CHAPTER 2

POTENTIAL FLOW
Why this chapter is so important?
Why study this topic?
In Fluid Mechanic I use finite control volumes
not required a detailed knowledge (pressure and velocity
variations) within the control volume
many situations that arise in which details of the flow are
important
- velocity varies over the cross section of a pipe
- pressure and shear stress varies along the
surface of an airplane wing
finite control volumes approach will not yield the desire
information
need to develop relationships that apply at least in a very
small region (infinitesimal control volume or infinitesimal
fluid element) within a given flow field

infinitesimal control volume referred to as differential

analysis since the governing equations are differential
equations

CHAPTER 2 : POTENTIAL FLOW

Introduction

This topic will introduce the differential equations

that describe the motion of fluids

Apply the governing flow equations to an infinitesimal

control volume

Discover that the governing equations are differential

equations.

Kinematics refers to how fluid behaves in reference to

time.

The Velocity Field

To describe the motion of fluid, we analyze its

behaviour of fluid elements passing fixed points
rather than observing a particular element as it
moves. This method is called the Eulerian method.

In the course of deriving the differential equations,

we look at fluid as elements (infinitesimal control
volume) rather than singular fluid particles.

This means that a finite volume of fluid containing the

fluid particles is used and the characteristics of the
elements are based on statistical average values.

In a flow field, fluid elements move and changes

shape. So it has motion and deformation. The types of
deformation are shown below:

type of motion and deformation for a fluid element

A flow field is a representation of fluid parameters as
function of spatial coordinates and as function of
time.
The velocity field is a representation of fluid velocity
as function of spatial coordinates and time
V = V(x, y, z, t)

fluid element moving in the fluid flow

Since velocity has both magnitude and direction, the

velocity field is often expressed as vectors
V = ui + vj + wk

where the x, y, and z component of velocity are given,

respectively by
u = u (x,y,z,t)
v = v (x,y,z,t)
z = z (x,y,z,t)

The acceleration of a fluid particle can be expressed

as
a = V/t +uV/x + vV/y + wV/z
and in component form
ax = u/t + uu/x +vu/y + wu/z
ay = v/t + uv/x +vv/y + wv/z
az= w/t + uw/x +vw/y + ww/z

The acceleration is also expressed as

a = DV/Dt

The substantial derivative (material derivative or total

derivative),
D( )/Dt is time rate of change
following a moving fluid element. Using the figure
above, the scalar density is given by = (x,y,z,t)
from point 1 to 2 is;
D/Dt = /t + u/x + v/y + w/z

In Cartesian coordinates, the vector operator

(gradient operator) is defined as

= i( )/x + j( )/y + k( )/z

So, equation D( )/Dt can be written as

D( )/Dt = ( )/t + V.( )

Defination
D( )/Dt = substantial derivative, which is
physically that time rate of change
following a moving fluid element. Total
derivative.

( )/t

= local derivative, which is physically

the time rate of change at a fixed point

V.( )

= convective derivative, which is

physically at the time rate of change
due to the movement of the fluid
element from one location to another in
the flow field where the flow properties
are spatially different

The Divergence of the Velocity

Governing flow equations are frequently expressed in

terms of the substantial derivative, so it is important
to understand this term. . V is expressed as
(Anderson 1995);
. V = (1/V)( DV/Dt)
where
(1/V)( DV/Dt)

.V

= time rate of change of the

volume of a moving fluid
element, per unit volume.
=

divergence of the velocity

In mathematical form, . V is expressed as;

. V = u/x + v/y + w/z

Types of Flow
Types of flow
- One and Two Dimensional Flow
- Steady and Unsteady Flows
- Inviscid Flow

One and Two-Dimensional Flow

Fluid flow is normally 3-dimensional and time

dependent.

This makes it difficult to analyze the motion of fluid

in mathematical forms.

Therefore simplifications are needed. So we

approximate the real flow to one or two-dimensional
flows.

Moreover, sometimes it actual flows, one or two

components of velocity are relatively very small such
that it can be neglected.
i.e : if z component of velocity is very small, then we

have,

V = V(x, y, t)
or in vector form,
V = ui + vj
Steady and Unsteady Flows

Steady flow - When flow is steady, the velocity at a

given point in space does not vary with time
dV/dt = 0

Unsteady Flows - Velocity field at given point in space

varies with time. 3 categories of unsteady flows
- periodic flow (fixed time period)
- non-periodic flow (time period is not fixed)
- truly random flow (random time)

Inviscid Flow

This is the property of an ideal fluid where viscosity

does not exist (=0). Such ideal flows do not exist but
is considered anyway for the sake of simplicity.

Other Considerations

Other things we might want to consider are the

properties such as density, temperature and
compressibility. These properties can either be
constant or varying with time. The velocity field is
isentropic no pressure drop due to friction so that v
does not decrease.

Governing Flow Equations

The fundamental governing equations of fluid flow are

- continuity equation
- momentum equation
- energy equation

These equations speaks physics. They are

mathematical statements of three fundamental
physical principals upon which all of fluid dynamics is
based:
- Mass is conserved
- Newtons second law, F = ma
- Energy is conserved
Models of the Flow

We have used the finite control volumes for the

solution of a variety of fluid mechanics problems.

This approach is very practical and useful, because it

only requires a detailed knowledge of the pressure
and velocity variations within the control volume.

Typically, we found that only conditions on the

surface of the control volume entered the problem,
and thus problems could be solved without a detailed
knowledge of the flow field.

Unfortunately, there are many situations that arise in

which the details of the flow are important and the
finite control volume approach will not yield the
desired information. For example, we may need to
know how the velocity varies over the cross section of
a pipe, or how the pressure and shear stress vary
along the surface of an airplane wing.

In these circumstances we need to develop

relationships that apply at a point, or at least in a
very small region, the infinitesimal fluid element
within a given flow field.

This approach, which involves the infinitesimal fluid

element or we can call it an infinitesimal control
volume as distinguished from a finite control volume,
is commonly referred to as differential analysis.

We will then discover that the governing equations

are differential equations. Therefore, for the rest of
this course, we will use infinitesimal fluid element
to obtain the differential form of the continuity
equation.

Continuity Equation

The mass balance, or continuity equation, for a

control volume is

Any change of mass within the control volume is equal to

the net gain of
mass flowing into the volume through the control
surface,
or
Rate of Change of Mass + Net loss of Mass = 0

In mathematical terms

/t cvd + cs u.dA = 0
where
/t cvd

= the rate at which the mass within

the control volume is changing

cs u.dA

net rate at which mass is flowing

out through the control surface (total
rate of mass outflow - total rate of
mass inflow)

net rate at which mass is flowing out through the

control surface

cs u.dA = out (uA) - in (uA)

Continuity equation
cv (/t)d + out (uA) - in (uA) = 0
cv (/t)d = in

- out m

where the element is so small that the volume

integral on the left side of the equation can be written
as;

cv (/t)d (/t)dx dy dz

To obtain the differential form of the continuity

equation, apply mass conservation equation to
infinitesimal control volume

infinitesimal fluid element or infinitesimal control volume

The mass flow occur on all six faces, three inlets and
three outlets
Inlet
x direction = ??
y direction = ??
z direction = ?
Outlet
x direction = ??
y direction = ??
z direction = ??

From figure above, the net rate of flow of mass into

the element across its boundaries is given by
[u +(u/x)dx ]dy dz (u)dydz
+ [v+(v/y)dy ]dx dz (v)dxdz
+ [w+(w/z)dz ]dx dy (w)dxdy

Hence, the net mass flow out of the element is given

by;
Net mass flow = [(u/x) + (v/y) +(w/z)]dxdydz
and
Time rate of mass increase = /t(dxdydz)

So the Continuity Equation

/t + u/x + v/y + w/z = 0

Or in compact vector notation

/t +.(V) = 0

This equation is continuity equation for unsteady,

three-dimensional mass conservation at a point in a
compressible fluid

For the incompressible fluid, like most liquids, its

density does not change, neither over time nor over
space ( = constant). So, the continuity equation
simplifies greatly to

u/x + v/y + w/z = 0

Example : The velocity components for a certain

incompressible, steady flow field are
u = x2 +y2 +z2
v = xy + yz + z
Determine the form of the z component, w
required to satisfy the continuity equation.
Solution :
For incompressible and steady flow, the Continuity
equation is

u/x + v/y + w/z = 0

For the given velocity distribution

u/x = 2x
v/y =

x+z

To satisfy the continuity equation, the required

expression for w/z is

w/z =

-2x - x z

= -3x - z
Therefore
w = w/z
= -3x z
= -3xz (z2/2) + C
The third velocity component cannot be explicitly
determined since C can have any form and
conservation of mass still be satisfy. An addition
information is needed to completely determine w.
Stream Function,

For steady, incompressible and 2 dimensional flow,

the continuity equation is

u/x + v/y = 0

A clever variable transformation enables us to rewrite

the continuity equation in term of one dependent
variable () instead of two dependent variables (u
and v).

For steady, incompressible and 2 dimensional flow,

the stream function define as
u = /y
v = -/x

Continuity equation

/x (/y) - /y(/x) = 0

Advantages

- simplified the analysis by having to determine

only one unknown function, (x,y) rather than
the two function, u(x,y) and v(x,y).
- lines along which is constant are streamlines
and the change in the value of is related to
the volume rate of flow

A streamline is a line tangent to the velocity field.

velocity and velocity components along a streamline

This line is obtained analytically by integrating the

equations defining lines tangent to the velocity field.

For 2-Dimensional flows, dy/dx (slope of streamline)

must be equal to the tangent of the angle that the
velocity vector makes with the x-axis. So we have,
dy/dx = v/u

The change in the value of as we move from one

point (x,y) to the nearby point (x+dx, y+dy) is given
by the relationship

=
=

(/x)x + (/y)y
-vx + uy

Along a line of constant we have = 0

-vx + uy = 0
and the slope of streamline

dy/dx = v/u

The actual numerical value associated with a

particular streamline is not a particular significance,
but the change in the value of is related to the
volume rate of flow.

Consider two closely spaced streamline as shown in

figure below

the flow between two streamlines

Let dq represent the volume flowrate of the flow (per
unit width) passing between the two streamlines.
From conservation of mass, we know that the inflow
dq crossing the arbitrary surface AC must equal the
net flow through surface AB and BC. Thus
dq = udy vdx
or in term of the stream function
dq = (/y)dy + (x)dx
and
dq =
Thus, the volume flow rate, q between two
streamlines such as 1 and 2 is

q=

= 2 -1

if

2 > 1, q is positive and fluid flow from left to

right.
2 < 1, q is negative and fluid flow from right to
left.

In cylindrical coordinate, the continuity equation for

incompressible, 2 dimensional flow reduces to
(rvr)/r + v/ = 0

The velocity components, vr and v can be related to

the stream function through equation
vr = (1/r)/
v = -/r

Example : The velocity components in a steady,

incompressible, 2 dimensional flow field are
u = 2y
v = 4x
Determine the corresponding stream
function?

Solution

From defination
u = /y
v = -/x
Velocity equation in x direction can be integrated to
give
= uy
= uy
= 2y y
= y2 + C1

and

/x =
/x = /x
-v =
-4x =
C1 =
=

-v
(y2 + C1)
0 + /x (C1)
/x (C1)
-4x x
-2x2

therefore

= - 2x2 + y2
Momentum Equation

Apply physical principle, F = ma (Newtons second

law)

Newtons second law when applied to the moving

fluid element (infinitesimal fluid element moving
along streamline), the net force on the fluid element
equals its mass times the acceleration of the element.

For simplicity only the forces in the x direction is

used,
Fx = max

In general, two types of forces need to be considered

- body forces (e.g. gravity) which are distributed
uniformly throughout the bulk of the volume
- surface forces (e.g. pressure and shear stress),
which act only on the surface of the control
volume.

Body forces are due to external fields (gravity,

magnetism, electrical potential) which act upon the

entire mass within the element. The most common

body force is gravity, which every single molecule
within the element feels the same extent. The gravity
on the fluid within the element is simply
Fg = mg

The only body force we shall consider in this course is

gravity. The gravity force on the differential mass dx
dy dz within the control volume is
Fg = g dx dy dz

Surface forces are forces which only apply to the

surface of the volume of fluid. The two examples are
- pressure force, which acts on a surface in the
direction perpendicular that surface
- shear force( from shear stress and normal
stress), which pulls the edge of the volume
along.

When a fluid at a rest, the only stress acting at any

surface of any fluid element is the local hydrostatic
pressure, P, which always acts inward and normal to
the surface. When a fluid is moving, pressure still acts
inwardly normal, but shear stresses also exist.

Summary of forces acting on the fluid element

Infinitesimal small, moving fluid element used for

derivation of x component momentum equation

Pressure force
Apply infinitesimal small, moving fluid element to get
pressure forces derivation. The pressure force is Fp =
pA. Since the pressure force is perpendicular to the
area on which the pressure is acting, the only two of
the 6 faces of our volume element contributing a
force in the x-direction, are the left and the right face.
Pressure left face : pdydz
Pressure right face :
p + (p/x)dxdydz

Viscous Forces
Apply infinitesimal small, moving fluid element to get
viscous forces derivation. We will use , for normal
stress and shear stress. The suffix notation ij denotes
a stress in the j direction on a surface normal to the
i-direction. Forces aligned with the direction of a coordinate axis get a positive sign, and those in the
opposite direction, a negative sign. These directions
are consistent with the convention that positive
increases in all three components of velocity, u, v and
w, occur in the positive directions of the axes. To

obtain the magnitude of a force resulting from a

surface stress, F = A
There are 6 faces of our volume element contributing
a force in the x-direction. The forces on the 6 faces
are;
The
The
The
The
The
The

left face, the normal stress

right face, the normal stress
bottom face, the shear stress
top face, the shear stress =
rear face, the shear stress
front face, the shear stress

=
=
=
??
=
=

??
??
??
??
??

It is not these stresses but their gradients, or

differences, which cause a net force on the
differential control surface. So, for the moving fluid
element, the net surface force in x direction is;
pdydz [p + (p/x)dx]dydz
+ [xx + (xx/x)dx]dydz - xxdydz
+ [yx + (yx/y)dy]dxdz - yxdxdz
+ [zx + (zx/z)dz]dxdy - zxdxdy

The total force in the x direction, Fx is given by the

sum of body forces and surface forces, and canceling
terms, we obtain,
Fx = pgdxdydz + [-(p/x) + (xx/x) + (yx/y)
+ (zx/z)]dxdydz

The mass of the fluid element is fixed and is equal to

m = dx dy dz

The acceleration of the fluid element is the time rate

of change of its velocity. So, the component of
acceleration in the x-direction, denoted by ax, is time
rate of change of u. Since we are following a moving
fluid element, this time rate of change is given by the
substantial derivative.
ax = Du/Dt

Combining all these equation, we obtain the

momentum equations in nonconservation form;

(Du/Dt) = -(p/x) + (xx/x) + (yx/y) + (zx/z) + gx

y component

(Dv/Dt) = -(p/y) + (xy/x) + (yy/y) + (zy/z) + gy

z component

(Dw/Dt) = -(p/z) + (xz/x) + (yz/y) + (zz/z) + gz

Equations above are the x, y, and z components,

respectively, of the momentum equation. Note they
are partial differential equations obtained directly
from an application of the infinitesimal fluid element.
Since the fluid element is moving with the flow, the
equations are in nonconservation form.

The Navier-Stokes Equation

In section above, we obtained the momentum

equations in nonconservation forms. They are scalar
equations and are called the Navier-Stokes equations
in honour of two men the Frenchman M. Navier and
the Englishman G. Stokes who independently
obtained the equations in the first half of the
nineteenth century.

The Navier-Stokes equations can be obtained in

conservation form as follows. In terms of the
definition of the substantial derivative, we have

Du/Dt = u/t + V.u

Expanding the following derivative,

(u)/t = u/t + u/t

rearranging

u/t = (u)/t - u/t

Recalling the vector identity for the divergence of the

product of a scalar times vector, we have

. (uV) = u.(V) + (V).u

or
(V).u = . (uV) - u.(V)

Combine the equation

Du/Dt =
=
(uV)

(u)/t - u/t + . (uV) - u.(V)

(u)/t - u[(/t ) + .(V)] + .

knowing that [(/t ) + .(V)] = 0 continuity

equation

Du/Dt =

(u)/t + . (uV)

therefore

(u)/t + . (uV) =
-(p/x) + (xx/x) + (yx/y) + (zx/z) +

g x

y component

(v)/t + . (vV) =

g y

-(p/y) + (xy/x) + (yy/y) + (zy/z) +

z component

(w)/t + . (wV) =
g z

-(p/z) + (xz/x) + (yz/y) + (zz/z) +

The governing equations now contain as further

unknowns, the viscous stress components ij. In many
fluid flows the viscous stresses can be expressed
as functions of the local deformation rate (or
strain rate). In the late seventeenth century, Isaac
Newton stated that the shear stress in a fluid is
proportional to the time rate of strain, i.e.,
velocity gradients. Such fluids are called newtonian
fluids. Fluids in which is not proportional to the
velocity gradients are non newtonian fluids; blood
flow is one example). In virtually, all aerodynamic
problems, the fluid can be assumed to be newtonian.
So, in a newtonian fluid, the viscous stresses are
proportional to the rates of deformation. The
three-dimensional form of newtons law of viscosity
for compressible flows involves two constants of
proportionality: the (first) dynamic viscosity, to relate
stresses to linear deformation, and the second
viscosity, to relate stresses to the volumetric
deformation.

For such fluids, Stokes in 1845 obtained;

xx = (.V) + 2(u/x)
yy = (.V) + 2(v/y)

zz = (.V) + 2(w/z)
xy = yx = [(v/x) + (u/y)]
xz = zx = [(u/z) + (w/x)]
yz = zy = [(w/y) + (v/z)]
where
= molecular viscosity coefficient
= is the second viscosity coefficient and Stokes
made the hypothesis that = -(2/3)

Substitute all Stokes finding into Navier-Stokes

equations, we obtain the complete Navier-Stokes
equations in conservation form;
[(u)/t] + [(u2)/x] + [(uv)/y] +[(uw)/z] =
-(p/x)
+ (/x)[ (.V) + 2u/x] + (/y)[(v/x
+u/y)]
+ (/z)[(u/z +w/x)] + gx

y component
[(v)/t] + [(v2)/y] + [(uv)/x] +[(vw)/z] = (p/y)
+ (/y)[ (.V) + 2v/y] + (/x)[(v/x
+u/y)]
+ (/z)[(w/y +v/z)] + gy

z component

[(w)/t] + [(w2)/z] + [(uw)/x] +[(vw)/y]

= -(p/z)
+ (/z)[ (.V) + 2w/z] + (/x)[(u/z
+w/x)]
+ (/y)[(w/y +v/z)] + gz

the equation can also be written as

(Du/Dt) = -(p/x) + (/x)[ (.V) + 2u/x] +

(/y)[(v/x +u/y)] + (/z)[(u/z +w/x)]
+ g x

y component

(Dv/Dt) = -(p/y) + (/y)[ (.V) + 2v/y] +

(/x)[(v/x +u/y)] + (/z)[(w/y +v/z)]
+ g y

z component

(Dw/Dt) = -(p/z) + (/z)[ (.V) + 2w/z] +

(/x)[(u/z +w/x)] + (/y)[(w/y
+v/z)] + gz
The Eulers Equation

For ideal flow, we simply assume that we ignore

viscosity, and the resulting equation is Eulers
equation, which is about 100 years older than the
Navier-Stokes equations.

Inviscid flow is, by definition, a flow where the

dissipative, transport phenomena of viscosity, mass
diffusion, and thermal conductivity are neglected. We
can also say the inviscid flow is a region of a fluid flow
where viscous forces are sufficiently small relative to
other force.

If we simply drop all terms involving friction, we then

have the equations for an inviscid flow. The resulting
equations for an unsteady, three-dimensional,
compressible inviscid flow are;
Continuity Equation
Non conservation form
D/Dt + .V = 0
Conservation form
/t + .(V) = 0
Momentum Equation
Non conservation form
x component
(Du/Dt) = -(p/x) + gx
y component
(Dv/Dt) = -(p/y) + gy
z component
(Dw/Dt) = -(p/z) + gz
Conservation form
x component
(u)/t + . (uV) = -(p/x) + gx
y component
(v)/t + . (vV) = -(p/y) + gy

z component
(w)/t + . (wV) = -(p/z) + gz
Rotation and Angular Deformation

One form of fluid movement is rotation. As it rotates

fluid may also deform angularly.

The rotation and angular deformation shown in figure

above are caused by velocity variation.

Referring to figure above, in a short time interval t:- OA rotates counter clockwise through the angle
to a new position OA.
- OB rotates clockwise through the angle to a
new position OB.

Angular velocity of line OA

 is very small, that tan

Angular velocity of line OB

If u/y is positive OB rotates clockwise

If v/x is positive OA rotates counter clockwise

The rotation z of element about the z-axis is defined

as the average of angular velocities OA and OB
(positive - rotate counter clockwise)

Rotation about the other two coordinate axis x and

y

In vector form

therefore

This expression can be used to determine whether the

flow is irrotational or not.

Another parameter related to the rotation of fluid is

vorticity, . Vorticity is defined as a vector that is
twice the rotation vector ()

Irrotational Flow

For Irrotational flow

x V =0

For irrotational flow, the rotation about z axis, z

z

1 v u

2 x y

therefore
v u

x y

The rotation about x axis, x

x

1 w v

2 y
z

therefore
w v

y
z

The rotation about y axis, y

y

1 u w

0
2 z
x

therefore
u w

z
x

The general flow field would not satisfy these three

equations. However, a uniform flow does.

Velocity Potential,

For an irrotational flow, we define the velocity

components in terms of a scalar function (x,y,z,t) as
u = /x
v = /y
w = /z

In vector form
V =

The velocity potential is a consequence of the

irrotationality of flow.

The stream function is a consequence of the

conservation of mass.

The line representing the velocity potential is called

the equipotential line.

The velocity potential is actually the product of

integral between two points along the streamline

For incompressible fluid, we know from conservation

of mass that

.V = 0

Therefore, for incompressible, irrotational flow V=

it follows that
2. = 0

In Cartesian coordinates
Laplace Equation

So the inviscid, incompressible, irrotational flow

fields are governed by the Laplace Equation. This
type of flow is commonly called a potential flow.

For some problems it will be convenient to use

cylindrical coordinates, r, , and z. In this coordinate
system the gradient operator is
( ) = ( )/r r + (1/r) ( )/ + ( )/z z
so that
= /r r + (1/r) / + /z z
since
V = vr r + v + vz z
it follows for an irrotational flow (with V = )
vr = /r
v = (1/r) /
vz = /z

Laplaces equation in cylindrical coordinates is

(1/r)(/r)(r/r) + (1/r2)(2/2) + 2/z2 = 0

Simple Plane Potential Flow

Simple plane potential flow

- Uniform flow
- Source and Sink
- Vortex
- Doublet

Uniform Flow

Uniform flow the simplest plane flow which the

streamlines are all straight and parallel, and the
magnitude of the velocity is constant.

Consider a uniform flow in a positive x direction as

shown in figure below. In this instance , u = U, v = 0
and in terms of velocity potential
u = /x = U
v = /y = 0

Velocity potential for this flow

/x = U
= U x
= Ux +C
= Ux

Stream function for this flow

u = /y = U
v = /x = 0

 = Uy
= Uy + C
= Uy

These result can be generalized to provide the

velocity potential and stream function for a uniform
flow at angle with the x axis as shown in figure
below

For this case

= U(xcos + ysin)
= U(ycos - ysin)
Source and Sink

Consider a fluid flowing radially outward from a line

through the origin perpendicular to x-y plane as
shown in figure below;

Let m be the volume rate of flow emanating from line

(per unit length), and therefore to satisfy
conservation of mass
(2r)vr = m
vr
= m/(2r)

Since the flow is purely radial flow, v = 0, the

corresponding velocity potential can be obtained by
integrating the equation
vr = /r = m/(2r)
(1/r)/ = 0
and
= (m/2) ln r

If m is positive, the flow is radially outward and the

flow is considered to be a source flow. If m is
negative, the flow is toward the origin and the flow is
considered to be a sink flow.

At the origin where r = 0, the velocity become

infinite, which is of course physically impossible. Thus
source or sink do not really exist in real flow fields.
However, some real flows can be approximated at
points away from the origin using sources or sinks.
Also the velocity potential representing this
hypothetical flow can be combined with other basic
velocity potentials to describe approximately some
real flow fields.

The stream function for the source can be obtained by

integrating the relationship
(1/r)/ = m/(2r)
= (m/2)

The streamline (lines of = 0) are radial lines while

equipotential lines (lines of = 0) are concentric
circles centered at the origin.
Vortex

Flow field in which the streamlines are concentric

circles.

The velocity function and stream function

= K
= -K ln r
where K is constant

In this case, the streamline are concentric as shown

in figure below with vr = 0 and
v = (1/r)/ = -/r = K/r

This result indicates that the tangential velocity

varies inversely with the distance from the origin with
a singularity occurring at r = 0

It may seem strange that this vortex motion is

irrotational. However, it must be recalled that
rotation refers to the orientation of a fluid element
and not the path followed by the element.

For an irrotational vortex, if a pair of stick were

placed in the flow field at location A as shown in
figure below, the sticks would rotate as they move to

location B. One of the stick the one that is aligned

along the streamline, would follow a circular path and
rotate in counterclockwise direction. The other stick
would rotate in a clockwise direction due to the
nature of the flow field.

If the fluid were rotating as a rigid body such as v =

K1r where K1 is constant the stick similarly placed in
the flow field would rotate as shown in figure below.
This type of vortex motion is rotational and cannot be
described with a velocity potential.

The rotational vortex is commonly called a forced

vortex, wheres the irrotational vortex is usually called
a free vortex. The swirling motion of the water as it
drains from a bathtub is similar to that of a free
vortex, wheres the motion of a liquids in a tank that is
rotated about its axis with angular velocity
corresponds to a forced vortex.

Doublet

Formed by combining a source and sink in a special

way.

Consider the equal strength source sink pair shown

in figure below. The combined stream function for the
pair is
= -(m/2)(1 2)

which can be rewrite as

tan (-2/m) = tan(1 2) = (tan 1 tan2)/(1 +
tan 1 tan2)
from figure above it follows that
tan 1 = rsin/(rkos - a)
and
tan 2 = rsin/(rkos + a)
this give
tan (-2/m) = 2arsin/(r2 a2)
so that
= -(m/2)tan-1(2arsin/(r2 a2)
For small value of a (an angle approach the value of
the angle)
= -(m/2)(2arsin/(r2 a2)
= - marsin/ [ (r2 a2)]

Doublet is formed by letting the source and sink

approach one another while increasing the strength
so that the product ma/ remain constant. In this
case, since r/(r2 a2) 1/r
= -Ksin/r
where K = ma/ is called the strength of the doublet
the velocity potential
= Kkos/r

Superposition

Combination of various basic potential flows can be

used to describe approximately some real flow fields.

Flow around a half body is obtained by the addition of

a source to a uniform flow

Rankine oval are formed by combining a source and

sink with a uniform flow

A doublet combined with a uniform flow can be used

to represent flow around a circular cylinder