Types of NH3 Systems & How They Work

Controlled Pressure Receiver-Fed Systems

Over the coming months I hope to find time to post these system
descriptions to my website. In view of the many visitors my site sees and
what theyre looking for, these system descriptions I trust will fill a need.
This paper is first in a coming series, this of a controlled pressure receiverfed system (CPR). It also happens to be of an actual system located here in
the upper Midwest region of the U.S. It is atypical and I believe one of the
first (if not the first) CPR liquid overfeed systems built, dating back to the
early 1960s. Today, CPR systems have become commonplace in the U.S.
These have numerous advantages but along with those advantages come
the disadvantages. Once properly set up (adjust liquid feed rates to
evaporators, set pressure regulators), these give excellent service. However,
if not properly set up, a CPR-fed system can become a pain in the butt. But,
the same thing can also be said of a mechanically-pumped liquid overfeed
system as well which many believe is the Cadillac of systems. So, lets
delve into the figure which follows and Ill walk you through this pup.
Figure 1 Process Flow Diagram, CPR-Fed System

A CPR-Fed System
Ok lets start at the evaporative condenser at its outlet the high
pressure liquid drain line, identified in Figure 1 as warm liquid (165 psig).
This pressure is equivalent to 90 F condensing[1] at 78 F ewbt. The
system shown is single stage compression. Liquid flows by gravity from the
condenser outlet into a small pilot receiver. Liquid level in this pilot is

maintained by a high-side float. If the liquid level rises above the float, the
downstream expansion valve modulates open. If the liquid level falls below
the float level, the expansion valve modulates towards the closed position.
Upon passing through the expansion valve, the exiting refrigerant is now
under a pressure of 65 psig. During this throttling process, a portion of the
upstream high pressure liquid flashes to vapor. It is this rate of change in
refrigerant volume that provides the force required to move liquid through
the liquid piping distribution system. Considering both upstream and
downstream pressures (180 psia and 80 psia), the mass ratio of refrigerant
liquid given up to flash vapor during adiabatic irreversible throttle at these
conditions may be found from:

(1)
where:

hx = enthalpy of liquid refrigerant at condensing conditions

hf = enthalpy of refrigerant liquid at downstream saturation conditions

hg = enthalpy of refrigerant vapor at downstream saturation conditions

Eq (1) solves to 10% flash at the conditions stated. However, the volume of
the refrigerant changes vastly more than a measly 10%. From 180 psia to
80 psia, the volume increases by roughly 130 times. Since this expansion
process occurs inside of a system having a fixed volume, the resulting force
generated from the expansion process becomes available to lift liquid uphill
against gravity while overcoming friction losses in piping and valves.
Actually, the foregoing explanation becomes a really nasty calculus problem
probably best described with a third-order differential equation, so well let
Eq (1) do for now. Upon exiting the expansion valve, the liquid and vapor
enter a controlled pressure receiver, CPR in Figure 1. Upon entering, liquid
separates from vapor by gravity. Liquid then becomes available for
circulation to the various evaporators located throughout the facility.
The flash vapor formed across the expansion valve exits the CPR through a
back pressure regulator and then enters the piping conveying liquid and
vapor returning from the evaporators, upstream of the accumulator. This
pressure regulator is the governor of vapor pressure within the CPR. Cold
liquid leaves the CPR at 65 psig (45 F at saturation but subcooled slightly to
~ 40 F more on this liquid subcooling later) and journeys out to the
various evaporators through a network of piping.
CPR-Fed Evaporators
Whenever an evaporator manufacturer selects a particular evaporator having
x many rows of tubing (assuming an air-cooling evaporator) with y many fins
per inch, it is commonplace for that manufacturer to assume that when liquid
arrives in their evaporator, that it will boil immediately no having to wait
around for it to warm up to its saturation (boiling) temperature. This
assumption marks a critical decision because it is the strong force in overall
evaporator effectiveness the operating h[2] for the evaporator. If liquid

enters an evaporator at a temperature below its boiling temperature, the

ability of this liquid to take heat away from the surface of the tubing it is in
contact with becomes seriously compromised.
Just about every manufacturer has learned to ask the question Is this
evaporator going to be fed via CPR or from a mechanical drive pump? If fed
from a CPR, we then must establish an overfeed rate the ratio of mass
liquid to mass vapor exiting the evaporator. For a CPR-fed system, this ratio
should be low, on the order of 1.5:1[3]. If fed via a mechanical drive pump,
the overfeed rate is normally higher, ~3:1.
Back-Regulating an Evaporator
As Ive mentioned in our classes at U/W, these evaporators should not be
back regulated:

Top-fed, mechanically-pumped liquid overfeed evaporators. Dont do

this at all dont even think about it! However, if you get your fanny
in a bind, there is a way out of the subsequent brining dilemma
download a copy of the Evaporator Brining paper from the downloads
section of this website this will give you a clue.

Bottom-fed mechanically-pumped liquid overfeed evaporators (up to

10 F entering liquid subcooling permissible in certain cases)

These evaporators can be back-regulated:

Direct expansion, top and bottom-feed, and

Gravity flooded (regulator in dry suction line from surge drum), and

CPR-fed, top or bottom feed

So heres one of the advantages of a CPR-fed system the evaporators can

be back regulated to higher temperatures without fear of encountering
evaporator brining (within limitations).
The Refrigerant Path Evaporators to Compressor
Cold liquid (65 psig, 40 F) passes through a solenoid valve and a hand
expansion valve at each evaporator. After passing through the hand valve,
the pressure has fallen from 65 psig to 30 psig (17 F at saturation). During
this second throttle process, flash vapor again forms across the hand
expansion valve which becomes mixed with the remaining cold liquid, now at
17 F. This mixture is then distributed to each circuit for boiling inside the
finned tubing. The admission of some flash gas along with saturated liquid
raises the entering circuit fluid velocity. This results in a scrubbing action
that increases overall effectiveness and facilitates heat transfer.
A thermostat cycles the liquid solenoid in response to space temperature; the
fans run continuously (except during defrost valves and piping not shown
for simplicity). Vapor plus a little liquid (very little by volume, <0.2%) exits
each evaporator then combines in a common wet suction line (also known
as a High Temperature Recirculated Suction HTRS here in the U.S.). Upon
entering the accumulator, liquid then separates from vapor by gravitational

forces (versus the drag force from upward moving vapor). Vapor exits the
top of the accumulator and returns to the compressor(s) for processing.
Liquid falls by gravity out of the accumulator into a small vessel known as a
pumper drum or liquid transfer. As liquid enters this vessel, it displaces
an equal volume of vapor back through a three-way valve (de-energized
position, common port to low pressure port) and into the accumulator. When
liquid reaches the upper site glass, a float switch (not shown in Figure 1)
repositions the ports within the three-way valve, closng the LP port and
opening the HP port to common. Hot gas, regulated to the setpoint of the
outlet pressure regulator, flows into the top of the pumper drum. This action
instantly subcools all liquid contained within this vessel as the gas pressure
in the vapor head space increases. This pressure change also causes the
upstream check valve to close while simultaneously opening the downstream
check valve. Now liquid begins to flow out of the pumper drum, through a
liquid transfer line and into the CPR. Whenever ammonia liquid becomes
pressurized (by using high pressure vapor), its temperature changes but
slowly. This now colder 17 F liquid pressurized to 65 psig mixes with the
saturated liquid inside the CPR which subcools the whole mass. This
subcooling becomes available to overcome liquid static lift + friction pressure
losses within the liquid supply piping network without forming vapor bubbles.
From the accumulator, dry suction vapor at 30 psig flows back into the
compressor where its pressure is raised to 165 psig, becoming very hot in
the process (~245 F reciprocating compressors; 130 F liquid-injected
screws; 185 F thermosiphon oil cooled screws). This vapor then travels into
the condenser for desuperheating and reliquification.
Alternate Control of CPR Vapor Head Space Pressure
In most CPR systems, it is common to see the hot gas piping shown in Figure
1 with a red dashed line along with its pressure regulator. The purpose of
this line and regulator is to maintain some preset minimum pressure within
the CPR. But one will notice that in essence, we now have dual regulators
installed in separate lines controlling the same receiver pressure. Can these
fight each other? If not properly set up, you bet your bippy! In each and
every case, this extra line and regulator has proven unnecessary, provided
the system designer initially realized that a CPR-fed system has a limitation
that limitation being its overfeed rate (or recirculation rate[4] if you will).
When a CPR-fed system has been properly set up and adjusted, this second
hot gas regulator and piping is not needed. If the hot gas line and outlet
regulator is installed, be absolutely sure that this optional regulator (Phot) is
set for a lower pressure than the back pressure regulator (Pcold) in the cold
vapor line. A minimum of 5 8 psi difference is recommended. If these
settings are reversed (Phot > Pcold), your electric bill will go through the
roof. Why? The regulator with the highest pressure setting (Phot in this
case) overrides the lower pressure regulator, forcing it wide open. The
quantity of gas that will pass through these two regulators (now in flow
series) becomes a function of the regulator port diameters and their
respective pressure setpoints. A few years ago, a class attendee mentioned
that he had encountered this phenomenon at his plant. After reversing the

setpoints of the two regulators (Phot and Pcold), they shut down a formerly
loaded 300 hp screw.
Pumper Drum Liquid Return to CPR Top or Bottom?
What makes the system in Figure 1 atypical are two features: the absence of
a hot gas connection to the top of the CPR (just discussed) and the point of
connection for the returning cold liquid from the pumper drum. In the
system shown, it connects to the top of the CPR (a horizontal vessel in this
case). However it is far more common to see this connection made to the
bottom of the CPR, well below the vessel liquid freeboard[5].
Some years ago, I visited the refrigeration system shown in the next figure
a packaged ice plant in the Deep South. Note where the liquid return from
the pumper drum is made to the CPR in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Pumper Drum Connected to Bottom of CPR

The vessel on the left in this photo is the accumulator; the little middle
puppy is the pumper drum. The vessel on the right is a CPR. The float

switch shown to the right of the pumper drum initiates a liquid transfer. In
the system shown (and that in Figure 1), cessation of transfer (de-energizing
the three-way valve) is accomplished with a time-delay relay. What
distinguishes these two systems is the elevation of the liquid return into the
CPR above or below the CPR freeboard.
There is some disagreement regarding the placement of the liquid return
connection to the CPR should it be above or below its liquid freeboard?
Below is far more common. This location has the advantage of maintaining
more of the liquid subcooling effect of returning liquid from the pumper
drum. However it is my opinion that this connection should be made above
the CPR liquid freeboard for technical reasons I wont go into here. True,
some subcooling is given up as returning cold liquid falls through a warmer
vapor head space. However it is my opinion that the advantages outweigh
the disadvantages and Ill let it go at that.
Setting the Transfer Time Delay Relay
Nearly all CPR systems in the U.S. use a time-delay relay as the means of
ceasing a liquid transfer from the pumper drum to the CPR as discussed. A
few (but only a few) systems use alternate means of ceasing transfer, those
employing a second lower float switch (usually insufficient clearance available
for this) or a float column with a resistance probe connected to a control
panel. However as far as shear numbers of them, the time delay relay wins
out. To set this relay, one must be in clear view of the site glasses on the
pumper drum. When liquid reaches the upper site glass, transfer
automatically begins. When liquid reaches the lower site glass, transfer
should cease. Dont attempt to force all liquid out of a pumper drum stay
within the two site glasses. Thats what theyre there for in the first place.
When insulating the pumper drum, remember to include an extended length
frost shield for the lower site glass, otherwise you wont be able to see
anything because that lower glass will completely frost over.
If youre considering a CPR-fed system, my recommendation is to return
liquid to the top of the CPR as shown in Figure 1, or to employ the optional
arrangement shown in the next figure.
Hartford Return Loop
Up until the late 1890s, the Hartford Steam Boiler Insurance Company (now
Hartford Insurance Company) was the major policy issuer for insuring
residential steam boilers. Hartford was also paying out considerable bucks to
replace boilers and rebuild houses because their insured boilers were blowing
up left and right. Then one day, an ingenious engineer with Hartfords Boiler
Division came up with the piping arrangement shown in Figure 3. Up until
then, boiler return connections were made below the boiler freeboard. This
method of connection commonly forced all the water out of the boiler when
the steam pressure rose. Raising the connection elevation solved the
problem and the name stuck Hartford Return Loop. These are still used
today. If you wish to return liquid ammonia below the liquid freeboard, then

my recommendation is to use this method. Yes, youll pay for another vessel
opening, an angle valve plus a tee, but this is only a one-time payment and
one very well worth its initial investment.
Figure 3

Summary Advantages & Disadvantages of CPR Fed Liquid

Overfeed Systems
Advantages:

No liquid recirculation pumps to install (cost savings)

Excellent evaporator heat transfer

Evaporators can be back-regulated

Slightly higher h than mechanically-pumped evaporators

Lower active evaporator refrigerant charge than mechanicallypumped evaporators

Disadvantages:

More complex to set up pressure regulators

Evaporator liquid overfeed is generally limited to ~1.5:1 (this could

also be an advantage as well)

Frequent readjustment of liquid transfer time-out relay necessary

(systems without downstream pressure regulator in hot gas branch to
3-way valve)

Do not use CPR-fed systems with high-stage screw compressors operating at

different suction pressures, especially when flash vapor from CPR regulators

(one per side port required) are fed into side ports of each screw. This issue
quickly becomes hugely complex; difficult to size port diameters of each
regulator; side port gas/motor amperage overload is common when products
of defrost are returned to the CPR.
Higher energy consumption than mechanically-pumped liquid overfeed
systems when high pressure hot gas is used for pressurizing both the CPR
and the dump trap for liquid transfer to the CPR. An option to substantially
reduce compressor energy involves installation of a transfer pump; CPR
vapor is then used instead of higher pressure hot gas as the means of
pressurizing the dump trap (seldom done but a heck of a good idea; lower
risk than using high pressure gas for transfer).
[1]

This facility is fortunate to have a large condenser.

[2]

The thermal conductivity of the surface, Btu/ft2-hr-F

[3]

Denkmanns opinion, plus opinion of other practitioners also.

[4]

Recirculation rate = overfeed rate + 1

Freeboard, as the term is used in this paper, denotes the relative elevation of the
liquid level. The term originates from the boiler industry and is equal to the square feet
of steam disengaging area. Because a rapid decrease in vapor head space pressure will
result in flash gas, and this flash gas must escape from the liquid surface without
carrying liquid with it, the term freeboard also becomes applicable to vessels
containing saturated liquid ammonia.
[5]