An Over View of Mobile Communication

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An Over View of Mobile Communication

Guided Transmission & Unguided Transmission Signal
Propagation frequencies, antennas Modulation, modulation methods
Standards for voice-oriented data communication Standard methods &
standards for data & voice communication Mobile-novel applications &
limitations Mobile computing Architecture
Syllabus:

Guided Transmission and Unguided Wireless Transmission

Communication:
Communication a two-way transmission and reception of data streams
Signals for Voice, data, or multimedia streams transmitted
Signals received by a receiver
Signals
Signals from a system transmit through a fibre, wire, or wireless medium
According to defined regulations, recommended standards, and protocols
Mobile Communication
Entails transmission of data to and from handheld devices
Two or more communicating devices
At least one is handheld or mobile
Location of the device can vary either locally or globally
Communication takes place through a wireless, distributed, or diversified
network
Guided Transmission

Metal wires and optical fibres guided or wired transmission of

data
Guided transmission of electrical signals takes place using four
types of cables

Fibre- and wire- based transmission and their ranges

Four types of cables for Guided Transmission

1. Optical fibre for pulses of wavelength 1.351.5 m
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2. Coaxial cable for electrical signals of frequencies up to 500 MHz and up to

a range of about 40 m
3. Twisted wire pairs for conventional (without coding) electrical signals of
up to 100 kHz and up to a range of 2 km, or for coded signals of
frequencies up to 200 MHz and a range of about 100 m
4. Power lines, a relatively recent advent in communication technology
used for long-range transmission of frequencies between 10 kHz and 525
kHz

Guided Transmission Advantages

Transmission along a directed path from one point to another

Practically no interference in transmission from any external source or

path

Using multiplexing and coding, a large number of signal-sources

simultaneously transmitted along an optical fibre, a coaxial cable, or a
twisted-pair cable

Guided Transmission Disadvantages

Signal transmitter and receiver fixed (immobile)

No mobility of transmission and reception points.
Number of transmitter and receiver systems limits the total number of
interconnections possible

Unguided Wireless Transmission

Electrical signals transmitted by converting them into electromagnetic

radiation

Radiation transmitted via antennae that radiate electromagnetic signals

Various frequency bands within the electromagnetic spectrum

Different transmission requirements

f = c/ = (300/ )

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VHF and TV-VHF

UHF, GSM, DECT, 3G and DAD

Super high Microwave and Extreme High:

2 GHz to 40 GHz (15 cm to 0.75 cm) [Microwave bands and satellite

signal bands]

Extreme high frequency (EHF): Above 40 GHz to 10 14 Hz (0.75 cm to 3 m)

Infrared:

Far Infrared: Optical wavelengths between 1.0 <m>m to 2.0 <m>m and
[ (1.5 to 3) <x> 1014 Hz (0.15-0.3 THz)]

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Infrared: 0.90 <m>m to 0.85 <m>m in wavelength and (3.3 to 3.5) <x>
1014 Hz [<@> 350 to 330 THz]

Antennae:

Devices that transmit and receive electromagnetic signals

Most function efficiently for relatively narrow frequency ranges

If not properly tuned to the frequency band in which the transmitting

system connected to it operates, the transmitted or received signals may
be impaired. The forms of antennae are chiefly determined by the
frequency ranges they operate in and can vary from a single piece of wire
to a parabolic dish

Antennae forms:

Chiefly determined by the frequency ranges they operate in

Vary from a single piece of wire to a parabolic dish

/2 Dipole Antenna:

/4 Dipole Antenna:

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Radiation pattern:

Important feature signal amplitude at an instant is identical along the

pattern

Circular pattern means that radiated energy, and thus signal strength, is
equally distributed in all directions in the plane

A pattern in which the signal strength is directed along a specific direction

in the plane

/2 Radiation pattern in z-y and x-z planes- Identical signal amplitude

along circle

/4 Radiation pattern in y-z and x-z planes Radiation Pattern

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Directed Transmission Antenna Radiation pattern in z-y and z-z planes

Radiation Pattern

Same Antenna Radiation pattern in x-y planes Radiation Pattern

Propagation of Signals and Requirement of Modulating the Signals

Wireless propagation of signals:

Faces many complications

Mobility renders reliable wireless transmission much more difficult

Antenna height and size at mobile terminals generally quite small

Propagation properties

Obstacles in the vicinity of the antenna a significant influence on the

propagated signal

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Vary with place and, for a mobile terminal, with time

Line-of-sight propagation

Between the transmitter and the receiver

Transmission of signals without refraction, diffraction, or scattering

Spherical radiation pattern and Line of sight Signal strength

Decreases as the square of the distance from the transmitter in free space

Larger distances the radiated power is distributed over a larger spherical

surface area

Signal strength
1. Decrease due to attenuation
2. When obstacles in the path of the signal greater in size than the
wavelength
Signal strength Attenuation
1. FM band signal transmitter 90 MHz ( = 3.3 m) faces attenuation of in
objects of size 10 m and above
2. GSM 900 MHz ( > = 33 cm) signal then it will face attenuation in objects
of size > 1 m (>> ~ 33 cm)
Scattering of signal

From an obstacle of size equal to or less than the wavelength

GSM signal, about 33 cm in wavelength, scattered by an object of 30 cm
or less
Decreases signal strength greatly

Diffraction of signals

Signal bends as a result of diffraction from the edges of an obstacle of

size equal to or less than the wavelength.

GSM signal of wavelength 33 cm will diffract from an object of 33 cm or

less.

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Reflection of signals

Signal reflected from the surface of an obstacle, the earths surface, or a

water body of size greater than the wavelength of the signal.

GSM 900 MHz ( = 33 cm) signal the transmitter signal reflects from an
object of size 10 m and above (much greater than )

Delayed Reach of Reflected signals

Delay more pronounced in case of multi-hop paths.

Distorts waveforms

Causes misrepresentation of information encoded in the signal

Elimination of signal distortions due to delays

By Digital signal processing techniques the distortions due to delays from

direct and multiple paths

Recovers original signal

Modulation of Wireless Signals

Sizes of antennae required for wireless transmission inversely proportional

to the frequencies

Voice signals frequencies between 0.1 kHz to 8 kHz and Music-signal

frequencies lie between 0.1 kHz to 16 kHz.

Ranges unsuitable for wireless transmission

Modulation of Low frequency range wireless signals

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Requirement of abnormally large sized antennae

Moreover, properties medium (air or vacuum) such that ultra low

frequency signals cant be transmitted across long distances without
significant loss of signal strength

Modulation

Makes wireless transmission practical

Increases the compatibility of transmitted signal and transmission medium

Modulation Methods

The process of varying one signal, called carrier, according to the pattern
provided by another signal (modulating signal)

The carrier usually an analog signal selected to match the characteristics

of a particular transmission system.

The amplitude, frequency, or phase angle of a carrier wave is varied in

proportion to the variation in the amplitude variation of the modulating
wave (message signal).

Equation for signal amplitude at an instant t, s(t)

s(t)

= s0 sin [(2 c/ t) + t0 ]

= s0 sin [(2 f t) + t0]

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s0 the peak amplitude (amplitude varies between s0 and s0)

c the velocity of the transmitted wave

t0 the phase angle of the signal at t = 0 (a reference point with respect

to which t is considered)

f the signal frequency

Modulation of the voice or data signal

A technique by which fc or a set of carrier frequencies used for wireless
transmission such that

peak amplitude, sc0,

frequency, fc,

Phase angle ct0 varies with t in proportion to the peak amplitude of the
modulating signal sm(t)

Amplitude modulation (AM) if amplitude s c0 of carrier varied

Frequency modulation (FM) if frequency fc varied

Phase modulation if phase angle t0 varied

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Digital Modulation
A technique by which amplitude, frequency, or phase angle parameters of carrier
or sub-carrier frequencies varied according to the variation in the

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modulating signal bit 1 or 0 the or

modulating bit-pair 00, 01, 10 or 11
or set of 4 or more bits
Digital Modulation of 1s and 0s

Amplitude Shifted Keying (ASK) if as per 1 or 0 amplitude of carrier varied

Frequency Shifted Keying (FSK) if as per 1 or 0 frequency varied

Amplitude Shifted Keying Modulation (ASK)

Frequency Shifted Keying Modulation (FSK)

Phase Modulation of 1s and 0s

Binary Phase Shifted Keying (PSK or BPSK) 0 or 180 if as per 1 or 0 phase

angle varied

Gaussian Minimum-phase Shifted Keying (GMSK) 0 if change from 1 to 0

and 180 varied if change from 0 to 1 and then using minimizing
technique for filtering introduced high frequency components on PSK

BPSK

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Phase Modulation of 1s and 0s

Quadrature Phase Shifted Keying (QPSK or BPSK) as per 10, 00, 01 or 11

QPSK Phase angle shift = of the transmitted signal s(t) will be 3/4, 3
/4, /4, + /4 ( 135, 225, 315, 45 ) after each successive time interval
T when bit pattern is 10 00 01 11. [T = 1/f]

QPSK

8-PSK modulation

Bit pattern is 101 000 110 011 100 111. The phase angle of the
transmitted signal s(t) will be 5/8, /8, 3 /8, 7 /8, 7/8, and /8, after
each successive time interval of T. [T = 1/f]

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) modulation

Quadrature amplitude modulation quadrature phase shift keying

16-QAM The 4 PSK with 4 combinations of 3-stage amplitudes A0, A1 and

A2 modulation

Quadrature amplitude modulation quadrature phase shift keying

64-QAM The 8 PSK with 8 combinations of 4-stage amplitudes A0, A1, A2

and A3 modulation

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2G and 3G Data Communication Standards (Voice Oriented Data

Communication Standard)
First and Second Generations (1G and 2G)

First generation wireless devices only voice signals

Second generation (2G) devices communicate voice as well as data

signals have data rates of up to 14.4 kbps

The 2.5G and 2.5G+ are enhancements of the second generation and
sport data rates up to 100 kbps

Third generation (3G) mobile devices communication

Higher data rates than 2G and support voice, data, and multimedia
streams

Facilitates data rates of 2 Mbps

Higher for short distances

384 kbps for long distance transmissions.

Enable transfer of video clips and faster multimedia communication

GSM and CDMA based standards

GSM standards

A set of standards and protocols for mobile telecommunication

A global system for mobile (GSM) was developed by the Groupe Spciale
Mobile (GSM)

Founded in Europe in 1982

Support cellular networks

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1. GSM 900

Users time-slices of 577 s each

Maximum 14.4 kbps

2. EGSM (extended global system for mobile communication)

An additional spectrum of 10 MHz on both uplink and downlink channels

3. EGSM 900/1800/1900 MHz tri-band

An additional spectrum of 10 MHz on both uplink and downlink channels

GSM 1800 17101785 MHz for uplink and 18051880 MHz for downlink

GSM 1900 18501910 MHz for uplink and 19301990 MHz for downlink

4. GPRS (general packet radio service) GSM 2G+ (2.5G)

Packet-oriented service for data communication of mobile devices

Utilises the unused channels in the TDMA mode in a GSM network

5. EDGE (enhanced data rates for GSM evolution)

An enhancement GSM Phase 2.5G+]

8PSK communication to achieve higher rates of up to 48 kbps per 200 kHz

channel

High compares to up to 14.4 kbps in GSM.

Using coding techniques the rate can be enhanced to 384 kbps for the
same 200 kHz channel

6. EGPRS and HSCSD

(enhanced general packet radio service) is an extension of GPRS using

8PSK (phase shift keying) modulation

Enhances the data rate EGPRS based on EDGE

Used for HSCSD (high speed circuit switched data)

CDMA

Evolution of CDMA from 2.5G in 1991 as cdmaOne (IS-95)

CDMA supports high data rates

3G.

Voice as well as data and multimedia streams.

CDMA 2000, IMT-2000, WCDMA and UMTS

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Support cellular networks

1. CdmaOne

Founded in 1991

QUALCOM, USA

Belongs to 2G+

IS-95 (interim standards 95)

Operates at 824849 MHz and 869894 MHz.

CDMA channel transmits analog signals from multiple sources and users

2. WCDMA

Supports asynchronous operations

10 ms frame length with 15 slices.

Smaller end-to-end delay in the 10 ms frame as compared to 20, 40, or 80

ms frames

Each frame length is modulated by QPSK

DSSS CDMA

Supports a 3.84 Mbps chipping rate

Both short and long scrambling codes are supported, but for uplink only

3G partnership project (3GPP)

both for uplink and downlink

3. CDMA2000 and CDMA 2000 1x (3GPP2)

For voice communication

Circuit as well as packet switched communication

Internet protocol (IP) packet transmission

Multimedia and real time multimedia applications

3G partnership project 2

4. UMTS (universal mobile telecommunication system)

Supports both 3GPP (3G partnership project) and 3GPP2

Communicates at data rates of 100 kbps to 2 Mbps

5. CDMA2000 and CDMA 2000 1x

Chipping rates are in multiples of fs = 1.2288 Mbps

3G IMT 2000 carrier frequency fc0 = 2 GHz

Included in UMTS

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CDMA 2000 1x fs = 1.2288 Mbps

Also backward compatible to 2.5G cdmaOne IS-95

WPANs and WLANs

Wireless personal area network using Bluetooth, ZigBee, or IrDA protocols

Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1

WPAN standard
Operates at a frequency of 2.4 GHz radio spectrum which is identical
to that of the IEEE 802.11b WLAN standard
Bluetooth provides short distance (1 m to 100 m range as per the
radio spectrum) mobile communication
Data rates between the wireless electronic devices are up to 1 Mbps

GSM and CDMA based standards

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Bluetooth

Between the mobile phone handset and headset for hands-free

talking

Between the computer and printer, or

Computer and mobile phone handset.

Enables user mobility in a short space with other Bluetooth enabled

devices or computers in the vicinity

Uses FHSS (frequency hopping spread spectrum)

Facilitates object exchanges

Object can be a file, address book, or presentation

ZigBee WPAN standard that is IEEE 802.15.4

Lower stack size (28 KB) in the protocol

Lower network-joining latency when compared to Bluetooth (250

KB).

For Low transmitting power systems

Interoperable standard based on RF wireless communication

ZigBee

Expected to provide large-scale automation and the remote controls

up to a range of 70 m

Data rates of 250 kbps, 40 kbps, and 20 kbps at the spectra of 2.4
GHz, 902 MHz to 928 MHz, and 868 MHz to 870 MHz, respectively

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Uses DSSS

Designed for robotic control,

industrial,

home, and

monitoring applications.

ZigBee Applications

ZigBee enabled electric meter communicates electricity

consumption data to the mobile meter reader

A ZigBee enabled home security system alerts the mobile user of

any security breach at the home

IrDA (infrared data association) 1.0

Protocol for data rates up to 115 kbps

IrDA 1.1 supports data rates of 1.152 Mbps to 4 Mbps

WLAN and Internet Access

IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g standards

WLAN also called WiFi (Wireless Fidelity).

Mobile communication using an 802.11 WLAN standard

IEEE 802.11 based standards for WLANs

802.11a MAC layer operations such that multiple physical layers in

5 GHz (infrared, two 2.4 GHz physical layers)

Infrastructure based architecture as well as Mobile ad hoc network

(MANET) based architecture. [Refer to Chapter 12 for a description
of the MANET.] Modulation is OFDM [Section 1.1.2(5)] at data rates
of 6 Mbps, 9 Mbps, Data rates supported are from 54 kbps to a
few Mbps.

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802.11a MAC layer operations such that multiple physical layers in

5 GHz (infrared, two 2.4 GHz physical layers)

Infrastructure based architecture as well as Mobile ad hoc network

(MANET) based architecture.

802.11a

OFDM at data rates of 6 Mbps, 9 Mbps,

Data rates supported are from 54 kbps to a few Mbps

802.11b

54 Mbps and at 2.4 GHz.

Modulation DSSS /FHSS

Supports short-distance wireless networks using Bluetooth (IEEE

802.15.1) based applications and the HIPERLAN2 (HIPERformance
LAN 2)

OFDMA physical layer

Provides protected Wi-Fi access.

The data rates are 1 Mbps (Bluetooth), 2 Mbps, 5.5 Mbps, 11 Mbps,
and 54 Mbps (HIPERLAN 2).

802.11g

Operates at 54 Mbps and at 2.4 GHz

Used for many new Bluetooth applications

Compatible to 802.11b

Uses DSSS in place of OFDMA

802.11i

Provides the AES and DES security standards

WiMax (worldwide interoperability for microwave access) IEEE

802.16

New generation innovative technology

Delivers high-speed, broadband, fixed, and mobile services

wirelessly to large areas with much less infrastructure

WAP (wireless application protocol)

provides the web contents to small-area-display devices in mobile

phones

Service providers format contents in the WAP format

I-Mode (internet in mobile mode)

Developed by NTT DoCoMo, Japan

Very popular wireless Internet service for mobile phones

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Mobile Computing
Definition:

The process of computation on a mobile-deviceIn mobile computing,

a set of distributed computing systems or service provider servers
participate, connect, and synchronise through mobile
communication protocols

Mobile computing as a generic term describing ability to use the

technology to wirelessly connect to and use centrally located
information and/or application software through the application of
small, portable, and wireless computing and communication devices

Provides decentralized (distributed) computations on diversified

devices, systems, and networks, which are mobile, synchronized,
and interconnected via mobile communication standards and
protocols.

Mobile device does not restrict itself to just one application, such as,
voice communication

Offers mobility with computing power

Facilitates a large number of applications on a single device

Ubiquitous computing

Refers to the blending of computing devices with environmental

objects

A term that describes integration of computers into practically all

objects in our everyday environment, endowing them with
computing abilities

Based on pervasive computing

Pervasive Computing

Pervasive means existing in all parts of a place or thing.

Pervasive computing The next generation of computing which

takes into account the environment in which information and
communication technology is used everywhere, by everyone, and at
all times.

Assumes information and communication technology to be an

integrated part of all facets of our environment, such as toys,
computers, cars, homes, factories, and work-areas

Takes into account the use of the integrated processors, sensors,

and actuators connected through high-speed networks and
combined with new devices for viewing and display

Mobile computing
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Also called pervasive computing when a set of computing devices,

systems, or networks have the characteristics of transparency,
application-aware adaptation, and have an environment sensing
ability

Novel applications

A large number of applications

Very recently made mobile TV realizable

Pervasive computing devices

Are not PCs

Are handheld, very tiny, or even invisible devices which are either
mobile or embedded in almost any type of object

SmartPhone Feature Example

A mobile phone with additional computing functions so as to enable

multiple applications

SMS (short message service), MMS (multimedia messaging service),

phone, e-mail, addres book, web browsing, calender, task-to-do list,
pad for memos.

Compatibility with popular Personal Information Management (PIM)

software

Integrated attachment viewing.

SureType keyboard technology with QWERTY-style layout.

Dedicated Send and End keys.

Bluetooth capability for hands-free talking via headset, ear buds,

and car kits.

Enterprise Solutions

Enterprises or large business networks

Huge database and documentation requirements

Business solutions for corporations or enterprises

Enterprise solution architecture for a BlackBerry device

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Mobile Computing application to Music and Video

Example Apple iPods enables listening to ones favourite tunes

anytime and anywhere

View photo albums

Slide shows

Video clips

Mobile Commerce

Stock quotes in real time or on demand.

The stock purchases or selling

Bank transactions

Retail purchases

Supply chain management

e-Ticketing booking cinema, train, flight, and bus tickets

Limitations to mobile computing

Resource constraints: Battery

Interference: the quality of service (QoS)

Bandwidth: connection latency

Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in

signal power within a region, thus link delays and connection losses

Resource constraints: Battery

Interference: the quality of service (QoS)

Bandwidth: connection latency

Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in

signal power within a region, thus link delays and connection losses

Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination

and connection stability

Interoperability issues: the varying protocol standards

Security constraints: Protocols conserving privacy of communication

Mobile Computing Architecture

Mobile computing Architecture

Programming languages used for mobile system software

Operating system functions to run the software components onto

the hardware

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Middleware components deployment

Layered structure arrangement of mobile computing components

Protocols and layers used for transmission and reception

Programming Languages

Java

J2SE.

J2ME (Java2 Micro edition)

JavaCard (Java for smart card

The Java enterprise edition (J2EE) used for web and enterprise
server based applications of mobile services

C and C++

Visual C++

Visual Basic.

Operating System

Symbian OS, Window CE, Mac OS

Offers the user to run an application without considering the

hardware specifications and functionalities

Provides functions which are used for scheduling the multiple tasks
in a system

Provides the functions required for the synchronization of multiple

tasks in the system

Multiple threads synchronization and priority allocation

Management functions (such as creation, activation, deletion,

suspension, and delay) for tasks and memory

Provides Interfaces for communication between software

components at the application layer, middleware layers, and
hardware devices

Facilitates execution of software components on diversified

hardware.

Provides Configurable libraries for the GUI (graphic user interface) in

the device.

Provides User applications GUIs, VUI (voice user interface)

components, and phone API

Provides the device drivers for the keyboard, display, USB, and other
devices

Middleware for Mobile Systems

Software components that link the application components with the

network-distributed components

To discover the nearby device such as Bluetooth

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To discover the nearby hot spot

For achieving device synchronization with the server or an

enterprise server

For retrieving data (which may be in Oracle or DB2) from a network

database

For service discovery at network

For adaptation of the application to the platform and service

availability

Mobile Computing Architectural Layers

Mobile computing services Protocols

Such as GSM 900, GSM900/1800/1900, UMTS, and I-Mode

WPAN protocols Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee)

WLAN protocols for example, 802.11a and 802.11b)

WAP

Mobile Computing system Layers

1. Physical for sending and receiving signals (for example, TDMA or
CDMA coding)
2. Data-link (for example, multiplexing)
3. Networking (for linking to the destination)
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4. Wireless transport layer security (for establishing end-to-end

connectivity)
5. Wireless transaction protocol
6. Wireless session protocol
7. Wireless application environment (for running a web application, for
example, mobile e-business)

Mobile System Networks

Cellular networks

WLAN networks

Ad Hoc Networks

Cellular Networks

A cell is the coverage area of a base station, connected to other

stations via wire or fibre or wirelessly through switching centres

The coverage area defines a cell and its boundaries.

Each cell base station functions as an access point for the mobile
service.

Each mobile device connects to the base station of the cell which
covers the current location of the device

All the mobile devices within the range of a given base station
communicate with each other through that base station only.

WLAN Network and Mobile IP

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For connectivity between the Internet, two LANs, mobile devices,

and computers

Mobile device connects to an access point, called a hot spot

The access point, in turn, connects to a host LAN which links up to

the Internet through a router

Communication between mobile devices using a WLAN network

through hot-spots

Mobile IP

An open standard based on the IP (internet protocol)

Mobile IP network provides the mobile IP service using home agents and
foreign agents.

Ad hoc Networks

The nodes, mobile nodes, and sensor nodes communicate among

themselves using a base station

The base stations function as gateways

The ad hoc networks deployed for routing, target detection, service

discovery, and other needs in a mobile environment

Communication of mobile nodes and Sensor nodes using a base

station as a gateway

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