CHAPTER IV

4.0 OTHER RAW MATERIALS

4.1 Elaborate on types of water available for bakery use, its sources and functions.
Water like any common ingredient of bakery products, must be uniform in
order to obtain uniform results in the products. If the water supply is constant in
hardness add ph, then once the formula has been adjusted to meet the
requirement of the water there probably will be two problems from the water of.
However the water supply varies them adjustment in the formula will need to be
made.

Source of water:
There are several sources from which water can be obtained these have
been classified into the following categories
Sea water which is the salt water from oceans and certain seas and lakes
without outlet.
Deep earth water which results from volcanoes and glistens.
Natural water that comes from rain (or) snow and is present in fresh water
lakes, streams, springs and molls.

Types of water:
Water may be classified into six different headings consisting of soft water,
hard water, alkaline water, acid water, mild water, saline water.
Soft water has low content of dissolved materials in an appreciable
amount. Hard water can either be of temporary hardness (or) permanent
hardness.
When alkaline is present in the soil, water tends to become alkaline. Acid
water is often found in areas where there are mines, mine waste from industrial
process. Acid water is rarity from a natural source.
Saline water contains traces of common salt there by making ot sensitive
to the taste. Mild is the alone types of water may be turbid. juncidity is caused by
suspended matter such as clay, slit, fine sand, (or) like material.
Drinking water (or) water used in food products should be free from
materials that indicate sewage contamination and from disease producing
bacteria. Any water which is fit to drink may be used in the making of bread.
Water of jeer hardness is often employed in the production of biscuits and cakes
because it is considered to yield better and more uniform product.

Function of water in bakery:

Water makes possible the formation of gluten. Gluten as such does not
exist in flour only when flour proteins are hydrated gluten is formed. Water
controls the consistency of dough temperature and warming (or) cooling of
dough can be regulated through water it dissolves salts. Suspends and
distributes non flour ingredients uniformly. Water wets and smells starch and
renders it digestible. Water also makes possible enzyme activity. Water keeps
bread palatable longer if sufficient water is allowed to remain in the finished loaf.
DEFINE SHORTENING AND EXPLAIN THE COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS
Definition:
Shortening means fat (or) oil used to tenderize baked products (or) to fry
products.
Composition:
Fats and oils consist of fatty acids and glycerol, in which three molecules
of one (or) more fatty acids are combined with one molecule of glycerol to form
triglycerides. Which appear to be solid at room temperatures are fats whereas
when the mixture are liquid at ordinary temperatures. They are generally
referred as oils. fats and oils are characterized by their content of the various
fatty acids.
Functions:
In bakery food, fats provide nutrition, flavor, and act as tenderizer and acid
in the development of physical structure of baked products.
4.2 Mention the types of salt and its sources.
The chemical name for salt is sodium chloride. It is composed of two
elements, sodium and chlorine in the rates of four parts of sodium and to six
parts of chlorine. Salt is found naturally in many parts of the world, in mines, in
underground lakes, and in the sea. The common types of salt available are as
follows.
Rock Salt:
This is a large coarse crystal sized salt obtained from crushed mined salt
in same cases or from a salt brine that has been evaporated very slowly. It is
ideal for most culinary purpose.
Vac-in-salt:
This is prepared by evaporating a purified salt solution in pans to produce
a salt that is 99.9% pure to these small cubical form crystals is added a very
small amount of magnesium carbonate to prevent caking and to allow in to
remain free pouring.
Dairy Salt:

This is 99.9% pure salt of a fine crystal size, which is used in the
manufacture of batter, cheese, and margarine.
Dendritic salt:
This is a new grade of salt. It is very fine and has star crystals and is used
in the seasoning mixtures for saw type goods where its particular shape assists
in retaining an even mixture of all the spices and seasoning.
Garlic salt;
This is a blend of crushed dried garlic and the table salt which is
purchased already prepared. It is used for any dish where fresh garlic normally is
used.
Celery Salt:
This is a blend of crushed celery and vacu salt, salt which is purchased
already prepared. It is frequently used when fresh celery is unavailable or just a
small quantity is used.
Iodized salt:
This salt contains 15 30 parts iodine per million of sodium iodine.

4.3 List the characteristics of salt that is needed for bakery use.
1. It should be completely soluble in water.
2. It should give a clear solution cloudy solution will indicate presence of
certain impurities.
3. It should it should be free from lumps.
4. It should be as pure as possible.
5. It should be free from a bitter or biting taste.
4.4 Explain the properties of sugar.
It is reported that the sugar cane was cultivated in India as easily as 400 B.C
and later introduced into Europe. The refined granulated sugar commercially
produced in India is divided from sugar cane. It is also produced from sugar
feets in several countries. It is 99.9% pure sucrose. Sucrose is a term used to
mean refined cane (or) peat sugar chemically speaking there are two types of
sugar
a) Simple sugar which include glucose (or) dextrose, fructose, and
gactrose.
b) Compound sugar which include sucrose, maltose, lactose etc.

The function in the bakery products are not performed by sugars to the
same degree.
Sugar properties:
Hydrolysis compound sugars take sucrose split into enzymes (or) acids.
Maltose and sucrose are hydrolysis by the enzymes maltose and inverses
respectively.
Yeast fermentation:
Glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose are readily fermented by bakers
yeast to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol as principle and products.
Date of fermentation:
The addition of small amounts of fermented sugar speeds up the
fermentation of a dough after certain limit, additional sugar flows down the
fermentation.
Residual sugars:
About two of the sugars added, based on flour are used up during the
bread fermentation. The remaining sugars which are present in bread are called
residual sugars.
Sweetness & flavor:
Since there is no physical (or) chemical test for sweetness, it must
therefore be related to taste in terms of sweetness of different sugars. The order
should be as follows fructose, invert sugar, sucrose, dextrose, maltose,
galectose, and lactose.
Hygroscopicity:
Hygroscopicity is the ability of a substance to absorb moisture and retain.
Heat susceptibility:
When sugars are heated molecules combine to form colour substances
called caramel. Sugars vary in heat susceptibility.
Browning reaction:
Reducing sugars when heated with proteins react to form dark compounds
called melanoidins. In early stages melanoidins resemble caramels in colour,
odour, and flavour, further reaction causes them to become black and insoluble.
Solubility and crystallization:
The difference is in solubility of the sugars can be used to control
crystallization in products that require higher amounts of sugar.

Softening:
The tenderizing action of sugars in baked products with the resulting
improvements in texture volume and symmetry may indirectly be attributed to
the ability of sugar to hold water.
4.5 Explain the composition and functions of sugar.
Composition of sugar
Sugars belong to one of the major classes of organic chemical compounds carbohydrates. The other two are
fats and proteins.
Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and are classified into three major types:
monosaccharides (single units that can not be hydrolyzed or broken down further), oligosaccharides (a few
units, usually two to three) and polysaccharides (many units). Single units of sugars are further characterized
by the number of carbon atoms in their structure.
The normal sugars we use contain six carbon atoms and are called hexoses. Pentoses (sugar units in cellulose,
for example) contain five, while heptoses contain seven carbon atoms. For the purpose of this article, when we
refer to sugars we will mainly deal with hexoses.
The main monosaccharides we encounter in baking are glucose, fructose and galactose. The disaccharides (two
sugar units) are derived from each of these single sugar units as follows: sucrose = (glucose + fructose),
maltose = (glucose + glucose) and lactose = (glucose + galactose). An example of polysaccharide with many
glucose units is starch.
Sugars functionality
In yeast-leavened baked goods, sugars provide the food for the yeast that produces carbon dioxide for the
leavening action. The yeast secretes enzymes that split the sucrose into simpler sugars, which can be more
easily fermentable. When glucose and fructose are present in dough the yeast ferments glucose first. Different
sugars and syrups play different roles in different baked goods, such as improving texture crumb and grain.
They also provide a tenderizing effect. Certain sugars such as fructose, inverted sugar and honey will retain
water and thus extend shelf life.
There are many choices of sugars with different characteristics and different functionalities, so its important to
choose the proper sugar for each type of baked good we are formulating. It is also important to keep in mind
that changes in the properties of sugar may occur during storage and handling in the food manufacturing
facility.
Concern is growing about the amount of sugar in our diets. Obesity, diabetes, heart disease and other chronic
ailments are becoming more predominant in developed and developing countries, and sugar contributes to
these increases. Thus, attempts are being made to develop foods, including baked goods, using alternative
low-calorie sweeteners.

4.6 Define shortening.

Shortening is any fat that is solid at room temperature and used to make crumbly pastry. In pastries such as
cake, which should not be elastic, shortening is used.[1] Although butter is solid at room temperature and is
frequently used in making pastry, the term "shortening" seldom refers to butter but is more closely related to
margarine.

Shortening is a type of solid fat that is made from vegetable oils, such as soybean and cottonseed oil.
Shortening seems to get its name from the fact that it shortens gluten strands in wheat by adding fat.
Since it is 100%, as opposed to the 80% fat content of butter or lard, it results in a very tender baked
good. It is frequently seen in baking recipes, although it is rarely used in other areas of cooking.

Crisco, a popular brand of shortening, was first produced in 1911, and gained popularity because it
was reliable, inexpensive (cheaper than butter or lard) and flavorless.
Shortening is made by a process called hydrogenation, which involves add extra hydrogen atoms to
the aforementioned vegetable fats and turns them into solids, rather than liquids. This process of
turning the previously unhydrogenated oil into a partially hydrogenated fat with trans fatty acids.
These days, shortening is made trans-fat free by fully hydrogenating the oils. It tastes exactly the
same and functions the same way as the partially hydrogenated shortenings did.
Shortening can be melted or softened and creamed into a mixture. Since it is all fat, it usually
produces the most tender and crumbly results in a cake, cookie or pie crust, but it does not have the
flavor of butter, nor can it impart the flakiness that butter can give to, for instance, a pie crust.

4.7 List the qualities of margarine.

Basically margarines are intended as a substitute for butter. The
predominant raw material used in manufacture of margarine is hydrogenated oil.
In general the majority of raw ingredients in margarine are of vegetable origin.
These include cotton seed oil and so forth.
Margarine has the following qualities
Spreading ability
Quick melting in the mouth
Plasticity
Creaming ability
High melting point
Neutral flavours
4.8 Define milk.
Definition:
Milk is actually an emulsion of tiny parts of fat in a water solution of
protein, sugar, and minerals. Emulsion may be defined as stable solution of fat,
water, and other ingredients which will not separate on standing. The
composition of milk differs somewhat depending on a number of factors.
However the average composition will be approximately as given in the table
below.
4.9 Write in detail about composition of milk.
Composition of milk:

Water
To solids

87.73%
12.25%

The total solids portion may consist of the following.

Fat [butter fat]

3.50%

Proteins

3.25%

Minerals [or ash]

0.75%

Lactose [milk]

4.75%

The 3.25%protein consists of 80% casein and 20% albumin. The 1.025and 1.035
richer milk has a lower specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio between the
height of any given substance and the weight of equal volume of water. When
specific gravity is less than one, the substance weighs less than water. The
specific gravity of milk being greater than 1.0 shows that milk is heavier than
water. But these characteristics are changed by the addition of salt and from the
action of butyric acid.
4.10 Write about the advantages of using milk and milk solids in bread

production.

Advantages of using milk and milk solids in bread production: There are
several advantages that could be derived from adding milk solids in the bread
dough. These are listed below
Milk increases absorption and dough strengthening. The addition of milk
solids brings certain changes in dough during the dough making and baking
process.
Increased mixing tolerance:
Milk doughs are more tolerant to over mixing and recover more rapidly
before reaching pan stage.
Longer fermentation:
Because of the buffering action of milk, the non-fat dry milk solids will
normally slow down the enzymatic activity especially the diastative activity
during the entire fermentation time. Therefore tolerance to a longer fermentation
time helps in the production of a satisfactory loaf of bread.
Better crust colour:
The lactose, easing and whey proteins in the non-fat milk contribute to a golden
crust colour and also improve toasting qualities.
Batter grain and texture:

The soft velvety texture and grain of small uniform cells are the
characteristics that are found in the crumb of milk bread. These characteristics
also improve the slice ability o milk in dough.
Increased loaf volume:
There are several ways of achieving increased loaf volume one of there is
the addition of milk in dough.
Better keeping quality:
Since the addition of milk permits higher moisture content it allows bread
to remain softer for longer periods.
Better Nutrition:
The milk breads are nutritionally better because they contain more
minerals, proteins and vitamins. Milk also improves flavor and eating quality of
bread.
4.11 List some nuts and fruits used in bakery.
Nuts used in bakery:
Almonds [Almond butter, Almond paste], coconut, peanuts [Peanut
butter], pecans, poppy seeds, walnuts, brazil nuts, cashew nuts, chestnuts,
macadamias, pistachio, defatted nuts.
Fruits used in bakery:
Some fruits are used by bakers almost entirely in the partially dried form,
because the fresh forms are so perishable and expensive that they could only be
used seasonally and in high priced goods. Many common traditional products,
such as fig bars and date bread are based on the dried fruits. Some commonly
used fruits in bakery are as follows.
Dates are date paste, figs are fig paste raisins, raisin paste and currents,
candied or glanced fruits [Tutty fruity, glace chemise], apple, blueberry, cherry,
candied ginger, frozen fruits, like apricots, berries, blue berries, peaches,
pineapple, straw berries, plums, red tart pitted cherries, rasp berries, fruit jams,
jellies, and preserves.