them, and (f) are
motivated to learn when they think that learning will
improve their life conditions. Looking closely at both
authors (Knowles, 1990; Mackeracher, 2004)
assumptions about adult learners may be beneficial

when implementing a learner-centered approach. These

assumptions are an invitation for instructors to become
familiar with students learning needs and their
understanding about L2L.

L2L
L2L means learning about how one learns, as well as
learning about ones own learning, thinking, and acting
(Moreno, 2006; Sorenson, 2006). It is a personal
process requiring a change in learning habits,
epistemological beliefs, and development of essential
cognitive skills such as critical thinking and problem
solving (Hofmann, 2008; Wingate, 2007). Another
important skill in L2L is learning autonomy, which is
defined as . . . good learning practices . . . that
encourage learners to be reflective, strategic, intentional
and collaborative (James etal. as cited in Karsten,
2009, p. 9).
L2L refers to developing the skills and knowledge
for learning more effectively that may be transferred to
different contexts and settings (Mackeracher, 2004). As
a process, it takes into consideration motivation for
learning, learning goals, preferred ways of learning,
strategies for learning, and cooperation with other
learners (Hofmann, 2008, p. 175). Thus, L2L entails a
. . . complex mix of knowledge, skills, values,
attitudes and dispositions which support the individual
in becoming a lifelong learner (Hoskins & Crick, 2010,
p.126-127).
Students are expected to become competent,
independent, and responsible of constructing
knowledge within their discipline (Hofmann, 2008;
Wingate, 2007), in this case, learning a language. Freire
(2004) noted, . . . through learning they can make and
remake themselves, because women and men are able
to take responsibility for themselves as beings capable
of knowingof knowing that they know and knowing
that they dont (p. 15). It is important for adult learners
to realize that learning happens as they are actively
engaged and seeking knowledge independently.

The Study
We designed a qualitative survey using Survey
Monkey (surveymonkey.com) and distributed it online.
We piloted the questions prior to collecting answers
from the actual study participants. Thus, five ESL
instructors volunteered to take the pilot survey and
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ADULT LEARNING

provided feedback for improvement. Upon Institutional

Review Board (IRB) approval, we distributed the
improved version of the survey to ESL instructors of
adults teaching in community-based programs in the
United States. We used listservs (e.g., TALAE,
TexTESOL, VATESOL) and referrals to distribute the
survey to study participants. As a result, throughout the
course of 2 months, 24 instructors answered the survey.
The appendix at the end of the article presents the
survey questions provided to the instructors.
The participating teachers years of experience
teaching ESL ranged from 1 to 29 years. All have taught
adult English learners in the United States (e.g., New
York, Texas, Washington, D.C., Kentucky, Virginia) and
five of them taught English abroad (e.g., Mexico,
Ecuador, Japan, and Europe).
The teachers education and credentials varied; most
of them received training in teaching English to speakers
of other languages (TESOL) or in adult education. A
few of them had degrees in other disciplines (e.g.,
elementary education, psychology, counseling, business,
and medical technology) and some obtained a TESOL
certificate. On average, their classes met twice a week
for 2 hrs, and they taught all levels of adult ESL. As
reported by the teachers in the survey, their students
ranged from 18 to 80 years old, the majority had not
completed high school, and a few had college degrees.
According to the teachers, their students were seeking
to strengthen their study and organizational skills, along
with help with their speaking/listening skills. Most
teachers stated, the students want to learn; they seek
out a class and have been stuck with it for a while.
The teachers reported using standardized tests (e.g.,
CASAS, TABE, BEST Plus, BEST Literacy) to evaluate
student progress. They also used a variety of oral and
written tools such as quizzes, observations, interviews,
assignments, studentteacher conference, class
participation, job skills, and journaling.
For data analysis, we exported and organized data
from the survey responses to conduct multiple readings
of the data and implement content analysis (Creswell,
2007). This process involved a line-by-line review of
the data by each individual researcher. All three
researchers individually developed preliminary codes.
To validate themes, the codes were compared through
researcher discussion until consensus was reached on
finalized codes. The codes were grouped into clusters
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November2016

that were expanded or collapsed with further data

analysis until broader categories with themes were
identified. To this effect, we followed five steps: getting
to know the data, focusing the analysis, categorize the
information, identifying patterns and connections, and
bring it all together (Taylor-Powell & Renner, 2003).
After tallying and mapping out the survey responses
using tables and categorizing the data, as a team, we
wrote explanations in paragraph form summarizing the
data into words. We aimed to preserve the fidelity of
the answers provided by the instructors at all times.

Study Findings
Teachers Awareness About How Students Learn
The instructors were cognizant of how their students
learn English. One participant reported, Asking
students what they do to learn English is part of the
required student learning plans . . . They set goals and
write the action steps to reach those goals. We
identified four ways reported by the instructors on
what students do to learn English: mass media, daily
life needs, social strategies, and independent initiative.
The instructors reported that students learn through
mass media such as the Internet, TV, movies, music,
radio, newspaper, and magazines. Some instructors
said, the students use captions to learn while watching
movies or TV programs. My students learn through
memorizing the lyrics of a song they really like and
through listening to it many times. Several students
have told me they use the newspaper and magazines
to practice reading and learn vocabulary words. Most
instructors reported their students learn through daily
life needs including practicing English in their jobs,
going shopping, and reading signs.
Although other instructors said their students learn
through social strategies such as interacting with
English speakers, receiving help from their children to
communicate, and interacting with relatives. One
participant said, Some of my students have children
and grandchildren that are immersed in English at
school and practice with them. Another reported,
They try to spend time with English speakers and
initiate conversations. In regard to independent
initiative, the instructors reported students learn
through using computer software to learn language;
ESL websites; borrowing DVDs, tapes, and books from
the library; and by creating flash cards.

ADULT LEARNING

Vol. 27 No. 4

Teachers Perceptions About L2L

L2L is about teaching students how learning the
language works. Four out of the 24 participating
instructors did not agree with teaching L2L. One
teacher in particular said, I dont think students are
prepared for understanding how English works; they
are true beginner ESL students. The remaining 20
teachers explained they explicitly teach how learning
English works; they believe teaching L2L is appropriate.
We classified their responses into three subthemes: (a)
explaining the language learning process, (b) direct
teaching of language learning strategies, and (c) using
learning strategies.

Another teacher explained, I supply worksheets

with tips on learning English; I also present information
skills for learning; I tell my students how to learn most
efficiently and quickly, and I explain to them why I do
things. Other strategies mentioned by the study
participants included teaching students to guess the
meaning of unfamiliar words, scanning for details,
skimming for main ideas, drawing inferences, and
summarizing. In addition, one participant stated, I
teach my students about taking notes, learning words
by writing them down, using flash cards, using
translation and definitions of vocabulary words, and
writing sentences.

Explaining the language learning process

Using learning strategies

Seven instructors reported teaching and discussing

with their students the processes and stages involved in
learning English. For example one participant stated, I
discuss the process of learning English so the students
dont get discouraged. Sometimes they feel they are not
learning fast enough. I explain that learning a language
is not an overnight event and it takes persistence.
Another teacher made it clear that learning a new
language is like Swiss cheese . . . everyones holes are
in different places. This teacher explained by using
Swiss cheese as a metaphor and stating that What one
student knows, another has missed. I work on getting
them to accept that they will understand some things
and not others. Learning English is a gradual process.

Direct teaching of language learning strategies

As we know, direct instruction refers to teaching that
is structured, sequenced, and led by the teacher (de
Graaff & Housen, 2009). In other words, teachers are
directing the instructional process or instruction is
being directed at students, lecturing is the most popular
form of direct teaching. Six teachers talked about utilizing
direct teaching and being explicit telling their students
about L2L. For example, one of them shared,
I teach metacognitive skills on how to study and
how to approach learning a language. This may
be a think-aloud for reading or a conversation
about the affective filter or how to best remember
words through connections to what we already
know and through maximizing our learning
preferences. We reflect, we discuss theory, and we
dialog about what works and why.

The remaining seven teachers spoke to the

importance of using learning strategies when they
teach how learning English works. One of them stated,
Using learning strategies such as using visual cues and
associating words with sounds and meanings are
helpful for learning to take place. Another participant
reported, I try to teach things in different ways, for
example, multi-modal, multi-sensory. I also believe the
teacher needs to show interest and engagement with
the materials in order to get students engaged.

Benefits of L2L for ESL Students

Overall, the teachers mentioned four benefits of L2L:
knowing what to do to learn, gaining confidence in
learning ESL, being able to continue learning outside
the classroom, and motivation to continue learning. Six
of the study participants spoke about the benefits of
L2L and they agreed that all learners can benefit from
L2L. One of the instructors said,
I believe L2L could only benefit them, no harm
will be done by teaching L2L. All students need to
know what they can do to learn another
language. Students need to find out what works
best for them; however, every learner does not
learn the same way.
Here, this instructor is acknowledging that learning
is also an individual and personal process. L2L allows
students to continue learning without a teacher
because they understand how to make learning happen
for them. Another instructor spoke about how students
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benefit from L2L by gaining confidence: If we use a

L2L approach the students would be more successful in
learning English. They would also be more committed
and more confident when using their newly acquired
English skills. Confidence also comes from knowing
what one is doing as stated by another instructor:
Adults learn better when they know what and why
they need to learn something. They need explanations
for the time they are spending learning and how it
applies.
Another benefit illustrated by the instructors refers to
being able to continue learning outside of the classroom.
As explained earlier, the students rely on mass media,
daily life needs, and social interactions to learn English.
One of the teachers said that Given that they have little
time to study or even come to class, L2L might help
them to continue learning in everyday situations. In this
view, student learning can continue even after class is
over. Motivation to continue learning was also a benefit
mentioned by the instructors: They value explicit
conversations about L2L and become more motivated to
learn. Adults can apply strategies with a maturity
un-matched by children. I believe adults benefit from
L2L. In summary, the instructors mentioned success,
motivation, connections to the outside of the classroom,
student confidence, and student independence in their
responses on the benefits of L2L.

Discussion and Implications

L2L has been studied in fields such as psychology of
learning, adult learning, curriculum, education, and
e-learning but not as related to adult ESL. Utilizing a
L2L approach can help instructors understand the
learning needs of ESL learners and improve
relationships among those participating in the
classrooms. The teacher can benefit from knowing
about the learning strategies their students use and
build on them.
Hofmann (2008) confirms that using a L2L approach
helps instructors become clear about goals and how to
reach them, learn from challenges and crisis situations,
and develop capacity of critical thinking (p. 178). By
fostering learner autonomy and the importance of the
teachers roles, a L2L approach is relevant in learning
ESL. The teachers in the study provided examples of
how they foster learner autonomy by being aware and
honoring the strategies that students use to learn
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English (e.g., mass media, software, flash cards, daily

life needs, social strategies, and independent initiative).
They also mentioned about teaching specific strategies
to learn English such as think-aloud for reading . . .
how to best remember words through connections to
what we already know and through maximizing our
learning preferences. The teacher communicates to the
students that they are capable of learning without a
teacher. They are able to identify where their learning
holes are and what to do to close these gaps. Gaining
independence and confidence can help developing
self-directedness in learning.
The complexities regarding learning are
multidimensional (Slj, 1979); as described by the
teachers, students apply knowledge and skills in
various ways through the use of social media,
workplace interactions, and communicating with
relatives. These interactions demonstrate that the adults
are using what they have learned through cognition,
environment, and behavior. As such, the responses
provided by the instructors on how their students learn
language connect with the self-directed and goaloriented nature of adults in a learning situation
(Knowles, 1990; Mackeracher, 2004). Our findings also
highlight the need to learn by interacting with others
and by being social. Language is best learned through
social interaction and when used for social
communication (Gee 2007; Lantolf, 2006).
Teachers and their programs should work on
helping the students discover how they learn best and
what to do to learn. Many times, teachers and
programs neglect L2L because it is not stated in the
curriculum. Setting learning goals is a common practice
in ESL programs, however, as explained by the teachers
in the study, students need to understand that they
have their own gaps and learning needs. Including L2L
strategies as a complementary component to the ESL
curriculum may help students feel more confident
about how to learn a language. Providing additional
strategies can help to improve their learning experience
that can extend beyond the classrooms.
The responses provided by the instructors about
what they do to teach L2L are in agreement with the
literature in the field of second language acquisition.
For example, Krashen (2003) argues that students do
benefit from attending ESL classes to ask questions
about how language works. When learners use

ADULT LEARNING

Vol. 27 No. 4

language outside the classroom, the main purpose of

the interaction is on communication not on
understanding how language works. In everyday
interactions, we do not stop people and ask them
about language structure; we are mainly concerned
about getting our message across.
Teachers perceptions about L2L included (a)
explaining the language learning process, (b) direct
teaching of language learning strategies, and (c) using
learning strategies. These findings are in agreement
with Ellis and Shintani (2014) assertions that Explicit
language instruction caters to intentional language
learning in students. It makes clear to the learner what
the instructional targets are and provides activities to
assist them in learning . . . (p. 83). Explicit teaching
supports the need that adults have to apply language
rules and concepts in other settings such as the
workplace, going shopping, and so on. In addition, de
Graaff and Housen (2009) explain that explicit
instruction includes presentation and examples of the
target feature and involves controlled practice of the
target form, which is what the participating teachers
described as their practice.
ESL programs can make it a requirement for the new
students to attend a number of hours, similar to an
orientation, on L2L. Thus, when these learners start
attending their actual English class, they already have
had a chance to plan for utilizing appropriate study
skills and habits that go in agreement with their
learning styles or to acquire these skills if they have
limited schooling experience. In addition, this may
result in more confident students at the start of the
course. Perhaps students will feel encouraged to study
on their own using their skills, and many will feel
motivated to continue and finish the course(s) they are
enrolled in. As Nunan (2015) reminds us, . . .
strategies are very important as they are tools that
allow the learner to begin to take control of their own
learning (p. 70). Successful English language learners
should be persistent, organized, and able to manage
time and information while seeking for guidance when
needed (Fredriksson & Hoskins, 2007; Hofmann, 2008).
We began this research with the understanding that
implementing a L2L approach to teaching adults who
speak other languages and are learning ESL is
beneficial to the learners. We view L2L as a necessary
competence utilizing an assets-based approach that

centers on learners needs. However, it is important for

ESL instructors to understand what L2L means and how
they can incorporate it to the curriculum and everyday
lesson plan. As described by the study participants,
instructors need to know what their students are doing
to learn and the strategies they are using. This will help
both gain awareness and use more effective teaching
learning processes. All students benefit from L2L; it is a
good teaching/learning practice. L2L is not just for the
struggling student or the novice instructor.

Appendix
Survey Questions
1. Please tell us about your educational background.
2. How did you get involved in teaching English to
adults?
3. How long have you been teaching ESL to adult
learners?
4. How often and for how long do your ESL classes
for adults meet?
5. How does the program in which you teach
evaluate ESL student progress/learning?
6. How do you evaluate adult ESL students learning?
7. How old are the ESL learners you typically teach?
8. What is the education level of the majority of your
ESL learners?
9. Please describe your typical ESL student in terms of
academic skills.
10. Please describe your students aptitude to learn ESL.
11. Are you familiar with the learning to learn
concept?
12. What do you think learning to learn works?
13. Do you explicitly teach your students how learning
English works? If yes, please explain.
14. When your students are not successful (when they
struggle) learning English, what are the most
common reasons for this to happen?
15. What if any, learning strategies do you teach when
introducing new concepts or skills to adult ESL
learners?
16. Please provide specific details about the learning
strategies you generally use to teach.
17. Have you ever asked your students what they do to
learn/study English? If you have, what has been
their typical answer?
18. Learning to learn refers to explicitly teaching
students how to learn. How do you think the adult
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ADULT LEARNING

ESL students in your class would benefit from

learning to learn?
19. What challenges do you anticipate when teaching
ESL students about learning to learn?
20. Please provide any other related comments about
using a learning to learn approach when teaching
adult ESL learners.

Conflict of Interest
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the authorship and/or publication of
this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Author Biographies
Clarena Larrotta is associate professor at Texas State
University. Her research interests focus on topics such as
adults learning ESL, adult literacy, family literacy, and
adult education issues.
Ji Yoon Christine Moon obtained her PhD in adult,
professional, and community education from Texas
State University. She is interested in researching gender
and cultural identities, experiences of female faculty,
and language learning.
Jiuhan Huang is associate professor at Regent
University. Her research interests include learner selfefficacy, language learning strategies, grammar
instruction, and literacy development.

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