HINDU ASTRONOMY

BY

W.

BRENNAND,

WITH THIRTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS AND NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS.

London

Published by Chas. Straker

&

Sons, Ltd.,

Bishopsgate Avenue, E.C.

1896.

JUL 3

1 1974

fysm

OF

Wf

B-7M

Printed by
Chas. Straker
BisiiorsoATE

&

Sons, Ltd.,

Avenue, London, E.G.

PREFACE.
It is

perhaps expected that some reason should be given for tho

publication of this work, though

of circumstances; rather
it

and,

now

that

it

to

may

appear inadequate.

than deliberate choice on

my

is.

Force

impelled

part,

has been accomplished, I cannot but

imperfect the production

me

it

feel

how

lengthened residence in India led

become interested in the study of the ancient mathematical

works of the Hindus.

and much information acquired in

official duties,

my

by

Society on the

its

course lias been

Recent circumstances, and chiefly the interest

for a time forgotten.

displayed

This study was frequently interrupted by

former pupils in a paper presented to the Royal

same

subject, has induced

me

to

make an

effort to

regain the lost ground, and to gather together materials for a more

Moreover, a conviction formed

extended work.
that the

Hindus have not received the

credit

many

years ago

due to their literature

and mathematical science from Europeans, and which has been

strengthened

me

by a renewal

also to a desire to

in as simple a

of

my

study of those materials, has led

put before the public their system of astronomy

maimer

as possible, with the object of enabling those

interested in the matter to

form their own judgment upon

possibly, to extend further investigations in the subject.

found far greater

that, although,

translated

difficulties

it,

and,

I have

than I had anticipated from the fact

no doubt, many Hindu writings

exist

which,

and consulted, would throw greater light upon

if

the

matter, yet comparatively few have undergone European investigation.

I have been greatly assisted in

my

ing books, from some of which I have

endeavours by the follow-

made

order to present the views of others than myself.

copious extracts, in

Preface,

l*.

The works of
Playfiurs'i

Sir

W.

paper on

it,

"
Jones, Bnilly'e

Astronomie Indienne," and

the "Transactions of the Royal Society of

in

in

Edinburgh," Davis's "Essays

Asiatic

Researches," Colebrooke's

the Sanscrit," Bentle/s "Hindu

mys and Translations from

Astronomy," references

to

Captain Wilford, Professor

and other

"Architecture,"

Ferguson*!

Max

Muller,

works; the Institutes of

Akber, and the translation of the Siddhanta Siromani of Launcelot

Wilkinson.
f

.8.

have not entered

ledge of the
acter,

at greater

Hindus than

and that

it

knowlength into the mathematical

will he sufficient to

was adequate

show

its

general char-

for their requirements in the ordinary

business of their lives, and for the purposes of their astronomy.

In the description of the
to tin- translation, of this

Surya Siddhanta I have been indebted

work from the

Sanscrit,

by Pundit Bapu

Dt-va Saatri, of the Sanscrit College of Benares.

I

take

this

opportunity

pupils, who, after so

ine in

my

many

of offering

(23) years,

still

my

thanks to

my

former

retain their attachment to

retirement, and especially to Rajah Rajendro Narayan

Roy Chowdry of Bhowal, who have

all

taken the greatest interest in

the progress of this work.

W. BRENNAND.
Thi Fort,
Milverton, Somerset,
25th March, 1896.

CONTENTS
PART

I.

CHAPTER

I.

PREHISTORIC ASTRONOMY OF THE ARYAN MIGRATING

TRIBES.
Countries inhabited by Aryan Races.

Routes of Migration, East, West and South

Alpha Draconis as Polaris

Regulus,

or

2800 B.C.

Alpha Leonis, rising with

Sun and Summer

Solstice

2280 B.C.
Early Religion of Chinese, resembling that of the Hindus.
.,

t^Similarity
/

'

their

of

Astronomical Conceptions carried by Migrating Tribes to

new homes.

figures representing the twelve signs connected with Mythology.

Similar imaginary forms of the figures implying nearly the same early

*lA

Mythology.
Origin of the Zodiac traced to Prehistoric Nomads.

Natural Deductions from heliacal risings of

stars.

Origin of Sun Dial from observance of shadow cast by tent poles.

Reasons for veneration in which the Solar Signs Taurus and Leo were held.

Phases of the

Moon

Synodic Period

figures of signs illustrated.

Chinese Signs.
Conclusion that

all

Migrating Tribes carried with them similar signs of

the Solar Zodiac.

v/The Chinese indebted to Hindus for improvements in their Astronomy.

Greeks not possessed of the System

Lunar Mansions
Chaldeans.

called

of

Lunar Mansions.

Arabian supposed

to

be

derived

from the

Contents.

s i

of
Probability of the System

Lunar Mansions being the common possession

nons.

Names

of the Arabian

Lunar Mansions.

Arabic,
nparison of Egyptian, Chinese,

common

Years
Cyole of Sixty

Summary

and Hindu Lunar Mansions.

to Asiatic Nations.

of Characteristics affording evidence of

Astronomy

common

origin in the

of Asiatic Nations.

CHAPTER

II.

EAELY HINDU PEKIODS.

be found in their religious
Origin of the Study of Hindu Astronomy to
observances.

^ The Necessity

The Science

for

a Calendar.

Astronomy confined to Brahmins.

of

Antiquity and Civilization of the Hindus, as studied by Europeans in the

last century.

Exaggerated Chronological

measure accounted
Evidence

the

of

Dates

of

most Eastern Nations in some

for.

great Antiquity

of

Hindu Astronomy afforded by

astronomical tables published in 1687 and 1772 A.D.

Hailly's

"Astronomie Indienno."

l'layf air's
oral

investigation of Bailly's work.

Conclusions arrived at by Playfair.

The supposed general conjunction

The Hindu Theory

of planets, etc., in

of Epicycles differs in

3102 B.C.

some respects from that

of

Ptolemy.

The Kali Yuga one of

several epochs invented to facilitate astronomical

calculations.

Years of the

iha

Yuga and Kalpa.

CHAPTER III.
T^E HINDU ECLIPTIC.
k

ription of the Nncphat-as, or

Lunar Asterisms.

on into twelve Solar

Signs and twenty-eight Lunar Constollations.
Illustration, oi the

Ecliptic with Northern

and Southern Yuga-taras.

Contents.

vii.

Other important stars mentioned.

Lunar Asterisms, with

of the twenty-seven

j^Names

figures representing

them.
Table

>f

Apparent Longitudes and Latitudes

of the twenty-seven

Yuga-

taras.

Observations on

Phenomena occurring near the Ecliptic-.

Eclipses, and their return in succession in periods

and ten or eleven days.

of every eighteen years

the ignorant, to presage dreadful events.

^/Eclipses supposed, by

^-Extracts from Hindu Writings showing that the causes of eclipses were
well understood.

The point marking the

The modern

origin

origin fixed

of Aswini, or

Mesha
term

"

"

of

Apparent Longitudes.

when the Vernal Equinox was

in the first point

570 A.D.)

(ciro.

"

Meaning

of the

Methods

of determining the date

precession."

570 A.D.

Date when the Vernal Equinox coincided with the

first

point of Crittica.

Confirmation of such date found by Bentley in the Hindu Allegory of the

birth of four planets

(15281371

B.C.)

Extract from the Varaha-Sanhita, with reference to the date

Solstitial

Colure passed through the

first

when the

point of Dhanishtha

(oir;.

1110 B.C.)

CHAPTER

IV.

THE HINDU MONTHS,

Different

Methods

Astronomy

of

of

etc.

Measuring Time.

the Vedas described in a treatise entitled Jyotisha. for the

adjustment of the ancient Hindu Calendar.

Birth of Durga (a personification of the year).

^Formation and Names

of the

Months.

Extracts regarding the Months from the Institutes of Menu.

Months

called, in

Consorts of

the Institutes, Daughters of Dacsha (the Ecliptic), and

Soma

(the Moon).

Contents.

Tiii.

The Lunar Year more ancient than the

The Lunar Month having a

Solar, according to Sir

W.

Jones.

different beginning in different parts of India.

Phases of the Moon-

Lunar Month*, according to the Puramts.

The tame, according

Names

to Jyotishicas (Mathematical Astronomers).

of the Seasons.

CHAPTER

THE
Heliacal Hiving of Rcgulus,

V.

RISHIS.

marking the position

of

Summer

Solstice,

2280 B.C

The

Rishis

Seven Indian Sages, authors of Vedio hymns,

to the Celestial Sphere, as stars,

Meaning

of the

The

translated

word "Rishi."

Explanation of the
"

etc.,

Alpha to Heta Ursoe Majoris.

motion erroneously ascribed to these

Line of the Rishis," a fixed great

stars.

circle.

TV

Solstitial Colure, as distinct

Tl.c

Annual Rate of Precession determined by ancient Hindu Astronomers

from the Line

of the Rishis.

hv means of retrogression of Colure from Line of Rishis.

An

alternative theory adopted by later astronomers,

i.e.,

a hbration of the

Equinox on each side of a mean point.

Probable origin of the theory of Hbration.

"Line of Rishis"

fixwl in position,

1590 B.C.

CHAPTER

VI.

THEORY REGARDING THE CAUSE OF THE

PLANETAEY
MOTIONS.
The Sun and Planet,
suppoeed
tart

The

to be carried
diurnally Westward with the
by Pravaha (a mighty wind).

irregular motions caused

by

deities situated at the

Nodes, attracting or
deflecting them.

Apsides and

Contents.

CHAPTER

ix.

VII.

ARITHMETIC, ALGEBRA, AND GEOMETRY OF THE HINDUS.

Opinions of Dr. Peacock regarding antiquity of Hindu Notation.
Dr. Hutton's views on origin and history of Algebra,

The

Earliest Arabian Treatise on Algebra,

The Algebra

of

by Mahomed Ben Musa.

probably a translation from some ancient

Diophantus

Asiatic manuscript.

Encouragement

The

Lilavati

of

the Alexandrian School of Astronomy, by the Ptolemies.

and Vija-Ganita

Description of these

(/The Sun

Hindu

on Arithmetic and Algebra.

treatises

works by Dr. Hutton.

Dial.

Examples

of

problems and methods

CHAPTER

from Algebra

of solution

of Hindus.

VIII.

HINDU ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The Armillary Sphere.

The Nadi Valaya.
The Ghati,
The

or Clepehydra.

Chakra., or Circle.

CHAPTER

IX.

EARLY HINDU ASTRONOMERS.

Distinction between circumstances derived from a consideration of the

great Epic

Poems

of

and

Menu,

of the Hindus,

circumstances

and even

connected

of the

with

Vedas and Institutes

purely

astronomical

deductions.

Two Royal Dynasties

the

"

Children of the Sun

"

and the

"

Children of

the Moon."

Rama, the son

of Dasaratha, the hero

most distinguished by the Hindus.

Yudhisthira, the hero- of the Mahabarata (the

war between the Pandus

and the Kurus).

The Astronomers Parasara and Garga contemporary with Yudhisthira.

Inferences as to date deduced from statements by these astronomers.

Contents.

in forming a chronological table.

experienced by SirW. Jones
to be
Tho Period of Paras.ira reokoned by Colebrooke and Sir W. Jones

Difficult ies

1181 B.C.

same as 575 B.C.

Vy's estimate of tho
Yudhisthira's Seat of
BcnUey'fl

tley'sthe try

Government

at

Hastinapura.

somewhat confirmed by a statement of Varaha Mihira.

" Rishis."
to account for the discrepancies relating to tho
cited by him.

Parasara

The Cycle

of 1,000

epoch 1176.

Years of Purasurama

Tradition* regarding Purasurama.

Kama

Uncertainty regarding the period when

writers between brazen

and

silver ages,

lie

lived; placed

and deduced by Sir

by Hindu

W.

Jones

as 1399 B.C.

Rama's period reckoned by Bentley from his horoscope, given in the

Hamavana, as born on 6th April, 961 B.C.
Portents on his attaining manhood, 940 B.C.
Position of Solstitial Colurc 945 B.C.,

compared with

its

position 1192 B.C.,

from which rate of retrogression was determined.

Other observations, then made, giving data for lengths of tropical and
real yeais, etc.
!

commencement

regarding changes in

of tropical year.

His chronological table, Bhowing these changes from 1192 B.C. to 538 A.D.
(the latter being his estimate of the date

when the

origin of apparent

longitudes was fixed).

CHAPTER
RI8E OF

X.

THE BUDDHIST HERESY, AND

HINDU ASTRONOMY.

Sakya Muni (Buddha) and spread

of

ITS EFFECTS

ON

the Buddhist faith (6th

century B.C.)

Invasion of India
by Alexander the Great (350 B.C.)

Embawy

to the Court of Sandra-cottus

(or

Buddhism becomes tho established State

"f

<

handra Gupta (245

B.C.)

Notes regarding Sakya Muni.

Chandra Gupta)

at Palibothra

religion under Asoka, grandson

Contents.

xi.

Dasaratha, grandson of Asoka, the reigning Buddhist prince, at Bentley's

5th astronomical period (204 B.C.)

Notes by Ferguson on Buddhist Architecture, and by

Indian Literature in the third century B.C.

Max

Muller on

Discussions between Brahmins and Buddhists.

Indian Manuscripts then and

Improvements
Dearth

in

still

in existence.

Astroncmy during Bentley's

of information regarding

fifth period.

astronomy for several centuries before

Asoka.

Supposed destruction
Search

made

of

manuscripts by the Maharattas.

for ancient writings about this period (200 B.C.)

Only one observation worth, mentioning (made 215 B.C.)

Materials for compiling astronomical tables,
sarily obtained

from

etc.,

afterwards used, neces-

earlier works.

Many works, known by name, now

lost.

Authors mentioned by Bhascara,

Davis on the lost works of Padmanabha.

Causes leading to the success of the revolution which

made Buddhism

the

State religion.
Toleration of the Buddhists and a freer intercourse between astronomers

holding diverse doctrines.

Reconstruction of Hindu Astronomy, and the use

Ary-a-bhatta, the earliest

known uninspired

made

writer on

in

it

of Algebra.

Astronomy (probable

date, the beginning of the Christian Era).

Hiu theories and method of solving Astronomical problems.

Works

of

Aryabhatta

how known.

Allegory concerning the death of Durga.

CHAPTER

XI.

PERIOD FROM THE RESTORATION OF THE POWER OF THE

BRAHMINS TO BRAHMEGUPTA.
Extracts from the history of Malwa.

The Error

in

Hindu Chronology

Rajah Bhoja accounted

for.

relating to the dates of Dunjee

and

Contents.

111.

the Courts
Encouragement of learning at

of

Vicramaditya and Rajah

Bhoja.

The Sam vat

The Two Eras

The

En

Vicramaditya and the Saca of Salivahana.

of

of Yudhisthira superseded.

and religious disturbances resulting in the expulsion of the

Political

Buddhists.

Inconveniences from the use of a moveable origin for determining apparent

longitudes.

Theory of a Libration
\

of the Equinox.

truha Mihira (480 A.D.) regarding the retrogression of the

Solstice.

unt of his works on Astrology, and works on Astronomy edited by

hill..

Varaha Mihira probably contemporary with Rajah Bhoja, and, with Brahmegupta, possibly a guest at his Court.

Brahmegupta (535 A.D.) and

his views.

from the Ayeen Akberi relating to the times when the Planet

tots

Jupiter enters

th.> Si<:n

fmm

Inferences drawn

The Cycle

of

Leo.

these extracts.

Sixty Years

Yrihaspati (Jupiter) and observations of

of

Davis thereon.

The Buddhist

sage, Yrihaspati.

CHAPTER
i

XII.

"XOMICAL WORKS OF THE HINDUS.

Reconstruction of Hindu Astronomy on restoration of the

power of the
Brahmins.
Difficulties of scientific studies
tes of

from manuscripts alone.

nineteen treatises entitled Siddhantas

some

still

extant.

Probable dates when several of them were revised and corrected.

The

five

Siddhantas edited by Varaha-Mihira.

Description of contents of the

rumples

of

Brahma Siddhanta.

problems and methods of solutions of this work.

Contents.

Table of

Mean Motions

of the Sun,

in a Kalpa, according to

xin

Moon and

Pla

or their revolutions

lets,

Brahmegupta.

Smaller table for illustration and practice of the rules, the revolutions and

days being stated in

Examples

"

lowest terms and for facility's sake."

illustrating the use of the table.

Remarks upon the ancient Saura,

The arrangement

or Surya Siddhanta.

of infinite time as stated in the Institutes of

Menu.

similar arrangement as given in the Siddhantas.

Received modern notions concerning the great numbers of years comprised

in the

Maha Yuga and

Explanation of the

Kalpa.

Maha Yuga.

Corrections applied to

mean motions

at

different

times, according to

several Siddhantas.

Construction of the Kalpa

designed to include a correct estimate of

precession.

Opinion of Sir

W. Jones regarding

the purpose of the complex form of the

Kalpa.

Explanation shoeing that

its

inventors had an especial design in

its

construction.

PART

II

DESCRIPTION OF 'IHE SURYA SIDDHANTA, WITH REMARKS

AND EXPLANATIONS OF THE RULES.
Chapter

1.

Treating of rules for finding the

mean

places of the planets.

2.

The

3.

Rules for resolving questions on time, the position of places

rules for finding the true places of the planets.

and

directions.

4.

Eclipses of the Moon.

5.

Eclipses of the Sun.

6.

Projection of Solar and Lunar Eolipiei.

Contents.

XIV.

Chapter

7.

Conjunctions of Planets.

8.

Conjunctions of Planets with Stars.

9.

Heliacal rising and estting of Stars

and Planets.

10.

Phases of the Moon, and position of the Moon's Cusps.

11.

Rules for finding the time at which the declinations of the

Son and Moon become

equal.

1-.

Cosmographical Theories.

13.

The Armillary Sphere and other astronomical instruments.

14.

Treats of kinds of time.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

l age

Ancient Egyptian Zodiac

I.

Ancient Oriental Zodiac

II.

Comparison

IV.

V.

VI.

VIII.

14

of Lunar Mansions of China, Egypt, and

the 28 Indian Nacshatras
with
Arabia,

III.

VII.

14

Hindu

Ecliptic in perspective

Hindu

Ecliptic of 27 Nacshatras with

39

Northern and

Southern Yoga-taras

Symbols

39

of the Nacshatras

Position of

Summer

Solstice

41

and Vernal Equinox

at different epochs

IX.

Hindu

Solar

XI.

at

51

Months

62

and Doorga

62

Plate shewing position of the Seven Eishis, &c.

72

Modern Map

74

IXa. Marriage

X.

21

of Siva

of

Northern Hemisphere.

XII.

Death

of

XIII.

Hindu

Ecliptic with Jupiter's Cycle of 60 years

Doorga

140
157

HINDU ASTRONOMY.
PART

I.

CHAPTER

I.

PREHISTORIC ASTRONOMY OF ARYAN MIGRATORY TRIBES.

In a zone of the Asiatic Continent, between 30 degrees and 45

900
degrees North, and from 30 degrees to 120 degrees East, about
miles in breadth, and nearly 4,000 miles in length (between Asia

Minor and Africa on one

and the Pacific Ocean on the

of the

and

fruitful.

Intermixed with them are

many

high lands, and arid plains, with inland

In some of these countries the people

in agricultural pursuits
tents,

other), are

most extensive countries of the earth, and most productive

some

deserts,

side

wander from place

to place

seas, lakes,

live in settled

in others the

mountains, and

Nomadic

with their

and rivers.

homes, engaged

tribes,

dwelling in

flocks, ever seeking

fresh fields of pasture.

Such countries have, in Historic times, been the theatre of some of

the most tragical events recorded in history, in

have been the

actors,

which great nations

and in which the empires of the Assyrians, the

Medes, and the Persians, have each in turn risen, flourished, and long
since

been destroyed.

In times of peace the people have lived industrious

in wealth

and numbers, acquiring the habits of

lives,

civilization, culti-

vating the arts and sciences, and then have been swept

new wave

of invading peoples,

who have

growing

away by some

likewise given place to

others.
It is a

very reasonable presumption that, in Prehistoric times,

similar eventful scenes have been enacted,

vulsions

and

that,

during the con-

which overwhelmed the ancient great centres

of civilization,

Hindu Astronomy.

priests

the intelligent classes,

and rulers have gone forth from
and have joined
with them their superior skill and learning,

carrying

B dic tribes,

becoming

their leaders,

and seeking other homes.

from the districts

evidence of several such great migrations
it is impossible to enter
above referred to, the discussion of which
the opinions
will be sufficient to notice a few only of
re is

It

here.

upon

which writers on the subjecl have arrived

Sir

W.

at.

the Asiatic Society of

Jones, in a series of discourses before

arrived
1792, after a general survey of Asiatic nations,

itta in

at the conclusion that the Persians, the Indians, the

ks, the

Goths, and the old Egyptians,

all

Komans, the

originally spoke the

and this he
language and professed the same popular faith,
conceived to be capable of incontestible proof.

Since that time, the theory thus propounded has gained strength.

Many

Oriental scholars have been engaged in a comparison of the

languages, religions, customs, occupations, and the Mythologies of

different nations of the earth,
to the

and their investigation has led them

knowledge of a great body of

facts, the

explanation of which

has become of great importance in the right interpretation of historv.

To

all

who have been thus engaged

in the enquiry,

conviction that the Sanscrit, the Zend, and all

it

has brought the

European languages,

are related to each other, and that the differences observed

them have arisen from the admixture

of

races, caused

between

by

great

migrations from Central Asia.

Sir

W.

Jones considered

Japan had

also a

eommon

it

probable that the settlers in China and

origin with the

he remarks that, however

they

may

Hindus and Persians, and

at present be
dispersed

and

intermixed, they must have migrated from a central

country, to find

which was

tip

proposed for solution.

as the central
country, but he contends for the

He

suggests Irania

approximate locality

rather than for n< name.

Dr. O. Shrader, in his "Prehistoric
Antiquities of the

Peoples/' has described the very

various

Aryan

opinions, expressed

by

Aryan
learned

men

of recent times, regarding the origin

Among

races.

Aryan

opiniojn of

and homes

o'f

the

the theories propounded, he mentions the

Rhode, who endeavoured to discover the geographical

starting point of the

Zend

people, in

He

Medes, and Persians.

of the

Migrations,

whom he comprehends Bactrians,

observes traces of the gradual expansion

to be

Zend people, considering their starting point

Airyana

Vaejanh, followed by Sugdha, the Greek Soyfoai/// (Suguda, Modern

"
Samarkand). He further notes that Eeriene Veedjo is to be looked
for

else, than

nowhere

on the mountains of Asia, whence, as far

as

history goes back, peoples have perpetually migrated."

Dr. 0. Shrader instances, as a proof of the close connection

between the Indians and the Iranians, that they alike

Arya, Ariya, and

call

themselves

that, beyond doubt, India was populated by

Sanscrit people from the North-west.

" There are clear

" in the
indications," he further says,
history
of the Iranian peoples, that the

most ancient period of Iranian

occupation was over before the conquest of the Medio-Persian terri-

East of the great

tory, lying to the

case, it is just this

desert.

From

the nature of the

Eastern portion of Iran, the ancient provinces of

Sogdiana, Bactria, and the region of the Paropamisus, to which we

must look in the

Again,

first

instance for the

"

Muller, that

No

common Aryan

grammar, words, myths, or legends; and

that,

though the

Central

of the Indo-Iranians."

Max

other language (than the Hindu) has carried

large a share of the

off so

home

appears to have been the opinion of Professor

it

eldest brother, the

heirloom, whether roots,

it is

Hindu was

natural to suppose
the last to leave the

Aryan home."

Further,

as

Warren Hastings has remarked, when he was

Governor- General of India, there are immemorial traditions

prevalent

among

the

Hindus that they originally came from a region

North latitude.

situated in 40 degrees of

The

cour.se

taken by the great migration into India

is

supposed

to

be that which followed the ancient trade-route, and

path of the
B 2

Hindu Astronomy.

nations through Oabul, to the North-west of the Indus,

is

progress

"It

thus remarked upon by Dr. Shrader:

is

and the
beyond

doubt that India was populated by Sanscrit people from the Northwi

movement which

st,

ling

depicted in the

is

to

of this age,

whose

Rig Veda*. Nor do their

far as the mouth of the Indus,

only one,' mentioned in the

ia

far as the

Arabian Sea, at that time.

The grand advance

Indian tribes, Southwards and Eastwards,

Vividly in the different divisions

So, also, Bryant, in his

thus desi

rilics

Upon

the

is

of

mirrored very

and names of the seasons of the

year in the more recent periods of the

Rig Veda

be looked for on the banks of the Sindhu

m ttlements seem to have reached as

s

of the

have as yet no direct knowledge of the Ganga (Ganges),

In. his),

the

Hymns

The Indians

in the course of progress.

principal abode

which

is

life

of the Sanscrit language."

"Ancient Mythology"

(Vol. IV., 285),

the effects of the

emigrations referred to:

banks of the great River Ind, the Southern

hi dwell; which river

pays
It-

watery tribute to that mighty sea,

Styled Erythrean.

Amid
Di

Far removed

its source,

the storm 5 cliffs of

Caucasus,

trending hence through

Uritffl live

The

Aracotii

and Aribes

famed

a winding vale,

To the West

paratea vast nations.

The

many

and then

for linen
geer.

Tho most ancient

writings of the Hindus are the Vedas, which are
supposed by their followers, to be of divine
origin.
They are divided
t.
four parts, each of which is
a separate work,
consisting principally

Hymn, and

Prayers, and, according to Colbrooke,

they exhibit no trace
sects of Siva and Krishna
are iiamed in the
following order of their supposed
antiquity
M* or Rig-Veda written in
Sanscrit Verse.

must be considered the modern

Key

**
J

on
Chaunting, and tho Atharva-Veda which consists
!.,.,,, to lmve
httdalnt6rorigin than the other three
Tranalatcd from the Greek of
the Poet
Dionysius.

i*

ajni-Veda in prose.

and

Aryan
Next the Satraidae

Migrations.

and those who dwell

Beneath the shade of Mount Parpanisus,

No

Styled Arieni.

kind glebe they own,

But a waste, sandy

soil

Yet

yet doth the land supply

are they rich

replete with thorn.

Wealth without measure

India

On

To the East a lovely country wide extends-

whose borders the wide ocean bounds.

sun new rising from the main

this the

Smiles pleased, and sheds his early orient beam.

The

inhabitants are swart

and in their looks

Betray the tints of the dark hyacinth,

With

moisture

still

abounding

Are ever furnished with the

"Various their functions

And from

the

Some labour

And manufacture
And

Nor

hence their heads

sleekest hair.

some the rock explore,

mine extract the

at the

latent gold.

woof with cunning

linen

skill,

others shape

polish ivory with the nicest care.

is this

region by one people held

Various the nations, under different names,

That rove the banks

Lo where
!

And

of

Ganges and

of Ind.

the streams of Acasine pour,

in their course the stubborn rocks pervade,

To join the Hydaspes

Above whose

The sons

of

Here the Dardans dwell,

seat the River

Cophes

Saba here retired

And hard by them

of old

the Toxili appear,

Joined to the Scodri.

Yclep'd Peucanian

rolls.

Next a savage

cast

Hindu Astronomy.

To enumerate

all -who-

rove this wide domain

Surpasses

human

The Gods

alone, for nothing's hid

Let

it suffice if

These wer.j the

Founders

Who

The Gods can

power.

from Heaven.

I their worth declare

first

of cities

tell

great founders in the world

and of mighty

show'd a path through

states,

seas, before

unknown,

And when doubt

reigned and dark uncertainty,

rendered life more certain. They first viewed

Who

The starry

lights,

In the

first age3,

Knew

not which

To each

and formed them into schemes.

when

way

to

turn them, they assigned

his just department

Of land a portion and

And

sent each

The great

they bestowed

of sea a lot,

wandering

A. different soil

men

the sons of

tribe far off to share

and climate.

Hence

arose

diversity, so plainly seen

'Mid nations widely severed

But

it

was not only Southward

Central Asia migrated.

to India that the

Nomads

of

They spread Westward and Eastward.

Du

Halde, in his account of the Jesuit Missions in China, given

"
in his description of the Empire, says
It is a common opinion
:

of those

who have endeavoured

to trace the origin of the

Empire,

that the posterity qf the sons of Noah, spreading themselves over

the Eastern parts of Asia, arrived in China about 200 years after the

Deluge, and settled themselves in Shen-Si."

to

He

supposes the Flood

have happened in the year 3258 B.C., preferring the accouut of

the Septuagint to that of the Vulgate.

the

first

He

then rejects the dates of

Emperors of China, which are given in "Annals

of the

Chinese Monarchs," as being uncertain, and as involved in some

degree of obscurity, and estimates that

Emperor
2207 B.C.

of the

Dynasty

As an

called

Hya

Yu

began

the Great

the

first

to reign in the year

eclipse of the sun happened in the year 2155 B.C.,

Aryan
tvhieh has

been astronomically

Chinese history,

in the

Migrations.

it is

verified,

and which,

is also

recorded

considered to be demonstrated that China

must have been peopled long before that time, and that the date of
the

first

Emperor

There

about the year 2327 B.C.

Avas

diversity of opinion regarding the introduction

and

is

a great

use of the

first

Chinese cycle of 60 years (which they brought with them from the

West, and which was

some placing

it

at

also a

common

2757 B.C.

and

cycle in India

and Chaldea),

this

that which

epoch

is

is

generally accepted in China at the present day.

Now,

the epoch mentioned

at

when

(2757 B.C.),

the

tribes

migrating Eastward from some central country in the West, were

on their way to their new homes in China,

Draconis was their polaris.

that

It

is

it is

an astronomical fact

a star of the third

nitude, and would be seen by them, apparently a luminous

fixed at the

North Pole, between 30 and 40 degrees in

They would

also

magpoint,

altitude.

have seen other stars of the Constellation Draco,

describing small circles about this point, greater and greater, accord-

ing to their distances from

their flocks, the

Night

it.

after night, as they tended

same phenomena would be witnessed by them, and

memory of all. Those who have

any acquaintance with Chinese history know how much the dragon
must have been vividly

is

held in veneration

fixed in the

by them,

it

being the symbol of royalty,

emblazoned on their temples, their houses, and their clothing.

In the year 2800 B.C.,
the Equinoctial
it

Pole,

Draconis was only 10 minutes from

and being then in the

must have impressed upon observers

degree, the sacred character in

Solstitial

of that period, in a higher

which the times

of the solstices

the equinoxes were held in their former homes.

{religion
affinity
ties

and

The Chinese

then resembled that of the Indian Vedas, showing an

between the two

of the Celestial

offerings

Colure,

and

homage paid

races.

On

Empire, four

oblations

were

laid,

to t-hyen, or the sky,

four mountains at the extremialtars

were placed, on which

with

prayers,

and were the

which was considered an emblem

Hindu Astronomy.

the

t)f

Supreme Being, the Creator and Ruler

solemn

sacrifices

Four

of the Universe.

were at that time ordered

be offered on the

to

Eastern, the Southern, the Western, and the Northern mountains, at

the equinoxes and solstices in regular succession.
India, the

make

Brahmins

sacrifices in

Similarly, in

are enjoined, in the Institutes of

to

Menu*,

honour of the Lunar mansions, and holy

rites

were observed every three months, at the equinoxes and at the

winter and

In

this

summer

solstices.

worship of the Most High we see some resemblance also to

the prayers and sacrifices of the

self a

wanderer from the house of his fathers in Ur of Chaldea, as

described in the

Hebrew

The emigrating
times,

Nomadic Abraham, who was him-

Scriptures.

tribes,

who

thus, undoubtedly,

in Prehistoric

went forth Westward, Southward and Eastward from their

Central Asiatic homes, carried with them evidences of their com-

mon

For example,

origin.

th^ had

the same religious belief in

one Supreme Being, the Creator and Supreme Ruler of the Universe, to

whom

prayers and sacrifices were offered.

They had the same days

and the

five planets

of the week, over

which the sun, the moon,

were supposed to have been appointed

rulers,

in successive order, in accordance with their respective names.

They had the same

divisions of the Ecliptic, into twelve parts or

signs of the Zodiac, corresponding with the twelve

year, the sun

moving

months

of the

through the successive signs, during suc-

cessive months.

There was

also,

wandering Asiatic
parts,

among

the more intellectual classes of

all

these

races, another division of the Ecliptic, into

28

forming the extent of the same number of constellations or

"The

Menu" is a treatise on religious and civil duties

by Menu, the son of Brahma, to the inhabitants of the earth.
a work in Sanscrit, and, next to the Vedas, of the greatest
antiquity.
Institutes of

prescribed
It is

A translation

into English is given in the works of Sir

Reference will be made to it further on.

W.

Jones, vol. VII.

Aryan Migrations,

Asterisms, being the spaces through which, in succession, the

travels daily, in its

common

system of Lunar constellations, though

countries, has different

names

in each.

Asterisms are called Nacshatras

Sieu;

Manzils,

i.e.,

Lunar mansions

known among Western

This

to several Eastern

In the Indian astronomy the

in the Chinese they are designated

of Asia they

or stations.

They

had the name

are,

however,

of

less

The Egyptians possessed them at

but made little or no use of them, and it

nations.

a comparatively late date,

dees not appear that they have

It

more central parts

in the

moon

monthly course round the heavens.

had any place in

Girecian astronomy.

was the diligent use which the Hindu astronomers made of these

Nacshatras, in the progress of their astronomy, that gave

their superiority over all other ancient nations,

and in

them

so far as

Lunar system of division in their

astronomy, it would appear to be character-

they permanently introduced this

Ecliptic into their
istically different

It has,

from our modern system.

however, been a question raising

the learned for

many centuries,

of the Celestial sphere,

as to

much

who were

which has descended

discussion amongst

the original inventors

to us

from the Greeks,

with their vast system of mythical fables.

The Solar Zodiac, indeed, with figures representing the 12

has been in use in
characteristics

all historical periods,

among

signs,

having nearly the same

the Greeks, the Egyptians, the Persians, the

Hindus, the Chaldeans, and the Chinese.

It is reasonable, therefore, to

suppose that the idea of the Celestial

Sphere and of the Solar Zodiac was a

common

migrating tribes referred to by Professor

possession of all the

Max

Muller, at times

before they left their central homes.

The Nomadic
:

tribes of Asia,

must, as they themselves

fresh herbage,

their flocks

by night,

wandered over vast plains in search

of

have had abundant opportunities of observing the

which was apparently in incessant motion. Night

night, with an unobstructed view, the same stars would ha

Sidereal Sphere,
after

who watched

Hindu Astronomy.

10

seen to rise in the East, and to pursue an even course through the

From

sky, but to set a little earlier each succeeding night.

child-

hood upwards, every individual of the tribes must have become

in which the stars were constantly pre-

familiar with the forms

sented to their view.

What,

then,

would be more natural than that

tbey should speculate regarding the nature of Celestial orbs

in fancy they should have pictured to themselves outlines

that

among

them, and in imagination given them the forms of objects with

which they were most familiar?

The ram, the

bull,

the goat and kids, the virgin reaper, or

must have

gleaner of corn, the archer, who, in defence of the nock,

had

conflicts

with the lion

the bearer of water to the cattle

the

crab and fish of the lakes and rivers, which

they frequented, the
poisonous scorpion, and the balance designating the time

days and nights were equal

all indicate

the

common

when

the

objects of the

wild and restless people of the

plains, and emphasise the probable
fact that the signs of the Solar Zodiac
originated
historic

Nomads

with the Pre-

of Central Asia.

Time, during the long night watches, could only be

the motions of the luminous orbs of the
and the
sphere,

at

their rising

and

setting,

known by

bright

stars,

were such familiar objects, and so

generally known, that, they would be referred to with the same ease
and confidence with uhich, in modern
times, we refer to a watch or

a clock.

The

star, rising at

rising of the sun

began the

the same moment,

is

solar day,

particular time of the year, in connection with

i

cted to

happen

at the

and a bright

often referred to as

same time.

Thus the

marking a

some other event

heliacal rising of

Sinus was connected with the inundation

of Egypt
by the rising
of the Nile, about the time
when Sirius rose with the sun. The
births of children were

marked by some

star

rising at the

same

ti.no

with the sun, or connected with that

point of the Ecliptic
which was in the horizon at the
same
thus

moment,

the child's

horoscope,

by which,

in after times,

it

constituting

was believed the

Aryan

11

Migrations.

would happen in the

astrologer could foretell all the events that

child's life.

Moreover,

it

may

he readily supposed that the

fertile

imagination

of the Eastern story-teller would find, in the starry sphere, the

of giving

means

a celestial locality to departed heroes and to other objects

connected with the tales and traditions of his tribe; illustrations,

which would give

romances

to 'his listeners a greater interest in his

during the tedious hours of the night, whilst they were tending
their flocks.

In this way

it is

not improbable that

stellations received their

the 48 ancient con-

names, and that the rising and setting of

particular stars with the sun were noted

in their live3,

all

and connected with events

which may have been the origin

tions prevalent in later times, and, in

some

of

cases,

many

supersti-

have been,

may

amongst the Greeks, the origin of their poetical legends.

The approach

of the rising sun

night watch was nearly over,

would be indicated when the

by the fading and

of the smaller stars, in the increasing

dawn.

->

final disappearance

Long shadows would

be thrown out by the tent poles towards the West, which would
shorten and change their directions, as the sun ascended higher in
the sky,

and

moment

directed to the North, indicating that the sun

at his highest point they

meridian, and that

it

was noon.

would be

Then

and

shortest,

at the

was in the

the changes would begin in

a reverse order, the shadows lengthening, but turning

still

in the

same direction towards the East, disappearing when greatest at

sunset.

These circumstances no doubt originated, in

its earliest

form, the ^

sun dial (a vertical style on a horizontal plane) the same form as

described in the Surya Siddhanta of the Hindus, and in the description given

by the Jesuit

missionaries, as being in use in the Chinese

observatories.

And

again, to the

Nomadic

tribes in Prehistoric times

ascribed the simple discovery that

when

the sun in

may

summer

be

rose at

Hindu Astronomy.

12

a point of the horizon nearest to the North,

tude from the East,

of

place in the Ecliptic

rose with the sun,

which then

solstice,

its

most solemn import

among

all

and that

was the Northern

it

when prayers and

a day

be offered to the Almighty.

observed

and furthest in ampli-

This, indeed,

was then a ,time

sacrifices

should

was a religious practice

the emigrating tribes both at the solstices and

the equinoxes.

That the bull should have been held

in Prehistoric times

its

be a most sacred animal

the migrating tribes, and afterwards

Egypt and

especially revered in

appear to have

among

to

India, is a circumstance that

would

explanation in the fact that, between the years

2426 B.C. and 266 B.C., the equinox was retrograding through the
Constellation Taurus.*
So, also, about the time

when

the various tribes were migrating

from their central abode, the bright star Cor Leonis must have
been an interesting object to the primitive astronomers of that
period, for this star

was then

parallel of declination

at or near the
it

through

summer

solstice,

in the year 2305 B.C.

and a

might be

Among ancient entablatures which are carved in rocks we have

observed figures with the head and horns of Bulls.
The Egyptians undoubtedly worshipped one

of these animals at their

City of Pharbethus.

When

the Apis died

it

was put

into a coffin

and interred

in the temple

of Ser-Apis.

The mino-taur, the Taurus Lunaris of Crete, was

represented as a
with the head of a bull.
The

man

head was esteemed a princely

hieroglyphic, and Astarte, it
placed the head of a bull upon her head as a royal emblem.
Mountains, places and, peoples are named Taurus, Taurica, Taurini,
Bull's

is said,

Taurisci, Tauropolis, Tauropolium.

Tours, in Gaul, was called ravpot^.

Many other instances may be

from China, Japan and India.
In India the Brahmini Bull wanders
freely through the towns and
villages, a mendicant receiving doles of rice from
village shopkeepers. It

collected

often made away with

by Mahomedan butchers, and such desecration
has occasioned frequent encounters between the Hindus
and Mussulmen.
is

Aryan

13

Migrations.

then the " tropic of Leo."

properly termed

It

may

be owing to this

fact that the Persian priests of Mithra, clothed in the skins of lions
at the Mysteries called LeonticvB,

were named

lions.

solstice
Again, at a period of 120 years before this time, the

the point dividing the two constellations

ar,

was

Leo and Virgo, which

circumstance probably gave rise to the enigma of the Sphinx, the

the greater number of cases, had the
Egyptian image, which, in
head and breast of a virgin and the body of a lion (implying a

doubt whether the virgin or the lion was most to be adored).*

*

Sphynxes are stupendous monuments of the skill of the Egyptians.

largest and most admired of these, like the pyramids, seems partly
the work of nature, and partly that of Art, being cut out of the solid

The

The larger portion, however, of the entire fabric, is covered with

the sands of the desert, which time has accumulated round these master-

rock.

pieces of other days, so that the

pyramids have

lost

much

of their

elevations.

The number

Sphynxes found in Egypt, besides their shape, seems

and most commonly received opinion, that they
and overflow of the Nile, which lasted during the passage
of

to countenance the oldest

refer to the rise

of the

constellations Leo and Virgo

both these signs
combined in the figure which has the head of a Virgin and

Sun through the

are, therefore,

body of a Lion.
The largest Sphynx was imagined also, as Pliny affirms, though with
what reason does not appear, to have been the sepulchre of King Amasis.
It having been considered that time must have effected revolutions, in

the

which these structures were supposed

be symbols, as regards the rising of the river and the order of the
months, it has been more recently concluded that the Sphynxes were

respect of the signs themselves, of

to

mysterious symbols of a religious character not now to be unravelled.

According to Herodotus the periodic inundations commence about the

end of June and continue

till

the

end of September.

Encyclopedia

Metropolitana, IX., 209.

The Theban Sphinx has the head and bosom of a girl, the claws of a
the body of a dog, the tail of a dragon, and the wings of a bird.
Count Caylus thinks that the Sphinx was not known in Greece, but by
the story of (Edipus, and then it appears in the same manner as when

lion,

proposed in the enigma.

The Egyptian Sphinx, says Winckleman, has two

sexes, the

Andro-

Hindu Astronomy.

14

The revolutions
inen asing
it

of the

moon, and the phases

was a

at the full, it

till,

finally disappeared

daily assumed,

it

and then decreasing

circle,

at conjunction, could not fail to

tribes.
great interest to the wandering

time between one new or full

moon

The synodic

till

be objects of

period, or the

to tlie next, a little

more than

them as 30 days, must have been the

29J days, but reckoned by
means

of

Zodiac.

marking the extent

12 such periods of the new

And

thus

moon

the solar year of 360 days,

earliest times,

that the sun

of each constellation in their Solar

had ccmpleted

its

constituted, in the

when

it

was assumed

course through tbe ecliptic circle,

making the diurnal motion

of the sun

to correspond

with

one degree of arc.

The

divisions of the Zodiacs

men-

of all the countries before

tioned were the same, each constellation extending over 30 degrees

of arc, the irresistible inference

being that they

all

derived their

Zodiacal division from a,common ancestry.

In the Zodiacs of different Western countries, the same Solar

constellations were, in general, represented

animals and other

only by representing the twins as two kids.

viations are nearly the same,

general type, as will be seen

(Plates

plates.

The

figures,

I.

by the same figures of

from
objects, that of the Persians differing

and

Moreover, the abbre-

though the figures

by reference

them

to the

differ

from the

two accompanying

II.)

however, of the

ame

Solar constellations of the

Chinese Zodiac, are, with the exception of two, entirely different.

Spkingis of Herodotus with the head of a female and male sexual parts.
They are found with human bauds, armed with crooked nails, with
beards the Persea plant upon the chin, horses tails and
legs veiled,
;

the sistrum, &c.

Plutarch says that it was placed before the

temples to
ness of the mysteries.
In Stoch

it

holds in the

before her a caduceus.

mouth a mouse by

Fosbroke

/.,

153.

the

show the

tail,

sacred-

has a serpent,

Hindu Astronomy.
Plate

V- CI K
WITH

S'l

7///:
Y.

ZOl) A
1

OKI (; I \.\

I.

O!

T.

ASTERIS M.S'.

hom

RARIIEREXI Ml

^iovs

==>5

slvS^

si:

Hindu Astronomy.
Plate

II.

ORIENTAL ZOD1ACK

%!

9 n ^.

I K3^^

m.:

'-Ufc.

^r-

f
-r

'

:---\V

If,

-=-

mm&

*Sfi*$,

JSky

/A,

>jf^

M*

'&

/A-

.^<p

^monsTiil orDrsrendinifNo,/,:///, ,./,,

,.,

//

futrf/i

swr.wi<U h

//

X,w m.irArJ
.

ut'tA

//'<

tour i'm&M* IWnts

K.W.N. S

Aryan
Only the 2nd and
10
to

,the

15

Migrations.

8th (the ox and the sheep)

may

resemble two corresponding animals in the others.

remaining figures only

represent the

five

4& constellations

are

met with among

The following table shows a comparison

The

by other nations

constellations of the

Out

of the

those which

of the ancient celestial sphere. These

are the dragon, the serpent, the horse, the dog,

those used

be supposed

Chaldean

and the hare.

of the Chinese signs with

Hindu Astronomy.

16

is,

at

any

rate, certain,

alluded

to,

that

all

It

notwithstanding the differences just

the migrating tribes carried with them a con-

into 12 equal parts, which

ception of the division of the sun's path

formed the extent of each of the Solar constellations, and

Solar Zodiac became

so the

one of the foundations on which all their

astronomical systems were constructed.

But amongst the primitive astronomers,

at least

two distinct

sects in

each

tribe, the

Zodiac, which had animals principally for

sect

one adopting the Solar

its

symbols, and another

which assumed a division of the Ecliptic into 28

The four seasons occupy

is

there were, apparently,

parts, corre-

the angles of the square, on the side of which

discernible a globe with wings.

It

seems probable that this temple was dedicated to the Sun and that
;

the whole of these hieroglyphics

mark

his passage into the signs of the

Zodiac and his annual revolutions, Longitude 31

45, Latitude 26

35.

Encyclopedia Metrovolitana.

According to Macrobius the Signs of the Zodiac originated with the

Egyptians, though the jealous Greeks laid claims to the invention.
The Eam was assimilated to Jupiter Ammon the Bull to Apis the
;

Gemini

Horus and Harpocrates, who became

Anubis, who was changed to Mercury by
Leo to Osiris, emblem of the sun Virgo

to the inseparable brothers

Castor and Pollux

the Greeks and the

Cancer to

Eomans

Libra did not exist in the Egyptian Zodiac,

and its place was occupied by the claws of the Scorpion Scorpio was
converted to Typhoon, and became the Greek Mars Sagittary was made
to Isis, converted into Ceres

Hercules, the Conqueror of Giants (Macrobius 1, 20); Capricorn was

Mendes, the Egyptian Pan Aquarius, Cornopus Pisces, Nephlis, the
Greek Venus. Fosbrokeh Encyclopedia cf Antiquities, Vol. I., p. 222.
;

The

Eam

goddess who

was an animal consecrated

presided over the

to the

Egyptian Neitha, a
Upper Hemisphere, whence Aries was

dedicated to her.

Cancer was the Crab who stung Hercules in the foot to prevent his
Hydra, and transformed by Juno after he had trodden it to

killing the

death to the Zodiac.

Capricorn was either the Amelthian Goat or Pan,

who metamorphosed

himself, through fear of the Giant Typhon, into a goat in the upper part,

Aryan Migrations

17

sponding with, a like number of constellations, marking the daily

progress of the

moon through them, and which were

the ancient astronomy as the

that the Solar Zodiac

"

Lunar Mansions."

It

designated in

would appear

was made the principal foundation of the

Western Astronomies of Egypt and Greece, and, in connection with

its

symbols, their respective systems of Mythology were formed;

but in the more Eastern countries (especially in India), in the

although the Solar Zodiac was retained, a preference

earliest ages,

would seem

to

have been given

to the

Lunar mansions, from which

were constructed the Lunar and Luni-Solar years.

It

is,

moreover, probable that the

titles

given to the two ancient

races of Indian pfrinces, both of the posterity of

''the Children of the Sun,

reigned respectively

in

Menu, and

called

and the Children of the Moon" (who

the

cities

of

Ayodha

or

Audh,

and

Pratishthana or Vitra), had their origin in the astronomy of the

two

sects

which severally adopted,

trines, the Solar

The

them

for the foundation of their doc-

Zodiac and the Lunar Asterisms respectively.

which wandered further eastward

tribes

to their final settlements in

the Ecliptic above described.

also carried with,

China the two methods

The former

of dividing

of these, with animal

symbols, in China, differed widely, as has been shown, from that

adopted by "Western astronomers, and the latter (the division of

and a

fish in the lower,

which so surprised Jupiter that he transported

him into the sky.

Leo is the Nemean Lion.
Sagittary
Crocus,

is

whom

according to some the Centaur Chiron, according to others

the Muses requested after death to be placed among the

Signs.
Scorpio, that insect
Orion.

whom

Jupiter thus honoured after

its

battle with

Pisces are the fish which carried on their backs Venus and Cupid,

when they fled from Typhon.

The Bull, the oldest Sign is taken from
Aquarius
Metropolitana.

is

Ganymede thus

the deep Oriental Mythology.

elevated

by

Jupiter.- Encyclopedia

Hindu Astronomy.

1$

Lunar Asterisms,
to

stations, or

mansions) bore a close resemblance

Eastern nations, insomuch that Bentley, after

tbose of other

"I found the

Chinese, says:
examining the astronomy of the
of
Chinese were not only far behind the Hindus in the knowledge
to them in modern times
astronomy, but that they were indebted
for the introduction of some improvements into that science, which

they themselves acknowledge."

Yet the Chinese Asterisms

by each

greatly in point of space occupied

Lunar mansions

"With

reaped

entirely

from those of the

13

contain

to

20'

the

for, as

Bentley says

of the Chinese, they differ

Hindus, who invariably make theirs to

on the

each

differed

Ecliptic

whereas

the

Chinese

have theirs of various extents from upwards of 30 degrees to a few

minutes, and markeo

makes them
'flie

by a

totally differ

star at the

beginning of each, which

from the Hindus."

[See Plate III.]

Arabs are supposed by him to have communicated their

Asterisms to the Chinese.

On comparing

these two systems he

found that "13 out of the whole number, which consists of 28, were
precisely the same,

and in the same

order, without a

break between

them; consequently there must have been a connection between

them

at

some time."

The question then arose whether the Chinese borrowed from the
Arabians or the Arabians from the Chinese.

Bentley says he men-

tiered the circumstance to a learned

Mahomedan, in the hope of

some
and
his
information,
gelting
reply was, "that neither the
Chinese borrowed from the Arabs, nor the Arabs from the Chinese
,

but that they both had borrowed from one and the same source,
which was from the people of a
country to the North of Persia, and
to

the

observed

West
that

or

North-west

before the time

of
of

China,

called

Mahomed

Turkistan.

the Arabs

He

had no

astronomy, that they were then devoid of every kind of science ; and
what they possessed since on the
subject of astronomy was from the
Greeks.

To which

moon were

I replied

that I understood the mansions of the

alluded to in the
Koran, and as the Greeks had no

Lunar

Aryan

in their astronomy, they could not

;he mansions
gions

one knew what

19

Migrations.

referred to in the

particular star or

come from them.

Koran were

He

uncertain, that no

mansion was meant, and, there-

no inference could be drawn that any of those now in use were

fore,

alluded

Here our conversation ended."

to.

As the

similarity between the

Arabian and the Chinese Asterisms

apparently gave rise to the surmise that the latter were borrowed

from the former,

the

may

it

be advantageous at this point to examine

Arabian system.

An

account of the Lunar mansions, called Arabian, was given by

Dr. Hyde, Librarian of the Bodleian Library, in a

"Ulug-Begh Tabulae Stellarum Fixum,"

Oxon, 1665

Lunar

and from

work

translated from the Persian,

work we have the names

this

entitled

of the 28

Constellations.

Costard

(in

"Chaldaic Astronomy,"

his

opinion that the

Lunar mansions

was

Oxon, 1748)

of

of the Arabians were derived

immediately from the Chaldeans.

The greater probability, however,

the

Lunar mansions found

as has been suggested, is that

to be a portion of the Chinese, the

Indian, the Arabian, and the Chaldean astronomy, all

mon

had a com-

derivation from the emigrated peoples of Central Asia.

Ulug-Begh was a

chief or

monarch

of the Tartars.

He was

devoted to the study of astronomy, and in his capital of Samarcand

he had an observatory, with a quadrant 180 feet high, with which

he made good observations.
the fixed stars,

His principal work was a catalogue of

composed from his own observations in 1437 A.D.,

from those of Tycho

said to be so exact that they differed little

Brahe.

The

The names

latitude of
of the

Samarcand

is

put at 39

Lunar Asterisms, according

to

37'

25" N.

Ulug-Begh, are

given in the following order by Dr. Hyde, with his observations, and

remarks on them by Costard:

c 2

Hindu Astronomy.

20

Names and

Manazil-Al-Kamar, or Mansions
of the Moon.

significations of the

Al-Sheratau

They

are the

two bright

stars in the

head of

Aries.
2.

Al-Botein

From

they are small stars in the

Ram.

belly of the
2.

betu, venter

Al-Thuraiya:

From

therwa, multus, copiosus, abundans

they are the Pleiades.

4.

Al-Debasan: Properly the Hyades, bnt generally applied

to the

bright star in the head of Taurus, called, in Arabic,

Ain-Al-Thaur, or the Bull's Eye.

5.

Al-Hekah

(>.

Al-Henah: Two

7.

Al-Dira

8.

Al-Nethra: The Lion's Month.

9.

10.

The three

Two

stars

head of Orion.

stars in the

between the

feet of

Gemini.

bright stars in the heads of the two G-emini.

Al-Terpha: The Lion's Eyes.

Al-Giebha: The Lion's Forehead,

or,7 according:
o to Alfra-

gani, four bright stars in Leo, one of which

Two

11.

Al-Zubra:

12.

Al-Serpha: The Lion's Tail.

13.

Al-Auwa

4.

The

Sinak- Al- Azal

bright

stars,

five stars

The

Al-Gaphr

16.

Al-Zubana: The Balance.

17.

Au-Iclil

18.

Al-Kalb

19.

Al-Shaula

20.

Al-Naaim

following the Lion's Heart.

of Virgo.

three stars in the feet of Virgo.

15.

Cor-Leonis.

under Virgo.

The spike

is

The Northern Crown.

The Scorpion's Heart.

Two

stars in the tail of Scorpio.

Eight bright

stars,

four of which lie in the

Milky Way, and four of them out

of it;

those in the

Milky "Way are called Al-"Warida, or Camels Going

Water; those out of

from "Water.

it,

to

Al-Sadira, or Camels Returning

Hindu Astronomy.

Plate nr.

COMPARISON OF THE LUNAR MANSIONS.

Aryan
Al-Belda

21.

Hyde

21

Migrations.

"Quod urbem, oppidumve

says Dr.

denotat,"

According to some Arabian astronomers,

six stars in Sagittarius,

where

day of the whole year.

is

means

it

the sun's place the shortest

According to others,

a portion

it is

of the heavens entirely destitute of stars, succeeding the

Al-Naaim.

a vacant space should be called a town

Why

commentator has not informed

or ci'y the learned

should rather think the

number

of six

stars,

name

us.

alluded to the extraordinary

which crowd

Lunar abode

this

in

Sagittarius.

Four

22.

Al-Dabih

23.

Sad-Al-Bula

Aquarius

it is

24.

Al-Sund

25.

Al-Achbiya

sixth

star

in

table

Ulug-Begh's

of

probably that marked r by Bayer.

Two

stars in Capricorn.

The

stars

Aquarius, marked

in

and

by

Bayer.

Bayer
26.

y>

Four other

2>

and

Al-Mukaddem

Al-Phergh

the Northern one

are

Aquarius, marked by

in

stars

0-

Two

bright

stars,

of which

called the Shoulder of Pegasus.

is

and

marked by Bayer

p in

They
con-

his table of that

stellation.

27.

from
-

Al-Muacher

Al-Phergh

One

each
is

other,

in the

following

Al-Risha

bright stars at a distance

Al-Phergh, Al-Mukaddem.

head of Andromeda, and the other

r in the extremity of the

28.

Two

Alfragani this Lunar Mansion

piscis,

and

Bayer's

wing of Pegasus.

The fumes, the cord

Hut, venter

is

it is

that
is

is

of the fishes.

In

denominated Batu-Al-

said to

mean

the stars of the

Northern Fish.
In Plate-Ill. a comparison i& instituted between the 28 Lunar
sions of the three conntries, China,

28 Indian Nacshatras of

2-f-

man-

Egypt, and Arabia, with the

degrees each, into which the Indian

Ecliptic was "supposed to be equally divided.

Hindu Astronomy.

22

The
s.,

as to

point,

make

the same
the beginning of the longitudes in each,

the beginning of Aswini.*

i.e.,

The longitudes
n table

have been plotted from tables reduced, and

different systems

of the Arabian

Manazil-Al-Kamar

by Martinius, and compared

whirh he deduced from

Dictionary.

are taken from

with those of a table

by Bentley,

the places of stars in Dr. Morrison's Chinese

of these Chinese Asterisms are those given

The names

the astronomy of Dr. Long.

by Du-IIalde, and copied into
;

The longitudes

of the

are taken

Arabian ManaziheAl-Kamar

from a table calculated by Costard, who was

at great labour in

the observations of Ulug

reducing the latitudes and longitudes from
B( gh.

He

observes that, whatever opinion

relative to their antiquity, they

the lime of

must, at

be entertained

all events,

Mahomed, because the Lunar

Solar, are alluded to in the Koran

"
Posuit Deus Solem in splendorem, et

may

be older than

stations, as well as the

in the following passage:

posuit Earn in Statione ut sciretis

The names and longitudes

of the

Lunam

numerum

in turnen

et dis-

annorum.'"'

Egyptian system are

as recorded

by Bentley, who says he took them from the Lingua Egyptiaca

Eircher.
tial

Bentley remarks that the Egyptians

make

of

the Equinoc-

Colure to cut the star Spica Virginis, and, in consequence, he

considered the table to have an epoch of 284 A.D.

Another feature, in which the astronomy of Eastern nations

appears to be connected,

may

be recognised in the cycle of 60 years

adopted in each.
This cycle of 60 years was brought into India
by some of the

immigrant

tribes,

Vrihaspati,

i.e.,

and was

of Jupiter.

afterwards
It

is

as

the

Cycle of

a combination of two cyles, a

cycle of five years, from the Jyotish (or

known

Astronomy) of the Yedas,

description of the Indian Ecliptic, subsequently adopted with

27 asterisms, is intended to be
given hereafter, together with an explanation of the origin hero alluded to as " the

beginning of Aswini."

Aryan

23

Migrations.

and the sidereal period of the planet Jupiter, which was at

first

reckoned to be 12 years, but was afterwards found by the Hindus

be

to

860962 years.

.11.

period

According

to Laplace, the

mean

sidereal

11.862 Julian years, or .138 of a year short of 12 years, an

is

error of about ,8^

months in 60

years,

and would,

therefore, require

periodic correction.
It

has already been mentioned that Chinese History and the

Annals of the Chinese Emperors were written by reference to cycles

Such a period

of 60 years.

in Chaldea, under the

It is stated

by

name

mentioned by Berosus.*

several writers, both Persian

besides the Sosos of 60 years, the Chaldeans

cycles,

They had

had in use

also a period called the Saros, consisting of

moons

What

9 years, after the expiry of

fall

has been stated in support

tiie

(1)

the proposition that the

of

Ecliptic;

(4)

use of the
stellations

(7)

Gnomon;
;

(10)

They had

origin

may

a like religious belief

;

(3)

Similar

signs of the Zodiac;

and

A like number of Lunar

Celestial Sphere
(8) A like

Also, (6)

like use of the

(9)

common

week, with like names

The same

Similar months of the year.

constellations

A like number of days of the

divisions of

223 complete

on the same days of the year.

be summarised as follows

(5)

that,

several other

which period, the new and

astronomies of existing Eastern nations had a

(2)

and Grecian,

one of 600 years, called the Neros, another of 3,600 years

lunations in
full

was in common use

of time, moreover,
of Sosos, as

like fantastical nomenclature of con-

Like ideas concerning Mythology

and

(11) Simi-

We read that

Berosus, a native of Babylonia, and the High Priest

the country was invaded by Alexander, became a great
favourite with that Monarch, and wrote out for him a history of the
Chaldeans. He mentions that there were accounts preserved at Babylon
of Belus,

when

with the greatest care, which contained a

history of the heavens, and of
the sea and of the birth of mankind that some time after the flood
;

Babylon was a great resort of people of various nations who inhabited

Some fragments of this
Chaldea, and lived without rule and order.
work, which was in three books, have been communicated by Eusebius.

Hindu Astronomy.

24

lur cycles of

60 years

and, no doubt, other similarities

might be

traced.

Whatever controversies have arisen with regard

differences or similarities

between the systems of astronomy obtain-

ing in various countries; whatever, also,

to the order in

there

is,

at

any

which each nation

rate,

may

may

Asia

astronomy

who

be the true facts as

have acquired

its

system,

enough in those similarities to circumstantially

establish, as a truth, the conjecture that the

historic

to the details of

is to

foundation of Pre-

be found amongst those peoples of Central

are generally referred to as the

Aryan

race.

CHAPTEK

II.

EARLY HINDU PERIODS.

In our endeavours to become acquainted with the earliest periods

which Hindu astronomy was extant, we are led into the Pre-

in

historic age,

which has, to some extent, been considered

to early

comparable

dawn, in which everything

is still

an age

in a state of

obscurity, the feeble twilight of those far-distant times enabling us

only to perceive that there are objects around us which have a real
existence,

but the shadowy forms of which are extremely indistinct,

and scarcely separable from the surrounding gloom.

So far as can

be traced, the basis of that science was in the religious aspirations

of

Hindu

Divinity.

votaries, in rimes

The study

when each heavenly body

represented a

of astronomy originated in the doctrine that

Supreme Being had assigned duties to each of the heavenly

bodies, by which they became rulers of the affairs of the world, and
the

that a knowledge of the Divine will

would be acquired by watching

and observing the order of their motions and the recurrence of times
and seasons.

The early
had, as
there

religion, indeed, of the

we know, a

close

intimacy with times and seasons; and

was in connection with their

to set forth the order in

Hindus, like other religions,

rites

calendar, in the early periods referred to,

character,

which led

to

and ceremonies, a calendar

which they should be observed. jThis

had naturally an imperfect

methods afterwards adopted for

ment, generally with a view to

its

its

improve-

adaptation to religious rather

than to secular uses.

Now, among

all

nations the fundamental periods of time, the day,

the month, the

year, are the same, the variations occurring in

them

being principally in the arrangement of the days to form months

Hindu Astronomy.

26

and years

the subdivisions of the day

in

in the times to be

reckoned as the commencement of the day, whether at midnight,

sunrise, or

noon

in the subdivisions of the year into months, differ-

ing from each other as to the

number

of days of each;

various kinds of mouths to form the year, and the like.

there has apparently been the similarity to

in the

Though

which allusion

is

made,

nevertheless, there appears to have been in all nations a certain

diihculty experienced as to the time

when

the year should be

reckoned to begin, and in the consequent arrangement of the months

and

seasons, so that these should recur at regular intervals.

With

a view, therefore, to the establishment of some methodical data

whereby
less

to regulate these, people of all nations

necessity

for observing with

have had more or

attention the motions of the

heavenly bodies.

With

the Hindus, this study

amongst the more educated

became a sacred duty,

classes,

inasmuch

at least

as the celestial bodies

were viewed as Gods, and the worship of them was enjoined by the
Thus, the piety of the Hindus in primitive ages led them

Vedas.
to

watch with care

all

the

phenomena

and

of the heavens,

to perfect

first

Hindu

astronomers must have directed their particular attention.

Their

their calendar of festivals, etc.,

peculiar systems of algebra

and

to this

end the

and arithmetic seem

to

show that these

branches of science had their origin in the

necessary requirements
of their
is

astronomy

and, indeed, so far as algebra

not improbable that this science was invented

rate,

is

concerned,

by them.

it

At any

they attained to considerable proficiency in mathematics, as

from the methods employed by them to reconcile the motions

of the sun and moon, so as to construct the
period called the Luniia

clear

Solar year.

Amongst

the injunctions enforced

contained a remarkable one

fi

ions

making

by the
it

Institutes of

Menu

is

imperative that the pro-

and trades pursued

by the people should be followed only

by those

distinctively taught in them.

Under the

rule thus en-

Early Hindu periods.

joined, each trade or calling

the secrets

and

artifices of

and

exclusive classes

acquired by the

known even

common
saints,

to

be followed by distinct families,

such trade or calling being preserved in

sects of the

similarly guarded, with the

and was supposed

to the Gods.

It

The knowledge

population.

Hindu astronomers was

greatest care, as sacred,

cot

came

27

was not

to

be so secret that

to be

communicated

it

was

to the

people, and, being regarded as a revelation to inspired

was only

to be divulged to disciples similarly inspired.

This secretiveness has probably contributed, in some degree, to

the difficulty
science of

now

experienced in tracing the early history of the

astronomy amongst the Hindus

for that part of

was most ancient would no doubt be transmitted

orally,

it

which

and the

science itself contained only in traditional statement.

At the end

of the last century a great spirit of inquiry existed

among our own countrymen

in the East,

and researches regarding

Indian philosophy, literature, and science, were carried on with

enthusiastic zeal

Among

related, for the

of the
It

and ardour, and with proportional

the subjects which

most

w ere eagerly
T

success.

studied were those which

part, to the antiquity

and ancient

civilization

Hindus.

was then a general opinion (which, indeed, has existed both in

ancient and in

modern times) that the Hindu was one of the oldest of

and it was sought to ascertain what ground there

civilized nations,

was for

this opinion.

Attempts were accordingly made to frame

an authentic system of
chronology, applicable
But, unhappily, the

to

Hindu

history.

Hindus themselves have been long addicted

fabulous accounts of their

own

to

early history.

In their eyes, the present Kali

age is one of degradation and
misery, and their traditions lead them to magnify everything that
relates to the
past.

They

especially refer to the events that are

have happened in the Golden and Silver

supposed
ages, when (as
they say) they were a free people, and when men were pure and free
irom disease and to events of the Brazen
age, when it is supposed
to

Hindu Astronomy.

28

Yudhisthira and Rama, those heroes, whose glorious but fabled

Poems

deeds are recorded in the great Epic

lived

of India,

must have

and reigned.

Laying

aside, as incredible, the accounts of their national exist-

ence for millions of years, given

by the Hindus themselves,

W.

Sir

Jones and Captain Wilford each investigated their records in the

who have lived,

hope of finding authentic or probable dates for men
and events which undoubtedly must have occurred in past ages.
Both, however, gave up the task as hopeless, though each furnished
a table with a few probable dates,

and

Sir

and

declares the subject to be so obscure

W.
so

Brahmins that we can hope

fictions of the

Jones, in conclusion,

much

clouded by the

to obtain

no system of

Indian chronology, to which no objection can be made, unless the

astronomical books in Sanscrit shall clearly ascertain the places of
the colures in

on

some precise years of the

historical age,

loose traditions like that of a coarse observation

attempt will be

made

by Chiron, who,

In a subsequent part of

possibly, never existed.

to establish

and not based

this work,

some of the more important

so far as relates to matters connected

an

dates,

with astronomy, by a reasoning

based on the places of the colures, as well as by other means.

The Hindu writers are charged by

and exaggerating

made

dates, a

their enemies with falsifying

charge which appears to have been also

against other nations of great antiquity.

The Egyptians,

the Chinese, and the Persians, have each been accused of vanity in

ascribing great antiquity to their several nations.

wish to pass themselves

off as

The Chinese

the oldest nation in existence.

The

Egyptians boasted to the Greeks that in their ancient writings they

had accounts of events which happened forty-eight thousand years

before, and the Babylonians also maintained that they had actual
observations of astronomical
years before.

phenomena made many thousands

Calisthenes sent

of their observations,

home

to his uncle, Aristotle, copies

which were reported

the 19 centuries before that time

of

(circ.

to

have been made during

350 B.C.)

Hindu

Early

Now,
history

these were populous nations in times during

all
is

29

periods.

regarded as authentic,

in Prehistoric times before these people could

population to the size they were

which

their

and long periods must have elapsed

when

have multiplied in

historians give

first

accounts

The apparent exaggeration in the descriptions which

must be partly ascribed to

of them.

these nations give of their ancestors

romantic tales and traditions connected with such ancestors, mixed,

which actually happened.

in transmission, with events

One cause
times

may

of the seeming exaggeration in chronology of remote

have been our misapprehension of the different meanings

To modern European nations it conveys

ascribed to the term "year."

only one meaning.

sent

What

is

termed a

form by Pope Gregory,

to

civil

remedy

year was fixed in

we go back in history, was

pre-

the inconveniences experi-

enced by the various meanings then applied to the term.

civil year, as

its

But the

applied to periods of time

it defines now, namely, the time which

very different from that which
the earth takes to complete its tropical revolution about the sun.

As applied
distinct

in remoter times, the

meaning, until

it

term year has a

less

and

less

present character altogether.

loses its

Various periods of time were in use, which historians have intersuch as our own. Some ancient astronomers
to
preted

signify years,

of year to the times of revolution of each of the

gave the

name

planets.

Thus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn had each their years,

consisting of the

a revolution.

number

of days they severally required to complete

The moon had

different countries, in

its

period of 30 days, and

we read

which the people have had a method

of
of

of two, three, or four

reckoning time, in periods of the moon,

months, being a
great accuracy

much

easier

method than by the Solar year when

was not deemed necessary.

from the visible changes in

its disc,

This, of course, arose

from the day when

it

was not

had a

full
it
seen (at conjunction with the sun), to the day when
but in the Solar period of a
'round disc (in opposition to the sun)
;

Hindu Astronomy.

30

from other
of the beginning could not be distinguished
year the day
days.

The occupation

of the people in countries

where they were em-

the ground or tending their flocks, suggested

ployed cultivating
than a year in reckoning the time for preparing the
shorter
periods

and sowing

soil,

for planting

and

for the time also

their

young;

when

seed, for. raising

and harvesting

their domestic animals

crops,

brought forth

which had some connection with a division

all of

the vear into three,

and again into

four,

and sometimes into

of
six

seasons.

The ancient meaning

ingly ambiguous.
that

it

of the word

"year" would appear to be exceed-

Costard, in his

was employed

to denote

"

Rise of Astronomy," remarks

any revolution of the

In more recent periods

Solar,

Lunar, or Planetary.

to the

apparent annual revolution of the sun.

Life of

Numa

it

was applied

But, previously, the

term has been applied to various* periods of time.

in the

celestial bodies,

Thus, Plutarch,

and Pliny, Lib. 7 Cap. 48, asserts that the

Egyptian year was really a month, and, again, that four months was
also used as the length of a year,

which may probably have had

origin in an ancient division of the year into three seasons, a

common to

the dry, the rainy, and the cold

a division of six seasons in the year.

It is

had

also

argued that, as the

Egyptians, so the Hindus, might anciently have

periods of two or of four months.

custom

and the Hindus. The Hindus,

the Egyptians, the Greeks,

with a division of three

its

computed by

Hence the exaggeration in

their

chronology.
It is further

suggested that the Children of Israel, during their

Egypt and long afterwards, may have followed the

Egyptians in this mode of reckoning the length of the year; and

captivity in

that the supposed exaggeration of the

patriarchal lives

may

have

been reckoned by years of this kind, which would

bring them

down

to the

ordinary length of the lives of

i

So, also, the 48,000 years

men

of the present age.

during which the Egyptians said they

Early Hindu periods.

lad records, reckoned

mly

Lunar

of

by years

31

periods,

may

have been

4,000 of our years.

We may

speak with a greater degree of certainty of events that

aave happened in times

when

aven nearly to that which

the meaning of the year approximated

given to

is

it

in these days; but

impossible to form a conjecture regarding the absolute period

have occurred

events are said to

if

we do not know

the

it is

when

meaning

to

"
be applied to the word
year."*

Of the great antiquity, however, not only of the Hindu nation, -v

but of Indian astronomy generally, the
to

first

evidence was afforded

European investigators by the publication of certain astronomical

"Memoirs

Academy of Sciences," in 1687,

which were brought from Siam by M. Le Loubere, of the French
tables, in the

of the

Embassy, and subsequently examined and explained by the

brated Cassini.

These were, and

known

as the "Tables of Siam,"

other sets of tables were afterwards received from French

Two

These are called the " Tables of Chris-

missionaries then in India.

* "

are,

cele-

According to Pliny the Chaldeans boasted that they had a regular

series of

of 720

astronomical observations engraved upon bricks for the space

it was afterwards proved
by Dr. Jackson, in

thousand years, but

by years should have

copied the public records kept at

a long series of quotations, that this calculation

been days, and that Abydenus,

who

Babylon, improperly interpreted the word Jomin

the sense of years;

word Jamin,

signifying days

in

which interpretation that term, as well as the Hebrew

will also bear."

Dr. Jackson's Chronology, Antiq.

Vol.

I.,

p. 200.

According to Diodorus Siculus,

lib. I.,

and Varro, quoted byLactantius

the Egyptians in the most early

(de Origine Erroris,
time
of
30 days.
a
lunar
days computed
by
year
to
the
According
Pomponius
Egyptians boasted that during the
lib.

immense period

of

sec. 12),

the existence of their empire the stars had four

and that the sun had set twice in the

times changed their course,

now rises.
Query Did the inventors of this fable coast round Africa, sailing
down the Eed Sea and enter the mouth again and sail up the Nile ?

quarter in which he
:

Hindu Astronomy.

32

nabouram and Narsapur"

but they remained unnoticed

return of the French astronomer,

Le

Gentil,

for the purpose of observing the Transit of

till

who had been

ihe

in India

Venus in 1769.

During

in acquiring a knowledge of
his stav there, he employed himself
of Tirvalore
Indian astronomy, being instructed by the Brahmins
in the

thod used by them in calculating eclipses; and they com-

municated to him their tables and

Le Gentil

Academy
It

"

is,

as the

which were published by

rules,

"Tables of Tirvalore,"

in

the Memoirs of the

of 1772.

of
however, to another Frenchman, M. Bailly, the author

Traite de l'Astronomie Indienne," that

we owe

the full discussion

of the four tables above referred

regarding the antiquity

to, to

which

he devoted an entire volume.

Professor Playfair

work, and presented

paper, which

it

made an
to the

elaborate investigation of Bailly's

Royal Society

was published in

Edinburgh, in a long

their transactions in 1790.

In introducing the subject, he says:

"The

fact is that, not-

most profound respect for the learning and

the author of Astronomie Indienne,' I entered on the

withstanding
abilities of

of

the

'

which
study of that work not without a portion of the scepticism
whatever

is

new and extraordinary ought

to excite,

and

verifying the calculations and examining the reasons in

the most scrupulous attention.

of the one,

By
of the

and of the

The

result

was an

about

set
it,

with

entire conviction

solidity of the other."

elaborate calculations, founded

upon the

best

modern

tables

lime (those of Lacaille and Mayer) and by going back to the

epoch of the tables of Tirvalore, which was midnight between the

17th and 18th February, 3102 B.C.
was
(at which time the sun
entering the Moveable Zodiac, and was in Long. 10 signs 6 degrees),

and h\ computing backwards the places of each of the bodies (the

Bon :nid the moon), an exact
agreement was found to exist between
such places

at

the epoch mentioned and the places given

tables of Tirvalore.

by the

Early

Hindu

33

periods.

The general conclusions established from a comparison

ulculations were as follow

of these

That the observations on which the

astronomy of India is
"
founded were made more than three thousand years before the
I.

moon

Christian Era, and, in particular, the places of the sun and

were determined by actual observation."

II.

"though the astronomy

'That,

ancient in

its origin, it

contains

many

of the
rules

Brahmins

is

so

and tables that are

of later construction."

That "the basis of the four systems of astronomical

III.

which have been examined,

tables,

is

evidently the same."

That "the construction of these tables implies a great

IV.

knowledge of geometry, arithmetic, and even of the theoretical

parts of astronomy."

The opinion of Bailly, however, that a general conjunction of the

sun, moon, and planets at the time stated (3102 B.C.), was known
to the

Hindus from actual observations was much controverted

at

the end vi the last century.

That there was an approach

admitted, yet

it

to

such a conjunction was generally

was cnly an approach.

Consequently, an argument against Bailly's opinion was advanced

to the

effect that

Hindus

at a

the epoch of 3102 B.C. was adopted

by

the

For

comparatively recent date, only from calculation.

a further discussion in rewspect to this controversy, the reader is

referred to
It

may

Appendix

I.

be here mentioned that, in the course of Bailly's investiga-

tion of the tables

from Chrisnabouram, he had observed in the correc-

from

tion given in these tables, for finding the true place of a planet

the

mean, "that the magnitude of

exactness,

and that

i:

it

was applied with no small

varied in different points of the orbit

law which approached very

nearly to the truth."
the

method employed by the Hindus' in making

of the correction?

What,

by a

then,

was

their calculation

Hindu Astronomy.

34

had previously found that the equation in which this

which, with us, goes by the name of "the equation of

Cassini

occurred

followed the ratio of the sines of the

the centre'

from the

apojree,

but

and

tables of Siain,

it

mean

distance

was calculated only for a few points in the

could not be ascertained with what degree of

it

From

accuracy the law was fully observed.

the tables of Chrisna-

bouram. however, Bailly found that the law was nearly observed, but

On

only nearly.

this he

concluded that this law of the sines was

was followed

rot the one which

or intended to be followed in the

calculation.

Playfair, then, endeavoured to reconcile these irregularities with

a theory of his own.

and from

orbit,

He assumed

this hypothesis

a double eccentricity for the

he deduced a formula, which agreed

well with the corrections given in the tables.

Now, in the subsequent ports

to

of this

work an endeavour

show that Playf air's assumption was not the

that, unlike the Epicycles of

deferent to

were

made

real hypothesis, but

Ptolemy, the Indian Epicycles had a

variable circumference, that of the

Apogee and

is

first

Epicycle being largest at

Perigee, varying from those points through the

its

places at the quadrants, where its circumferences

least.

In the cases of Mercury, Venus, and Mars there was the same
kind of variation, but in those of Jupiter and Saturn the greatest

circumference was at 00 degrees from the line of Apsides.

"Whatever
tables

may

be the truth as to the origin of the interesting

which have given

that the

ancient

rise to so

much

discussion, it is certain

Hindu astronomers, many

centuries

before the

Christian Era, were in possession of

knowledge, derived from obser-

vations

made by them

of the motions of the

heavenly bodies,

which

they were able to use, and did actually use, in very accurate computations of time.

Tt

Hindu astronomers

is

also

abundantly clear from writings of the

of later date, which refer to those earlier astrono-

mer* and their traditioned observations, that the latter were well

Hindu

Early

35

'periods.

acquainted with, the nature of the phenomenon of the precession of

the Equinoctial point,

and in their computations, arrived

at its

annual rate with a considerable degree of accuracy.

Of

we

course, the Hindus, as

ourselves, were compelled to

assume

some epoch at which the motion of a heavenly body might be sup-

The opinion expressed by Laplace that the epoch

posed to begin.
of the

Kali

common

Yuga

(3102 B.C.) was invented for the purpose of giving

origin to all the motions of the planets in the Zodiac,

no doubt very true

but the beginning

,of

the Kali

is

Yuga would

appear to be only one of several epochs, at which, according to the

Hindu astronomy,

there was a conjunction of the sun, the moon,

and the planets.

For instance, the Hindus had certain assumed epochs, carrying

the

mind back

to dates

when

the heavenly bodies were supposed to

be in conjunction, and from whence their motions were presumed

to

commence

in short, to the period of creation

such a period,

e.g.,

to the

beginning of a day of Brahma, which

Even

day they called a Kalpa.

Brahma's

and even beyond

this

Kalpa was only a part

of

life.

The Kalpa was a period

part of this was the

of 4,320,000,000 years.

Maha Yuga,

One-thousandth

or Great- Yuga.

The Maha-Yuga again was further subdivided and made up

the Kali, the Dwapara, the Trita, and the Krita Yugas, thus

of

The Kali Yuga (one-tenth

of

Maha- Yuga).

432,000

Dwapara (twice the Kali)

Trita (thrice the Kali)

1,296,000

Krita (four times the Kali)

The Maha- Yuga

1,728,000

= Sum

Kalpa

At each

of these

sidered that the

Thus,

it will

commencing epochs Hindu astronomers con-

moveable

celestial bodies

were in conjunction.

be seen that any one of the above epochs might be

used for the purpose of

computing the

D 2

4,320,000

4,320,000,000 years.

mean

places of each

and as

Hindu Astronomy,

36

the Kali, the smallest period of

for this purpose,

all,

was

just as useful as the others

alone was generally used, and was, as before

it

shown, supposed to begin at midnight between the 17th and 18th

So that

February, 3102 B.C.

this

in considering problems affecting

epoch

is

one of great importance

Hindu astronomy

as well as ques-

tions relating to their civil time.

The Kalpa and

blush so

its

subdivisions, although appearing at the first

ponderous and ridiculous, will be shown in a subsequent

work

part of this

to

have been really useful in computations of

various astronomical problems for the purpose of reducing errors to

a

minimum and

the*e great

of ensuring accuracy.

In short, the Hindus used

assumed periods much in the same way

decimal fractions to eight or nine places

we

as

use

when expressing elements

relating to the planets (the decimal system not being then known).

difference of opinion existed

mers as

to

among

the

more ancient astrono-

whether their calculations ought to begin from the

beginning of Brahma's

life

or the beginning of a

Kalpa; and

suggested in the Surya Siddhanta that the end of the Krita

a convenient epoch, from
days, and to find the

"For

at the

which

mean

first

point of

moon's alienee

compute

Yuga

is

Mesha

nme

is

easily the terrestrial

thus

places of the planets.

end of this Krita Yuga, the mean places of

planets, except their nodes

in the

to

it is

all

the

and apogees, coincide with each other

[or Stellar Aries],

signs, her

then the place of the

ascending node

is six signs,

and

the places of the other glow -moving apogees and nodes, whose
revolutions are mentioned before, are not without
degrees

may

[i.e.,

they

have some degrees of longitude]."

was deemed by writers in other Siddhantas that

any epoch
deduced from the rules, if it agreed with the observed
of
It

position

the planet, might be assumed.

Davis says that modern Hindu

tronomera do not go further back than to some

assigned date of
the Saca (A.D.
78), when, having determined the planets' places
for that time,

means of

they compute the

tables, etc.

mean

places for

any other time by

CHAPTER

III.

THE HINDU ECLIPTIC.

[n the astronomical systems of nearly all
existed, at the earliest historical dates,

Eastern nations there

an intelligent grasp of the

apparent motions of the sun and the moon, in their respective paths
Connected, as these wore, with the religions

in the Celestial Sphere.

observances of the Hindus and other nations, not only did their
periodic revolutions give rise to the construction of calendars, but

when those heavenly bodies or the

planets were eclipsed or occnltated,

such phenomena undoubtedly originated important calculations as

to the periods of their recurrence.

Hence, even in anti-historic times, the nature of the Ecliptic was

well understood, and, at the earliest

known

periods, Asiatic astrono-

mers, as has been suggested in a previous chapter, divided the

Ecliptic

and the Zodiac into 28

stars in the

parts,

forming

so

many

groups of

path of the moon, each division corresponding nearly

with the space of the moon's daily motion through them.

The

groups were hence called the Lunar Asterisms.

The systems of most Eastern countries generally resembled each

other in formation, differing only in

extent of each constellation, the

as to

minor

number

which was regarded the principal

particulars, such as the

of stars included in

it,

or

star of the cluster.

comparison of the system of Lunar Asterisms existing in the

astronomy of Eastern countries with those of Western nations has,

to

some extent, been discussed in Chapter

to follow the various writers

I.,

and

who have made

subject of discussion, except in so far as they

it is

this

not intended

comparison the

may refer

to the

Hindu

system.

At some

later period

and yet antecedent

to

than that of the Hindu Aryan migration,

any

historical record, the

Hindu astronomers

improved upon their system of Lunar Asterisms, by reducing the

number

of

divisions

of

the

Ecliptic

from 28

to

27,

and by

Rindu Astronomy

38

so that each should extend

equal to one another,
which
20' or 800 minutes of arc on the Ecliptic, by

making them
13

over

means the

all

constellations were

moon's mean daily motion.

made

As

revolution in 27.3216 days, 27

to agree

more nearly with the

the actual time for a

mean

sidereal

was the nearest whole number

Moreover,

suitable for the division of the Ecliptic.

it

of days

was a more

convenient number than 28, for calculation, in reducing

all their

observations to a system.

The Hindus, unlike the ancient Chinese, had not the ambition

making

which were

a catalogue of all the stars

of

visible to them.

the study of
They had a more important object in view, namely,
the motions oi the sun, the moon, and the planets, and other

astronomical phenomena, primarily for the purpose of computing

and of constructing and perfecting their calendars. SucU an

they knew, could not be materially advanced by ascertaining

time,

object,

the course of
merely the positions of stars fixed beyond, or outside
the

moving

celestial bodies;

attention to those stars

and they accordingly confined

their

which lay in the moon's path, immediately

North or South of the Ecliptic

stars

which

are liable to be

by the moon, or which might occasionally be in conjuncwith it and with the planets.

occultated
tion

By

thus confining attention to the stellar spaces in the vicinity

of the Ecliptic, their

system was rendered, in the main, independent

of the use of astronomical instruments,

and dependent mostly on

calculation for the accuracy of their observations.

Hence the ancient Hindu astronomers chose a

stars,

brightest star of the Asterism, and called

Asterism cluster was

named

it

27 principal

Yoga-tara, whilst the

the Nacshatra.

connected with the beginning, or

first

a] (parent

difference of longitude

Uhoga

of the Asterism.

The Yoga-tara was

point, on the Ecliptic of the

division representing the space of the Asterism

the

set of

one for each of the 27 Lunar Constellations, in general the

between them,

by the small
this arc

arc of

being called

Hindu Astronomy.

Plate V.

Hindu Astronomy.

Moil

mm.

t*

9%>&

,.>0

&5
^',u\S*

M
afifl

s^

w %^

r>

u0^
'

The

hus, the

Hindu

39

Ecliptic.

27 divisions of the Ecliptic became as fixed in position

as the stars themselves, like a great fixed dial,

with the numbers

ranging-, not along the Equator, but along the Ecliptic itself.

The accompanying diagram

(Fig.

IV.)

may, perhaps, more

N.

ROHINI MRIGASU

s
explicitly

convey the nature oi the Hindu Ecliptic, which

**
i3

here

shown, as a great circle in perspective.

Each

division represents ene twenty- seventh part of the Ecliptic,

and each

which

to

It will

star the
it

Yoga-tara of the Nacshatra, or Lunar Asterism,

belongs.

be observed that the Yoga-tara might be either in the

Northern or the Southern Hemisphere, and the

stars

selected were

those most suitable for observation, either on the Ecliptic or near

it,

North or South, but always such as were capable of being occultated

by the moon or
To render

of being in conjunction with

this

easily understood,

or with the planets.

important part of Indian astronomy

still

more

the two accompanying Plates, V. and VI., are

intended as a graphic representation of the

the

it

Hindu

Lunar Asterisms, together with the Solar

Zodiac, the position of each being fixed

Ecliptic,

and of

signs of the

Hindu

by a supposed projection

of

the Yoga-tara on the plane of the Ecliptic, the Northern stars, with
their

modern names, on one

stars

on the

Hemisphere.

side of the plane,

other, the divisions retaining the

and the Southern

same names in each

Hindu Astronomy.

40

to the Yoga-taras, or principal stars, the

In addition
give the

names and places

of a

few other

important of them being the Southern

and Lubdaca

Hunter) or

(the

or Capella*

Bramehridya

Of the few

stars

which were

recommended
are

respectively, Regulus,

required,

as
or

most

to

latitude, appears to

and the Northern

Tauri, Prajapati

close to the Ecliptic,

stars

Aurigse.

and most

suit-

Cancri,

Piscium, and

Aquarii) are

be preferred for planets whose longitudes

star

any

inconsiderable latitude,

the most

Magna, Pushya, Revati, and Sataraka

able as points of reference,

(or,

among

Agastya, or Canopus,

stars,

Sirius,

and Agni or

stars,

Siddhantas

of Chitra (as

when the

touch the

planet,

The

star.

Virginis) having very

having

also nearly the

same

stars at a greater distance

from the Ecliptic would only occasionally be in conjunction with

the planets or be oecultated

by

the moon, giving their

own

fixed

longitudes and latitudes to the moveable bodies with which they

were for the

moment

coinciding.

regarding the stars with

By

previous calculation

little

which particular planets and the moon

would be in conjunction, the times of occurrence were easily ascertained, and, with care, even by unaided vision, ordinary observations
of a fair degree of accuracy would be obtained.

The Asterisms are described

they are

Lunar Constellation figured by

horse's head.

2.
3.

Critica

4.

Rohini

A razor.
A wheel carriage.

5.

Mrigasiras

17.

Yoni or Bhaga.

The head

of

an

antelope.

6.
7.
8.

9.

10.
1 1

12.

Ardra A gem.
Punarvasu A house.
Pushya An arrow.
Aslesha

wheel.

Another house.
Purva Phalguni A bedstead.
Uttara Phalguni Another

Hasta

14. Chitra
15. Swati
16.

Visacha

A hand.
A pearl.
A piece of coral.
A

festoon of leaves.

Lunar Constellation figured by

An oblation to the
gods.

Anuradha

18.

Jyeshtha

19.

Mula

20.
21.

A rich

ear-ring.

The tail of a fierce lion.

Purvashadha A couch.
Uttarashadha The tooth of a
wanton elephant, near which
is the

kernel of thesringataca

nut.
22.

Magha

bedstead.
13.

Retnamala

Aswini
Bharani

1.

in three stanzas of the

The three-footed step

Sravana

of Vishnu.

A tabor.
A circular jewel.
Bhadrapada A two-

23. Dhanishta
24. Satabhisha
25. Purva

faced image.
26.

Uttarabhadrapada

Another

couch.

27

Revati

A smaller sort of tabor.

Hindu Astronomy.
Plate YII.

THI.

HINDOO

I.I.WAI.

MANSIONS*

The

Hindu

41

Ecliptic.

The symbols by which the Indian Nacshatras were represented,

as

shown in the accompanying plate.

given by Sir William Jones, are
[Plate VII.]

In pursuit of his enquiry regarding the particular stars which

gave names to the Indian divisions of the Zodiac, Colebrooke formed
a

list,

founded upon the several Indian works of astronomy, the

Surya and

Brahma

Siddhantas, the Siddhanta Siromani, the Graha-

and the Siddhanta Sarvabhanma, in which the apparent

lagava,

and longitudes

latitudes

of the principal stars of each of the 27

constellations were laid down with a greater or

racy.

In

modern name

this list the

is

less

degree of accu-

given of that star whicli

is

supposed to be identical with the Yoga-tara of each Asterism, and

as agreeing

most nearly, in position, with that which

is

generally

assigned to it in the Siddhantas.

Bentley gave a similar

another one

is

list

in his

"Hindu Astronomy," and

given in Burgess's translation of the Surya Siddhanta.

The accompanying table

is

taken principally from Colebrooke,

whose orthography has been retained, being the same as that of Sir

W.

The number

Jones and Davis.

group are those given by the

are far

from being

all

of stars comprised in each small

Hindu astronomer,

that were

known

Sripati, but they

of those constituting the

Lunar Mansions.
The apparent latitudes and longitudes are those deduced from the
Bhogas of the Surya Siddhanta, a corresponding list from

Brahmegupta being given by Bhascara,

in

which the latitudes and

longitudes of the Yoga-taras did' er in five of them, the difference in

longitude being 1,

3, 3, 2, and

These differences

may

respectirely.

have been partly owing

to mistakes in

the selection of the stars intended as the Yoga-taras,

the greater
difficulty of observing stars that

from the Ecliptic.

Abhijit,

and partly

to

were at a great distance

Thus, such stars as Vega, the principal star of

and Arcturus, the bright

star of Bootes,

being so far

removed from the paths of the sun, the moon, and the planets, would
be seldom objects for observation.

Hindu Astronomy.

42

The

the Ecliptic
stars selected for fixing the points of division of

are apparently those best adapted for

moon in
V

H
is

U
1a
1

the heavens.

marking out the path

of the

The

little

Hindu

need of astronomical instruments while patiently watching the

moon and the planets in

through the Zodiacal

their course

The well-known Yoga-taras among the

p,

43

Ecliptic.

anets pass

milestones

on

way, form so

their

fixed stars,

stars.

and which the

many immovable points, and

on a road, furnish him with his means

like

of observation.

The relative times of passing such points suggested methods of

somewhat similar

calculation

to those

employed by

ourselves, in

as the determination
solving simple questions, such, for instance,
of the

when two hands

time

together again after

when we seek
new and

full

any number of revolutions

of either of them, or

for the synodic periods of the planets, the times of

moon, and other problems of a

the solution of
before they

of a clock in conjunction will be

like nature, data for

which were well known in India many centuries

w ere known
r

Europe

such problems formed the

constant subject matter of the algebra of the Hindus, as contained

in their astronomical

works of the

first

centuries of the Christian

Era.

Again, there are certain phenomena which occur regularly, near

the Ecliptic, too remarkable not to have been observed

patient observers as the

For example,

if

we

Hindu

by such

astronomers.

consider the facts relating to eclipses of stars

by the moon in her course, the moon's node has a retrograde motion
of about 3- mins. of arc
daily,
stars situated

on the

Ecliptic,

and in her progress she passes over

and a

latitude is only 27-^ mins. of arc,

passed

star

must always be

by the moon in her node.

Such,

with other stars on, or near, the Ecliptic.

nomena would be repeated continually in

all

such as Regulus, whose

also,

eclipsed

when

it is

would be the case

Moreover, these phesidereal periods of

18^

years.

The Surya Siddhanta makes the sidereal period of the moon's

node 0794.443
astronomy,
It is

mean

it is

Solar days, whereas, according to our

modern

6793.39108 days.

upon the position of the moon's node at the time of conjunc-

Hindu Astronomy.

44

tion or opposition of the sun

depends

eclipse

one straight

and

and moon, that a Solar or Lunar

these bodies

if

all

three in

an eclipse must happen, and the same eclipse

line,

return in 6585.78 days, on in

will

and the earth are

18 years and 10 or 11 days,

according as five or four leap-years occur during that time.

Or

in

18 Julian years 11 days 7 hours 43 minutes.

The

when

sariie

observations apply to all other eclipses which happen

moon

the

Ecliptic Limits.
so that a
will

near her node, within what are called the Lunar

is

These

all

one such period

of eclipses that occur in

list

complete

return after periods of the same length,

be sufficient for forming a

list

extending over several centuries,

either past or future.

The Hindus were

at a

very early date well acquainted with these

They had rules

Lunar and Solar

facts relating to eclipses.

for calculation of the

various phases both of

eclipses,

the times of

beginning, middle, and end, as set forth in their various astrono-

mical works, but they depended chiefly on those of the Surya

Siddhanta.

Amongst

the superstitious of all ancient nations

eclipses of the sun

and moon had a

terrible import,

we

find that

being supposed

to presage dreadful events.

By

common

the

people of the Romans, as also by the Hindus,-

a gTeat noise was

usually set

up with brazen instruments, and loud

shouts during eclipses of the moon.

The Chinese,

like the

Hindus,

supposed eclipses to be occasioued by great dragons on the point

of devouring the sun

and moon, and

that the monsters, terrified

vessels, let

The

was thought by the ignorant

by the noise

of the

drums and

brass

go their prey.

cause, however, of eclipses,

notwithstanding the superstition

of the people
generally,

mers, as

was well understood by the Hindu astrono-

shown by the following extracts taken from the Siddhanta

is

Siromani
"

it

The moon, moving

like a cloud in a lower

sphere, overtakes the

Hindu

The

hence
scured,

arises that the "Western side of the sun's disc is first

and that the Eastern

moon's dark

io
d

it

bod}'

and

to

others he is not eclipsed."

"At

45

Ecliptic.

the change of the

side is the ,last part relieved

some places

'the

sun

(Siddhanta Siromani, ch.

moon,

it

from

is eclipsed,
viii.,

and

par. 1).

often happens that an observer

laced at the centre of the earth, would find the snn,

when

far

from

he Zenith, obscured by the intervening body of the moon; whilst

;

nother observer on the surface of the earth will not, at the same
ime, find
>e

him

be so obscured, as the

to

moon

him

will .appear to

to

depressed from the line of vision extending from, his eye to the

Hence

sun.

arises the necessity for the correction of parallax in

celestial longitude,

and parallax in latitude in Solar

eclipses, in

consequence of the difference of the distances of the sun and moon.

par. 2)

id.,

When

the sun and

moon

envelopes the

moon

are in opposition, the earth's

As

in darkness.

the

in darkness its eclipse is equally seen

surface,

the

Western

darkness, as

"As

Lunar

moon moving eastward

earth, therefore its

its

actually enveloped

and as the earth's shadow and the moon which enters

the correction of the parallax in a

"As

is

by every one on the earth's

same distance from the earth, there

at the

and

moon

shadow

it

is

Eastern side

the sun

is

a body

small in comparison, the

is first

its course,

or'

vast

therefore,

eclipse,

(id.,

enters the dark

the last portion of

advances in

is,

size,

no

it

are

call for

par. 3).

shadow

of the

of all involved in obscurity,

its

disc

(id.,

which emerges from

par. 4).

and the earth insignificantly

shadow made by the sun from the earth

therefore, of a conical form, terminating in a sharp point.

is,

It

extends to a distance considerably beyond that of the moon's orbit.

(id.,

par. 5).

"The length
traversed
(id.,

by

of the earth's

the

shadow and

moon may be

easily

its

breadth at the part

found by

proportion.

par. 6)."

similar explanation is

given in the Surya Siddhanta, but

Hindu Astronomy.

46

the subject of eclipses

was of a nature

too sacred to be treated lightly

or communicated indiscriminately, and a warning

the Surya Sid&hanta to this effect

secret

even to the Gods

"
:

is

delivered in

(Oh, Maya) this science

not to be given to anybody but to the well-

is

examined pupil who has attended one whole year."

divisions of the Indian

The Lunar Asterisms, contained in the

follow each other in the order of their prinEcliptic, necessarily

cipal stars, and, as in every other system,
selected

upon the

Ecliptic to

mark

some point was necessarily

the beginning of the system.

marking such beginning was not the

one which, in the ancient Hindu astronomy, was taken as the
The point

at the present time

The fixing

beginning.
as to

make

it

of the first point of the

unchanged in

after time is characterised as a

modern Hindu astronomy, and,

able event in the

fixture is contained one of the

Hindu and European

by

rate of about 50

longitudes of

all

arcs of the Ecliptic,

is

all

the

at

an annual

causing an annual increase of the same amount in the

the stars, and this

is

movement

perpetually

avoid

however,

is

the

relation to that beginning.

Indeed, the

date, well acquainted

in our phraseology

Thus, in our system,

The Indian

changing.

annual change of longitudes

fixed point of the Ecliptic as the

system, the position of the

precession.

whose origin

moves backwards along the Ecliptic

the origin of longitudes

by assuming a

indeed, in this

This point, the origin

termed the precession of the Equinoctial point.

astronomers,

remark-

In the European astronomy,

Equinoctial point at the time of observation.

"

so

fundamental differences between the

systems.

longitudes are measured

of our longitudes,

Indian Zodiac

beginning of their

Lunar Asterisms being all fixed in

Not that they were ignorant of the

Hindu astronomers

were, at a very early

with that phenomenon.

It

may

here be

desirable, perhaps, to state for the benefit of the general reader,

what

is

understood by "the precession."

In the figure
Ecliptic,

and

let

represent the centre of the earth,

'

its Poles,

EUQ

the Equator, and

DB

the

P P'

its

The

^les.

straight line,

Hindu

PCP',

47

Ecliptic.

will then represent the axis,

about

vhieh the celestial bodies appear to revolve daily, from East to

West, but about which the earth actually rotates from
East,
nrcle,

causing the apparent revolution of the

* p

*' P'

circle is called

be supposed to pass through the four Poles

the Solstitial Colure

it bisects

is

called the

Summer

line

Y C

of the Ecliptic,
Aries)

and

in

is

this

B and

E, Q.

The

Winter

Solstice is the point A.

which the plane of the Equator intersects that

meets the Celestial Sphere in the two points V

The angle between the two

(or Libra).

measured by the angle

and

both the Ecliptic and

being the point of the

Solstice,

Ecliptic nearest the Pole P, and the

The

to

Let a great

stars.

she Equator, at right angles in the points A,

point

West

A C E or the

*
equal to the angle

arc

E,

is

P, or the arc

(or

planes,

called the Obliquity,

P.

This Obliquity

is

now about 23 27 \ being formerly nearly 24.

Let the small

circle

* r
q be supposed to represent the Arctic

Circle of the Celestial Sphere;

-

then, on account of the apparent

motion of the Sphere about the axis C P, the point * (the Pole
of the Ecliptic) appears to

the

Equator)

in

the

move

daily round the Pole

circle q r

*;

(the Pole of

the apparent motion being

caused by the rotation of the earth round

its axis.

The point

Hindu Astronomy.

48

as far as is

known

is

a fixed point

among

point P, the Pole of the Equator, though

moving slowly from

it

*,

27

its

To complete a revolution

nearly.

where the

line of intersection of the Ecliptic

Solstitial

*"

Colure meets the plane of the Ecliptic,

moving slowly in that

called the precession

tions of

in this circle

P's progress occupies nearly 25,780 years.

plane,

and severally complete one

whole revolution, at the rate of 50" annually.

Now,

in fact,

two extremities, the Equinoctial points, and the two points

A and B,
are all

is,

parallel to the Ecliptic at a distance

is

During the same period the

and

seems to be fixed, near

with an imperceptible motion, in the small

Pc,a circle which

from * of 23
about

the fixed stars, but the

Ursae Minoris (thence called the Pole Star)

to the star

circle

it

This

movement

is

just as it has-been of the greatest

importance in the observa-

modern astronomer?

with the utmost exactitude

to ascertain

the rate of the precession of the Equinoxes (a practical problem

depending for
at

its

solution

upon the accuracy

of observations

made

long intervals, the earlier observations being partly vitiated by

the imperfections of astronomical instruments), so

tant problem with the ancient

it

Hindu astronomers

was an impor-

to ascertain the

same rate of regression, but they calculated with the aid of what we
call the Solstitial Colure.
selves, for the Solstices

the motions

The problem

is

the same as with our-

being at 90 degrees from the Equinoxes,

must obviously be uniformly the same, and

it is

only a

matter affecting the convenience of the observer which method he

will adopt.

It

is

distinctly

stated

by the commentators

of

the

Surya

Siddhanta (perhaps the most important extant astronomical work

in the possession of the
Hindus) that the apparent latitudes and

longitudes of the stars given in

it

are adapted to that particular

time when the Venial Equinox did not differ from the
origin of the
Ecliptic in the beginning of Mesha.
is

The origin here

referred to

the fixed beginning point on the

Ecliptic of the 12 Indian Signs

The Hindu Ecliptic.

of the Zodiac,

the

and

It has

the beginning of the 27 Nacshatras, or

it is also

[See Plates Y. and VI.]

point in Aswini.

first

49

been further ascertained that the origin referred

point of the Ecliptic ten minutes

to is a

East of the star Kevati, (or

Piscium).

commence-

then, as undoubtedly is the case, the origin (or

If,

ment), for present computations, on the

at the first point of Aswini, it is of

when

this fixture, or

ancient

Hindu astronomical

their accuracy

As

change

Hindu

importance

was

Ecliptic,

fixed

to ascertain the date

because

of system, took place;

all

dates are, in a measure, dependent for

on a knowledge of

it.

will presently appear, the date is a comparatively recent one,

but, nevertheless,
earlier dates,

when

established, it affords a

which, without

it,

means

of tracing

could not readily be authenticated.

Several methods, then, have been employed for the purpose of

ascertaining the period

when

the

first

point in Aswini was, in

astronomy, established as their origin of apparent longitudes

(1)

According

Kevati (or

it

was then in the Equinoctial

calculate the date at

Brahmagupta

lived,

which

this occurred,

his time,

the time

when

Colebrooke found from Zach's tables the right

49' 15

precession in Right Ascension being reckoned at 46

'

" and

the

63 "; from

from a mean value, he estimated that the elapsed time

1

for the regression of the Equinoctial point

it

point.

i.e.,

ascension of the stars in A.D. 1800, to be 15

this, as

thus

well as of other astronomers), the star

Piscium) had no longitude or latitude in

which implies that

To

(ays

Indian astrono-

to a statement of the celebrated

mer, Brahmagupta

Hindu

coincided

with

the star

Piscium,

from
and

its

position

its

when

position

in

1800 A.D., would amount to 1221 years, which, taken from 1800,
gave 579 A.D. as the date of Brahmagupta's assertion, and,
approximately, the date

when

the

first

point of the Asterism

Aswini was made the origin of Indian longitudes.

Hindu Astronomy.

50

of Regulus,
Bentley, from a comparison of the longitude

(2)

with, the longitude of the

as recorded

by Indian astronomers,

same

given in the tables of the British Catalogue of 1750,

star as

and computing with a mean rate of regression in longitude of

48*5066 ", and allowing a secular variation of 2'27

"

for

every

century (being the diminishing rate as we go back into antiquity),

when

the

o-iuaing of

Aswini were coincident

(.3)

date

the Equinoctial point and the be-

estimated

to

Again, in a note to an article

be 538 A.D.
(I.,

27) of Burgess's trans-

lation of the Sinyy, Siddhanta, it is stated that the star Revati

by

identified

all

authorities as the star

longitude at present (A.D. 1858) as reckoned

Vernal Equinox,
cision, we

17

54'.

far

by us from

Making due allowance

find that it coincided in position

not

Equinox,

is

is

" of which
Piscium,

from the middle of the

the

for the pre-

with the Yemal

6th

or

century,

AT). 570."
This estimate of the date was evidently calculated with a regression in longitude of the Equinoctial point at a
rate of 50",

and

may

and the date found

no doubt a close approximation,

be accepted as sufficient in the absence of a knowledge

of the secular variation,

some

is

mean annual

years,

which might produce a difference

when reckoning backwards

through

so

of

many

centuries.
(4)

We have also

in which

another calculation by Colebrooke for the age

Brahmagupta

Virginis as given

lived,

deduced from the position of Spica

by that Indian astronomer, namely, 103 apparent

longitude, from which was deduced 182 45

time.

'

Right Ascension at

In 1800 A.D. the actual

Right Ascension was 198

(Zach's tables), the difference of the^two positions of the

in

Right Ascension being 150

his

"
40 2
'

Equinox

55' 2'\ indicated a lapse of time

1216 years, the mean annual precession in

Right Ascension
reckoned
at
47'
14".
This
being
elapsed time subtracted from

of

1300, gives us the date of Brahmagupta's observation as 584 A.D.

Hindu Astronomy.

Plate VIE.

The

The mean

Hindu

51

Ecliptic.

two calculations by Colebrooke places

of the

581 and 582 A.D., which

is

position of Spica Virginis, for

when

it}

may have happened

and

to the

at

some

life.

be mentioned that,

It may., however,

the date

of Aswini,

Brahmagupta's statement relating

a verification of

period of his

between

a sufficient approximation to the time

when, the Equinox coincided with the beginning

as

it

among

other estimates of

the origin of the Indian longitudes was

cident with the beginning of Aswini,

is

made

coin-

that of Bailly, who, in his

examination of the tables brought from India, deduced the time as

490

AJ).,

and in

W.

this opinion Sir

Jones would appear to have

coincided.

On

the other hand, the Indian astronomers of Ujjaini,

consulted

by Dr. Hunter on the

as the date of

Brahmagputa, which

years after the date assigned

The

subject,
is

who were

gave 550 Saca or 628-9 A.D.

not improbable,

if

he lived 45

by Colebrooke.

difference in these various estimates is to be accounted for

by the very slow motion of the Equinoctial point, which

is

almost

inappreciable in the lifetime of a man, without a very careful

less

measurement, being
It

may,

therefore,

than

4' in a century.

be safely assumed that the epoch when the

was made

origin of the Indian longitudes

to

coincide with the

beginning of the Lunar Asterism Aswini, and of Mesha, the

the 12 Indian signs of the Zodiac,

ment which nearly

all

of

was about 570 A.D.

To enable the reader not only

important feature in the

first

more

fully understand this

Hindu system, but

also to follow the argu-

to

the Sanscrit scholars at the end of the last

century employed, in tracing and establishing the authenticity of

dates, as

determined by the position of the Coiures, the accompany-

ing Plate VIII.

lines

is

annexed.

On

it

from the Pole of the Ecliptic

are at the

commencement

Bharani, Aswini,
e 2

etc.,

have been placed partial radial

to the points of division,

which

of several of the Nacshatras, Ciittica,

showing the direction of the Equinoctial

Hindu Astronomy.

52

of these points, in succession,

when each

Colure

became the Equi-

and the dates of the same, on the supposition that the

"
mean rate of precession in longitude was 50 (neglecting the small
noctial point,

secular variation).

The corresponding

The motion

corresponding dates.

Solstices,

which are

have also been inserted, showing

at right angles to these radii,

it

through the

partial lines

of this radial line

is

so slow that

occupies 960 years to pass from point to point through each of the

27 divisions of the Ecliptic, and when this line

ancient

Hindu

is

referred to in the

writings, either as at the Equinoctial point or at a

given distance from

such reference affords evidence of the

it,

approximate date of such writings, as well as of the observation

alluded to in them.

was the opinion of nearly

It

W.

Jones,

when

the Equinoctial point

after wards,

gress

who have

all

studied the subject (Sir

olebrooke, Davis, Bentley, and others) that the time

'

was in

and for some centuries

Crittica,

was a period marked by considerable activity and pro-

m the cultivation of Hindu astronomy.

Our

real information

regardino- such astronomy, resting upon unquestionable evidence,

does not, however, go

was such

date,

i.e.,

much

when

the

earlier
first

than this date.

What,

then,

point in Crittica was coincident

with the Equinox?

Colebrooke, in hi* researches concerning the principal stars which
give names to the Nacshatras,
refers

to

as

it

ISacshatra"
ing to the

being,

that

it

when

"now

describing the Asterism Crittica,

the third,

but formerly the

consists of six stars, the principal one, accord-

Surya Siddhanta, having a longitude of 37

according to

first

Siddhanta Siromani and

38, and he considered the bright

longitude of 40 from Z Piscium

Grahalaghava, 37

star in the Pleiades,

30',

or,

28'

to

which has a

to be the principal star of the

Asterism.*
*
of

The

Critticas are said to

be

six

War, and he was named from

nymphs, who nursed Scanda the God

these, his foster mothers, Carticeya.

Hindu

The

53

Ecliptic.

"When the Vernal Equinox was in the

point of Crittica,

first

whose longitude from the beginning of Aswini (the subsequent

origin of Indian longitudes),

Asterisms, or 26
3

20' in

40',

the same as the space of two

is

the Southern Solstice was then at a point of

Dhanishtha (see Plates V., VI. and VIII.).

referring to Dhanishtha,

Colebrooke,

says that to determine the position of

this Nacshatra is important, as the Solstitial Colure,

according to the

ancient astronomers, passed through the extremity of

it,

and through

the middle of Aslesha.

whom

Bentley, so sceptical about the authors to

the Hindus attri-

bute their Siddhantas, and who controverted, with

much

industry,

the opinions of Colebrooke regarding the dates of Parasara, Aryabhatta,

Varah-Mihira, Bhattopala, and other Hindu astronomers,

is

entirely in agreement with Colebrooke as to the importance of

ascertaining

the

Dhanishtha.

He

when

period

Southern

the

Solstice

was

in

finds evidence regarding this date in the fact that

the Equinoctial Colure then passed through the middle point of

Visakha, thus bisecting

derives its

name.

would necessarily

from which circumstance he says

it,

it

This Colure, through the middle of Visakha,

also pass

through the

first

point of Crittica,

w Kich
r

would then be the place of the Vernal Equinox.

To

when

find the date

of precession,

this occurred, he calculates the dilference

by reference to Cor-Leonis, whose longitude from the

first

of Crittica

(i.e.,

reckoned from the

longitude of the

is,

according to

same

star

all

Hindu astronomers, 102

with the

from the Equinox of 1750 A.D.,

as given

of Aswini).

Comparing

in the British Catalogue of that date, viz., 146

that the Equinoxes

of

fallen

21',

he thus finds

back in the interval through an arc

44 r.
Then, to

regression,
1

had

20'

this

first

nd the number

of years

he calculates that the

23' 6.4" for

mean

corresponding with this

rate

of

regression

was

each century, allowing the secular variation to be

2.27" (by which the precession

is

supposed to diminish each century),

Hindii Astronomy.

54

and the time

be 3176

for the

years. If

whole regression through an arc of 44

this the date of the

from

1'

would

Catalogue be subtracted,

there remains, according to such, calculation, 1426 B.C., for the date

Equinox coincided with the first point of Crittica.

This date differs by only 76 years from that which is obtained by

when

the Vernal

supposing the mean rate of regression to be 50", from the

first

point

of Crittica to the first point of Aswini (through an arc of 26

40'),

and supposing the Equinox

We

Aswini in 570 A.D.

1426 B.C.

(or

to

have coincided with the

arrive, then, at this

any authentic

reference to

of

approximate date of

1350 B.C., according to the most recent estimate of

the rate of regression) as one of the earliest

of

first

fac-^s

which the

which can be ascertained

relating to the Indian Ecliptic, a date in

earlier

Hindu astronomers made

their calcu-

lations.

In confirmation of the date given by him, Bentley urges that the

ancient astronomers feigned the birth of four of the planets, from
the union of the daughter of

Daksha and the moon the observations

;

by the moon, which occurred nearly

same time in the Lunar Mansions, from which, as mothers,

are supposed to be occultations

at the

the planets received their names.

Thus Mercury, Venus, Mars, and

Jupiter were respectively called Rohineya, Maghabhu, Ashadha-

bhava, and Purvaphalgunibhava, the father,

being present at the

being:

for

birth, of each, the

Soma

(or the

moon),

times of their occultations

Mercury, 17th April, 1424 B.C.; Jupiter, 23rd April,

1424 B.C.; Mars, 19th August, 1424 B.C., and Venus, 19th
August,
1425 B.C. all within the space of 16 months.
;

Saturn, not then discovered,' was feigned to be born afterwards,

from the shadow of the earth in an

eclipse of the sun,

called Chyasuta, the Off

spring of the

Shadow.

Bentley was

also of opinion that the

and hence

Lunar Asterisms were formed

about the time when the

Equinoctial point coincided with the

first

point of Crittica, or between the

years 1528 B.C. and 1371 B.C.

He

finds evidence for his

opinions

from a statement in the Vedas,

Hindu

The

which

is

mentioned

also in other books,

in the first part of the Trita

the daughters of
parts),
t

Ynga

or,

being divided into four

(this

laying aside

seven Asterisms were formed in the

dates,

where we are informed that

Daksha were born, and

went} -seven to the moon;

One

55

Ecliptic.

first

the twenty-

all allegory,

part of the Trita Ynga.

of the first ste/ps in this astronomical

by

that of these he gave

method

of verifying

references to the regression of the Solstice, or Equinox,

made by Mr.

S.

Davis,

who communicated

to Sir

was

William Jones a

passage from the Yarahi Sanhita, of which the following

authority of Sir William, a scrupulously literal translation

is,

on the

"Certainly the Southern Solstice was once in the middle of

Aslesha, the Northern in the

first

recorded in former Sastras.

At present one

degree of Dhanishtha, by what

degree of Carcata, and the other in the

is

Solstice is in the first

Macara

of

first

is

that which

recorded not appearing, a change must have happened, and the

proof arises from ocnlar demonstration: that

remote object and

its

is,

by observing the

marks, at the rising or setting of the sun, or

by the marks in a large graduated

circle of the

shadow's ingress and

The sun, by turning back without having reached Macara,

destroys the South and the West
by turning back without having
egress.

reached Carcata, the North and East.

just passed the

summer

Solstitial point,

grain abundant, since he

sun,

returning when he has

By

he makes wealth secure and

moves thus according

by moving unnaturally, excites

In this passage, Yaraha

is

to

Nature

but the

terror."

explaining to some one that a change

must have taken place in the position of the

Solstitial Colure,

which

in his time passed

through the two points of the Ecliptic, the

degree of Carcata, or the

Hindu

sign of the Crab, and the

first
first

degree of Macara, or the Sea Monster; but that in the age of a

certain

Muni, or ancient philosopher, the

Solstitial Colore passed

through the beginning of the Asterism Dhanishtha and the middle

of the

Asterism Aslesha.

He

is

aware of the change, but he does

not give an
opinion regarding the rate of the motion, which, by

Hindu Astronomy.

56

man

observation, would have been inappreciable in the lifetime of a

(being only

more than

little

(H

He

degrees in 100 years).

however, as a fact, the position of this Colure,

gives,

which was observed

in his time.

The reader

understand the argument which Varaha

will easily

horizon
employs in his proof, by noticing the points of his own

which the sun

March

23 st

then in the

modern

rises

it rises

first

and

sets at different

set,

point of Aries, the beginning of

terwards to rise
Ecliptic. It is seen af

on the 21st June,

which in rising

at

wards

may

behind marks, such as a

objects, until,

to

it

it

when

motion begins.
North

Northward

its

to vSouth,

and setting

There

and

more

it rise

and

after-

In the interval of

now

is

its

in.

this

path

at the Solstice, at

and the beginning of the modern

Northern motion
in fact,

is,

course,

sun has advanced'

rising, the

its

set at points

has reached a point of the horizon

through three signs of the Ecliptic,

sign of Cancer,

and

the spire of a church, or other

go back towards the East point.

greatest Northern declination,

path through the

its

be observed by noticing

tree,

seems to stop

Northern progress at

its

the

in the East point, and sets in the West, being

and more towards the North, as

and

On

times of the year.

at

Then a Southern

ceases.

an apparent

oscillation

from

within the zone of the Solar Zodiac, of the rising

points, or, in

reached a certain point of

Hindu
its

phraseology,

course,

it

begins to

"when

the sun has

turn back from the

North." The apprehension of danger from the turning back South-

ward before the sun has reached the calculated point of his path,
of course, a figment of the astrologers.

he

"

may

have adopted

of Garga, a priest of

it solely as

Sir

When

eminent sanctity, who expresses the same wild

Solstice, or not

then

man

It

is

a translation

the sun returns, not having reached Dhanishtha in the

Northern
let

Jones explains that

a religious tenet on the authority

notion in a couplet, oi which the

following
'

W.

is,

feel great

having reached Aslesha in the Southern,

apprehension of danger.'

may be inferred from

the use which

"

Varaha makes

of the

Lunar

The

Hindu

57

Ecliptic.

Mansions when describing the position of the Colure in the time of

the Ancient

Muni

referred to,

and the use he makes

of the Solar

when explaining the position of the Colure of his

the Lunar division of the Ecliptic was not in such

division of signs,

own

time, that

general use as the Solar division in the time of Varaha.

other hand, the

Lunar

names in the ancient

divisions are repeatedly

code, the Institutes of

made use

that

the

Sun in the sign of Kanya

On

the

their

by
Menu, in which only

one of the signs appears to have been mentioned

"

of

or the Virgin

(where

it is said

must be shunned/

CHAPTEE

IV.

HINDU MONTHS AND SEASONS.

The

method of measuring time, employed by ancient

was by stated revolutions of the sun, the moon, and the
The apparent diurnal motions of the sun, the moon, and

principal

nations,
seasons.

the stars were obvious to all mankind, and a primitive discovery,

no doubt, was that

all

the fixed stars have one and the same uniform

period in their apparent diurnal motion

but to measure the absolute

lengths of each apparent period w^as a problem not easy of solution,

and a

still

more

difficult

problem was that of reconciling unequal

days, with months of unequal length, whose periods were reckoned

from one new moon

to the next, or

from one conjunction with the

sun to the next.

The

experienced by the Hindus in adjusting their

difficulties

calendar, in

which

motion of the moon was taken as

month was formed

to agree

by

its

foundation, and the lunar

with the phases of the moon.

change took place, and a solar

as to be reckoned

up and increase,
At one period the

errors were so liable to spring

occasioned repeated changes of their system.

month was formed,

the time the sun, in

each sign of the Solar Zodiac.

its

Then

constituted so

progress, remained in

Another change followed,

efforts

being made to reconcile the two previous systems, in which each

kind of month preserved

reckoned in ordinary

by

tithis or

its

civil days,

and the lunar months measured

The

between two conjunctions of the sun and

result of these eiforts

was the formation

hmi-solar year, reckoned either in civil

days or in

From

the statement of Colebrooke,*

Veda was annexed a

Essays,

month being

lunar days, each being one-thirtieth

part of a synodic

period, the time elapsing

the moon.

original character, the solar

Vol.

I.,

treatise

page 106.

it

tithis.

would appear that

having the title

of the

of

"

to each

Jyotish," an

Hindu Months and

Seasons.

50

astronomical work, which explains the adjustment of the calendar

purpose of fixing the proper periods prescribed for the per-

for the

formance of religious duties.

In the treatises which he examined, a cycle, (Yuga) " of five years

The month

only was employed.

is

lunar, but at the end

the middle of the quinquennial period

by doubling one month.

common

is

admitted

Accordingly, the cycle comprises three

lunar years, and two which contain thirteen lunations

The year

each.

an intercalation

and in

is

half months.

divided into six seasons, and each

complete lunation

is

month

into

measured by 30 lunar days,

some of which, of course, must in alternate months be sunk,

make

to

the dates agree with the Nychthemera, for which purpose the

sixty-second day appears to be deducted, and thus the cycle of five

years consists of 1860 lunar days or 1830 INychthemera, subject to

further correction.

The Zodiac

divided into 27 Asterisms, or

is

which, both in the Jyotish and in the Vedas,

signs, the first of

is

Crittica or the Pleiades.*

"The measure

of a

of

an hour by

of intercalating a

month, here

day by 30 hours, and that

00 minutes are explained."

The

rule

implied,

upon which

will

the

method

be understood

from a corresponding

Siddhanta Siromani, according to

in 33.53551 lunar

To make the
after

it

months there are 32.53413

latter

months lunar, a month

may

rule

of the

be deduced that

solar months.
will

have

to

be added

32 solar months, or after 2 years 8 months, and again, two

months added

From
for

which

after 5 years

and four months.

this it is obvious that a cycle of five years

making the

being required;

intercalation,
so that

a very

much

an exact number

was too short

longer cyclic period

of lunar

months

shall

* It has been
already explained that the date when the Equinox was
at the first
point of Crittica was about 14 centuries before the beginning
of the Christian era.

Hindu Astronomy,

60

coincide with an exact

number

of solar months,

small fraction of a year or no fraction at

The

rule in the

Vedas

all shall

so that only a

remain.

for subtracting the sixty- second

quite so correct as that of Bhascara,

day occurs in 64-^ lunar days

It is

and

is

not

says that the subtractive

(tithis).

a characteristic of the

from that of Ptolemy, that

who

day

Hindu astronomy,

its

distinguishing

it

Tules are expressed rather in an

analytical form than synthetical, the problems and theorems

of

geometry being put mostly in algebraical or arithmetical language.

What we

call the

Pythagorean theorem assumes a variety of

braical forms, giving solutions in integers

alge-

but the subject of Hindu

algebra will be hereafter described at somewhat greater length, and

reasons given

Arabs from

for

believing

whom we

to be autochthonous,

it

received

it

obtained

it

and that the

from the Hindus.

Colebrooke further makes the following important remarks:

"This ancient Hindu calendar, corresponding in its divisions of
time, and in the assigned origin of the Ecliptic, is evidently the
foundation of that which, after successive corrections,

is

now

by the Hindus throughout India.

The progress of these corrections may be traced from the

re-

ceived
"

of five to one of 60 lunar

years,
treatises

which

is

noticed in

many

cycle

popular

on the calendar, and in the commentary of the Jyotish, and

thence to one of 60 years of Jupiter, and

finally to the greater

astronomical period of 12,000 years of the Gods, and a hundred

years of Brahma."*

The arrangement

of the 12

Hindu months,

(see Plate IX.) has, at different times been

as they

made

now

stand

the subject of

diligent enquiry.

* It has been before

remarked that the cycle of 60 years was the sosos
of the Chaldeans, in use
by them, according to Berosus the Chaldean
Hierarck, of the time of Alexander, from the most ancient times. In China
the annals of their monarch s have been recorded in
cycles of 60 years,

going back as far as 2300 B.C.

Hindu Months and

Bentley, in his

>rmed about the

Seasons.

61

"

Hindu Astronomy," states that the months were

year 1181 B.C., when the sun and moon were in

mjunction at the Winter Solstice, and that, with reference to this

the

)odi,

Hindu astronomers had then made many improvements

their system, and,

other discoveries, they found that the

among

Colures had fallen back through an arc of 3

position

in

20'

from their former

1425 B.C., when the Winter Solstice was in 3

Dhanishtha, but now (1181 B.C.)

it

was

20' of

at the beginning of that

and the Vernal Equinox was at a point 10

constellation,

of the

Constellation Bharani.

He

Lunar Asterisms which began with a

the sun, although they had been all

further states that the

month were

called wives of

before allegorically married to the

the year with the

others, the

moon.

The commencement

month Aswina, according

of

to Bentley, was, of all

most celebrated.

"Durga,* the year personified in a female form, and Goddess of

Nature, was then feigned to spring into existence.

1181 B.C. the

moon

first

of

In the year

Aswini coincided with the ninth day

and on that day her

festival

of the

was celebrated with the utmost

pomp and grandeur.

In the year 945 B.C. some further observations were made, by which
they determined that in 247 years and
one month the Solstice fell back 3 20' in
respect of the fixed
In consequence of these observations, they threw back the

stars.

epoch of the

commencement

the year 1192 B.C., in

fell

which year the commencement of Aswina

on the sixth day of the

after

made

to

of the year, with Aswina, in 1181, to

moon

commence with the

and the Doorga

was ever

festival

sixth lunar day of Aswina."

As a confirmation of the date of

this epoch, Bentley,

by

a rather

complicated method, calculated that the 12 months of the year

were then formed and named.

*

See Plate IXa, which

is

They were

from the

a photographic representation of the

from an exhibition of mythological

marriage of this goddess, taken

figures,

established

held at Decca about the year 1869.

Hindu Astronomy,
of the sun,
tropical revolutions

and feigned by the Hindu poets

have been born as the offsprings of the union of the

Lunar Asterisms, in which the moon was supposed

moon and

to

the

to be full at the

time.

The name

of the solar

month was derived from the Asterism

which the birth occurred, and

this being at the full

would be in the Asterism diametrically opposite.

Plate IX.)
Month.

in

moon, the sun

Thus:

(See

Hindu Astronomy.

Plate

ARCS OF THE ECLIPTIC CORRESPONDING WITH

SOLAR MONTHS.

K.

Hindu Astronomy.

Plate IXa.

Siva receiving his consort from the hands of

Kama

Deva.

Photographed from one of the scenes of Hindu Mythology which were exhibited
in a public spectacle in Dacca atout the year 1869.

The

fable is supposed to have an allegorical meaning, Siva is a personification

and Durga is one of many representations of the Ecliptic.
This union was considered necessary for the welfare of the universe.

time,

of

Hindu Months and

Seasons.

63

"

Having duly performed the Upcarma (or domestic ceremony

nth. sacred fire) at the full moon of Sravana or of Bhadra, let the
3rahmin fully exert his intellectual powers, and read Vedas during
:our

months and one

fortnight.

" Under the Lunar Asterism of

Pushya, or on the
the bright half of

Maga, and

the

in

first

first

day of

part of the day, let

him

perform out of the town the ceremony Utserga of the Vedas.

"At

the close of the season let

Adhvara

at the Solstices let

sacrifice cattle

the rite called

at the

be made with the juice of the

year, let his oblations

"Not having

him

him perform

end of the

moon

plant.

offered grain for the harvest, nor cattle at the time

of the Solstices, let

no Brahmin who keeps hallowed

fire

and wishes

for long life taste rice or flesh.

"Important duties are

of the

moon

at a

to be

performed on some fortunate day

lucky hour, and under the influence of a star with

good qualities.
"

The Shraddha, the

dark day

of the

moon,

act of

is

due honour

to departed souls,

famed by the name

"The most approved lunar days

on the

of Pitrya or Ancestral.

for sacred obsequies are the

tenth and so forth, except the fourteenth, in the dark half of the

moun.
"

On

even lunar days, he who does honour to the manes, and

under even lunar stations

{i.e.,

constellations), enjoys all his desires.

On odd lunar days and under odd Lunar

Asterisms, he procures an

illustrious race.

" As the dark half of the

moon

surpasses the bright half for the

celebration of obsequies, so the bright half of the

the

same purpose the dark half of

"The dark lunar day

remembrance

for

destroys the spiritual teacher, the fourteenth

destrovs the learner, the eighth

all

day surpasses

it.

and the day of the

of Scripture, for

full

moon

destroy

which reason he must avoid

reading on those days.

"
On the dark night of the moon, and on the eighth on the night

Hindu Astronomy.

64

of the full

moon, and on the fourteenth,

let

Brahmin who keeps

house he continually chaste as a student in theology.

"
let

march against the domains of his

him advance gradually in the following manner against
"When a king begins

hostile metropolis

" Let

him

gasirsha, or
the

number

set

his

the

<

out on his expedition in the

about the month

of

his march, let

fair

Phalguna and

of his forces, that he

find

may

month

Cfritra,

of

Mar-

according to

autumnal or vernal

by him.

crops in the country invaded

"

On

foe,

him form

his troops either like a staif, or in

even column like a wain, or in a wedge with the apex foremost

like a boar, or in a

rhomb with

the

van and

rear narrow and the

centre broad and like a marcara or sea monster."

From

these extracts

that ancient

it

be inferred that before the time when

may

compendium (the Institutes of Menu) was composed

names of the months were widely known, that they

or compiled, the

were then <*onnected with the Lunar Asterisms, and with the estab-

and that a long unmeasured anterior

lished lunar synodic period,

period

must have elapsed before such a system could have become

so universally

known and

In the Institutes of

established.

Menu

the 27

Lunar Asterisms

are called the

daughters of Dacsha, and the consorts of Soma, or the moon*

may

also be inferred

Canya

(i.e.,

from the

the Virgin)

is

extract,

"the sun in the sign of

to be shunned," that the Solar Zodiac of

12 signs, though known, was not sanctioned, and

made

to the

It

all references are

Lunar Asterisms.

It is probable that the astronomers of the

who had brought with them the system

system of 27, Lunar Mansions, were a sect

Orthodox Brahmins,

of 28, or the

improved

of astronomers, separate

from those who adopted the Solar Zodiac as the foundation on

which their astronomy was constructed, and there may have been
jealousy between the leaders of the sects, causing the Solar Zodiac
to

be shunned by one of them.

It

was

also

probably owing to this

Hindu Months and

[ivision

Seasons.

65

amongst them that the monarchs by whom, they were

and Lunar
patronised were distinguished as the Solar

>spectively

ruled India contemporaneously in the early ages.*

who

ices,

In a description of the Hindu lunar year given by Sir

in

of his works, he says

Yolume IV.

davs

than the

solar,

and began,

as

Jones

The lunar year of 360

apparently more ancient

12 months, each of 30 days)

(i.e.,

W.

"
is

we may

from a verse in the

infer

called because the month was

Matsya, with the month of Aswina, so
at the full

when

Hindu

of the

that

name was imposed

Ecliptic, the

in the

origin of which,

first

Lunar Station

being

diametrically

* The

difficulties experienced by Hindu Astronomers in the division of

time and in the formation of their calendar, caused principally through
the erratic motions of the moon, by which all nations must at first have

measured their time, a method which still subsists among Mahomedan

nations and among the Chinese, were equally felt among European
nations.

among
of the

For instance

it was ordained
month should be reckoned from the course
the moon. The ancient solar year had consisted

in the time of Julius Csesar,

the Romans, that the

sun and not of

months each of 30 days.

had
been made, making
days

Altogether, 360 days; an addition of five

of 12

365 days, but the tropical year exceeded

a
a
of
by nearly
quarter
day, and a day was intercalated every
the year thus
fourth year, making that year to consist of 366 days
it

this

corrected, called the Julian year,

in the course of

little

in excess

day,

and in the course

of

was found in the lapse of time to be a

about 130 years, it amounted to a whole

about 24,000 years the seasons would be so

changed that the calendar would represent Midsummer to happen in

December.
At the Council of Nice, held in 325 A.D., the Vernal

Equinox was fixed to happen on the 21st March in the time

Caesar it had been observed to take place on the 25th March.
;

of Julius

In 1582

10 days, and the Vernal

on the 11th March instead of the 21st

A.D., the error in the calendar

amounted

Equinox was found to happen

March. In that year a change was

to

the 10 days in excess were

effected
taken from the month of October, the 5th day being called the 15th,
thus bringing back the Vernal Equinox to the 21st March.
;

To prevent the recurrence of a similar error in the future, Pope

Gregory XIII. effected a change and it was ordained that in Catholic
countries the

day beginning the century should be an ordinary year of 365

beginning the fourth century should be a leap year. But

days, but that

Hindu Astronomy.

66

star Chitra
opposite the bright

may

Spica),

(i.e.,

be ascertained in

our sphere with exactness."

Sir

W.

Jones also says that there

is

evidence of a

still

earlier

arrangement of the months when the year was made to begin with
the

month Pausha, near

whence the month

Solstice,

name Agrahayana,

has the

Margasirsha

Winter

the

" the
year

or

next

is

before."

twelve months

"The
the

moon seem
old

the

for

now denominated from

as

many

have been formerly peculiar to the lunar year;

to

solar

months,

beginning

Chaitra, have the

with

following verv different names in a curious text of the

order

the

of

seasons

six

Madhee,

Isa, Urja, Sahas,

Nabhas, Nabhasya,

The lunar month has a

India.

stations of

In Bengal

it

different

Madhava,

Yeda on

Sucra,

the

Suchi,

Sahasya, Tapas, Tapasya."

beginning in different parts of

begins at the full

moon

or

Purnima

the

midnight of the Pitris or Ancestors, who reside on the under part

of the

moon.

By

a kind of analogy, as the day of the Pitris was

divided into two parts, by their

moon was

midday and midnight, when the

month was divided

in opposition or conjunction, so the

into two parts, the bright half

and the dark

Sukla Paksha and Krishna Paksha, each part or paksha

called, the

consisting of 15 lunar days or tithis.

this correction,

new

half, or, as they are

The

tithi is defined in the

adopted by a statute 24, Geo. II., c. 23, in 1752, called the

Playfair, observes, is not the most correct, for the

Dr.

style,

made use of the Copernican year of 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes

20 seconds; instead therefore of
inserting 97 days in 400 years they ought
to have added 41
days in 109 years, or 90 days in 371 years, or 131 days
reformers

days in 540 years, &c.

More

recent

observations have detei mined the tropical }ear to be

s conds 30'", and the intercalations

365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 45

ought to be

Sears
L>

That

is

ys
4

17

33

128

545

673

801

929

yi

132

163

199

225

1057
256"'

&C

'

days in 17 years, 8 days in 33 years, 31 in 128 years,

132 in 545 years, &c.

Hindu Months and

Seasons.

urya Siddhantas as the time taken by the

of

the space constituting

ore,

3*0

in describing

month

It

is,

there-

(the time taken

for

from the sun).

moon

The phases of the

to the string of a

moon

separation from the sun.

of the synodic period or lunar

a separation of 360

are called Calas,

and they are compared

necklace or chaplet, round which are placed gems

moveable flowers

or

its

67

the Maha-cala

is

the day of nearest approach

day of the conjunction. In the almanack it goes

by the name of Amavasya, on which obsequies are performed to
to the sun, the

the
is

manes

of the Pitris, or Ancestors, to

whom

the darker fortnight

peculiarly sacred.*

According

to the

Purans

(old Scriptures) the

are derived frottn 12 of the

pose a celestial

nymph

names

Lunar Asterisms.

to preside over

of the

months

The Puranics sup-

each of the 27 constellations,

and they feign that 12 of these were consorts of the Grod Soma, or
the moon,

and that he became the father of 12

genii, or

months,

which were named after their respective mothers.

The mathematical astronomers,

ain that their lunar year

moon being

or Jyautishicas, however, main-

was arranged by former astronomers, the

at the full in each

month on

the very day

sun entered the Nacshatra from which that month

*

An

interesting passage
lived

Niebuhr,
correct

is

when

the

denominated.

from Quintus Curtius who, acoording to

to show that some

under Septimus Severus, appears

knowledge

of the

Hindus was known

to the

Romans

of that time.

Septimus Severus died at York in 211 A.I). It informs us that "the

Indian month consists of 15 days, they indeed compute their time by the
course of the moon, but not, as most other nations do,

hath completed her period, but

into horns,

when she begins

when

that planet

to contract her sphere

and therefore they must necessarily have shorter months, who

measure of lunar calculation."

regulate their time according to this

Quinti Curtii,

lib. 8,

cap. 9.

Mr. Wilkins, in a note to his translation of the Hitipadesa, says

"
The Hindus divide the Lunar month into what they denominate the
:

Sukla-Paksha and the Krishna-Paksha, that is the light side and the
dark side of the moon
the former commencing with the new moon and
;

the latter with the full."

f2

Hindu Astronomy.

68

the solar months were

According to the astronomer Nrisinha,
derived from the Nacshatras
originally lunar, their names being
in

which the moon, departing from a particular point when they

were named, was observed to be at the full

although the

full

moon

did not always happen in those particular Nacshatras, yet the

deviation never exceeded the preceding or succeeding Nacshatra,

and whether

named

it fell

in Hasta, Chitra, or Swati,

still

that

month was

Chaitra, and so of the rest.

THE SEASONS.
The Hindu

solar year is divided into six seasons, each consisting

of periods of

two months, or whilst the sun remains in two signs

successively.

The very

when

cold season

the sun

is

in the

named

Winter

Sisira, is

Solstice, it is followed in order

The Spring named Yasanta.

The Hot Season named Grishma.

The Rainy Season named Varsha.

The Autumn Season named

reckoned from the time

Sarat.

The Cold Season named Hemanta.

by

CHAPTER
THE

V.

RISHIS.

The reader being now in some measure acquainted with the

nature of the Indian Ecliptic, will be able to form a conception of
the accuracy with -which observations

made by taking

on the Colures could be

an example one of the most simple and ancient

as

methods employed for ascertaining the day on which the sun was

Summer

in the

The bright

Solstice.

from the Yernal Equinox,

Asterism

whose longitude

star Eegulus,

Magna;

it

was

is

is

now about 148

the principal star of the Indian

close to the

2280 B.C., being only 27' north of

Summer

it.

Solstice in the year

Consequently, the sun, in

annual course through the Ecliptic, would be in the Solstice

its

when passing the

star

Regulus,

from the sun's upper limb.

Regulus (shortly before or
of the place of the

carried

on for

many

after)

Solstice,

years,

it

being then only

would give

especially

if

fairly accurate results

the observations were

and the retrograde motion of the

had not been discovered long before.

attached to the sacred days

of a degree

Observations of the heliacal rising of

must necessarily have been discovered about that time,

it

Lunar

when

if,

Solstice

indeed,

The importance always

the sun was in a Solstice has been

before referred to as intimately associated with religious ceremonies,

and allusions to a time when the

stellation

Summer

Solstice

was in the Con-

Leo are conspicuous in the ancient writings found in

most Eastern countries.

It

is,

however, certain that the fixed star

Regulus, the principal one of that constellation, marked the position of the

then to
star.

Summer

all nations,

Solstice in or about the year

2300 B.C., and

the sun would be seen to rise together with that

For the period of 200 years, both before and

after that date,

Hindu Astronomy.

70

the Solstitial point, in

slow motion along the Ecliptic, wonld

its

from the

not be more distant than 3

years, therefore,

it

would be seen

to rise

and during these 400

at

midsummer

shortly

Hence, Regulus, under the name of Magna

before or after the sun.

must have been a

in India,

star,

star of considerable importance, not

only to the Indo-Aryans, before they arrived in India, but also to

all
it

the Asiatic tribes, for, being a fixed point close to the Ecliptic,

was most convenient

to all, as pointing the sacred

days of the

year, and as affording estimates of the longitudes of the

When

planets.

was in conjunction with that

a planet

this circumstance alone it

The

was known that

it

had a

"

moon and
star,

from

longitude of

movement

over the

in

would have been at the beginning of the Constellation Magna,

Magna."

at or about the year

Now,
assumed

Solstice in its retrograde

1590 B.C.

Hindu astronomers

at tliis period, the ancient

"

the beginning of

Magha

of the celestial sphere passing

"

through the Pole of the Ecliptic, as

a starting position for the Solstitial Colure, from

which to reckon

retrogression, and they called this "the line of the Rishis."

remained fixed whilst the

evidently

as a point in the great circle

its

This line

Colure continued to retrograde.

Solstitial

Students of the astronomical writings of the Hindus have been

more or

less

puzzled with certain assertions found in them, relative

to the alleged

motion of the

Hindu commentators

stars,

themselves,

known

when

as

"the Rishis."

The

treating of these supposed

motions, have apparently either not understood the

full

meaning

of

the astronomers, whose doctrines they were referring to, or have

enveloped their own statements in some amount of uncertainty and

confusion.

With

a view to clear up a question which has occa-

sioned considerable controversy,

it

is

necessary to briefly examine

the subject of the Rishis, and to offer an explanation.

Mystery, indeed, hangs over most of the ancient writings of the

Hindus.

Many

of their Scriptures,

productions of living

which we believe

men, are ascribed by them

to be the

to the Gods.

The Rishis.

The

71

no doubt, pious

real authors of these sacred writings were,

men who

concealed their authorship, or with humility disclaimed

Supreme Being rather

the merit of their work, as being due to the

than to themselves.
their assent,

To

this assumption, their

countrymen yielded

and they were accordingly deemedj

to

be inspired

saints.

These were the Rishis, and Munis,

and devoted

their race,

men

gifted above others of

to lives of meditation

and contemplation

of

the Deity, and even seeking absorption in the same spiritual essence.

They

figure

by name sometimes

whilst on earth, and afterwards as

as
still

Anchorites and Sunyasees

existing, amidst the con-

stellations as single stairs in the celestial sphere.

By

the w.-rd Rishi*, according to Colebrooke,

is

generally

meant

the inspired writer, or the saint of the text, the person to whom the
"
passage was revealed, or the author, notwithstanding the assertion
of the

Hindus that the Vedas were composed by no human authors."

It is a singular fact, says Sir "W. .Tones, that

language, Ricsha means a constellation, and

Mahaicsha may denote

"

in the Sanscrit

also a bear, so that

either a great bear or a great Asterism.

meant " to shine " the Seven (Rishis) Eikshas or

shiners received their name
and to the same root probably belongs the
name of the Golden Bear the Greek apicrog and Latin Ursa, as the
Germans gave to the Lion Goldfusz and thus when the epithet had by
some tribes been confined to the bear, the seven shiners were transformed
*

From

a rout which

into seven bears, then into one bear with Arcturus for their bearward.

In In<Ha

but instead of
also, the meaning of Riksha was forgotten
the
word
to
the
bears,
referring
people confounded it with Rishi, wise,
and the seven stars or shiners became the abode of seven sages or poets.

The same

name for this constellation. They who spoke

had long forgotten that their fathers spoke of the
(staras) or strewers of light, and converted the bearward

lot befel

another

of the seven triones

stars as taras

into Bootes, the

that they

ploughman while the Teutonic nations, unconscious

had retained the old root in their word stern or star, likewise

embodied a

false

on Languages,
p. 48.

etymology in wagons and wains.

Second Scries

VIII.,

Max

Midler, Lectures

Westminster Review, January

1865,

Hindu Astronomy.

72

Egyptologists

may

perhaps derive the Megas Arctos of the Greeks

from an Indian compound

The Megas Arctos

understood."

ill

of the Greeks is the

well-known constellation

Ursa Major of the Romans, the Great Wain, as

every age of astronomy, to distinguish it from the
constellation
vellers

Ursa Minor.

it

was called in

lesser

Wain, the

Diodorus Siculus informs us that tra-

through the sandy plains of Arabia directed their course by

the bears, in the

same manner

as navigators guide their vessels at

sea.

Now,
from

in the Indian astronomy, the seven stars of

to n are called

respectively Cratu,

Ursa Major

Pulaha, Pulastya, Atri,

Angiras, Vasishtha, and Marichi, and these are the names of the
"
seven sages known collectively as
the Rishis," so frequently mentioned in their most ancient writings.

Vasishtha, according to the Index Anucramani of the respective

authors of each passage of the Yedas, was the composer of the

hymns contained
those in the fifth

in the seventh
;

Angiras

book

of the

father of two other composers of books of the

as the

name

Rig Yeda; Atri

of those in another

implies, the Great Rishi.

of

Marichi was the

same Yeda

he was,

Other composers were Vyasa,

the son of Parasara, and several descendants of

Angiras.

These seven

stars,

denoted by their Indian names, are shown in

the positions they occupy with respect to the 27 Asterisms of the

Indian Zodiac, in Plate X.

posed plane of

They have been projected on the supthe Equator, in accordance with the method pre-

viously described, from the latitudes and longitudes given in the

following extract, from the Brahma Siddhanta of Sacalya:
"
At the commencement of the Yuga, Cratu was near the star

sacred to

Vishnu

at

(Sravjvna),

the beginning of the Asterism.

Three degrees East of him was Pulaha, and

Pulastya at ten degrees
distant from this; Atri followed, at three
degrees from the last;

and Angiras

from him

at eight degrees

the distance of seven

degrees

next came Vasishtha, at

and, lastly, Marichi, at ten.

Their

Hindu Astronomy.

Plate

THE POSITION OF THESOLSTITIM COLURE

Cratu

Pulahya..^
Pulaslya..?-

Atri

Angiras..e

2,800 BjC.,1590 B.C. and

..

ULGT

J8ZZA .0.

S Auriga;
Prajapati
Bramehridaya. Capella
Agni

.......

Apas

;..

^Tauri

Virginis

It The Pole of

Vasishta..

Marichi.

UrsaeMajoris

Ecliptic
Equinoctia

The Rishis.

motion
Ecliptic

Their distances from the

eight minutes in a year.

is

73

North were, respectively, 55, 50, 50, 56, 57, 60, and 60

For moving in the North the sages employ 2,700 years in revolving
through the assemblage of the Asterisms, and hence their positions
be easily

may

Now, the
works

known

at

any particular time."

peculiar motiojn ascribed in the Siddhantas and other

(which motion has no

to these seven fixed stars, the Bishis

amount

real foundation), has excited a considerable

of discussion.

Extracts are given by Colebrooke from the works of no fewer

than twelve different Hindu authors,

all

of

whom

opinion that the Bishis had the motion referred

supposed

to

West over

occupy them 100 years in

were of the

to,

their progress

and

vSiddhanta or

by

its

is

not

noticed,

commentators.

computation given for estimating the

the Puranas.

however,

to

by the Surya

Nrisinha rejects the rule of

motion as not agreeing with

Bhascara, according to Muniswara^ omitted this

on account of contradictory opinions concerning

because

was

the space allotted to each Asterism along the Ecliptic.

The supposed motion

tcpic,

it

from East

it is

it,

and

of no great use.

Muniswara, in his own compilation, the Siddhanta Sarvabauma,

observes that the seven Bishis, are "not like other stars, attached

by

spikes, to the solid ring of the Ecliptic,

circles,

but revolve, in small

round the Northern Pole of the Ecliptic."

"Camalacara

notices the opinion delivered in the Siddhanta

Sarvabhauma, but observes that no such motion

is

perceptible,

remarking, however, that the authority of the Puranas, and San"

hitas,

which affirm

ciles faith

fixed

their revolution, is incontrovertible, he recon-

and experience, by saying that the

stars themselves are

but the seven Bishis are invisible Deities,

who perform the

stated revolutions in the period specified."

Begarding
cara's

this explanation, Colebrooke dryly remarks, if Carnal-

notion be adopted, no further difficulty remains, but

it

could hardly be supposed that the celebrated astronomers, Lalla

Hindu Astronomy.

74

and
and Varaha Mihra, who were not mere compilers

transcribers,

and
intended to describe revolutions of invisible beings,

it

can

should have exhibited rules of comscarcely be supposed that they

putation,

which did not approach

to the trutji, at the

very period

when they were proposed.

From

the extracts above given,

will be seen that the several

it

motion which they themselves evidently did not

understand, but which they were endeavouring to explain from

writers refer to a

traditional doctrine, received

was really

the subject

from previous astronomers,

whom

to

clear.

was
proceeding to the explanation of what

Before, however,

meant by the original Hindu astronomers, in regard

to this sup-

posed motion of the Rishis, as represented in the quotations from

modern authors

of

general readers

it

the theory of

Hindu astronomical works

be advantageous to give some account of

may

modern astronomy

relating to the

For convenience of reference, and

understood by the reader,

Northern Hemisphere

is

is

now

to

make

same

subject.

the subject more easily

modern map (Plate XI.)

here given.

jection of the principal stars

plane

for the benefit ot

situated, the divisions

the

supposed to be a pro-

It is

on the plane

of

of the Equator, as that

on the circumference represent-

ing right ascensions, and the radii being each supposed to be divided
into 90 equal parts to represent degrees.

Now, the

relative

positions

of the

unchanged, however remote the time

From

this

map

stars

may

remain constant and

be.

Plate X. has been drawn, showing the positions

of the seven stars of

Ursa Major, with

their Indian names, and

connected with them the unchangeable position of the Nacshatras,

as nearly as

Equator

round

*,

',

it

can be ascertained with certainty.

moving

in a

The Pole

of the

contrary direction to the signs of the Zodiac

(the Pole of the Ecliptic), the great moveable circle the

Solstitial Colure,
passing

through the two Poles

-,

n the course

of one revolution, must, of course, have been in coincidence with

Hindu Astronomy.
Plate XI.

WM,/// Hrmiphi

The Rishis.

In 4248 B.C.

avery star of the Celestial Sphere.

cidence with Marichi

(or n Ursse Majoris),

the Equinox of 1894 was 175

in turn, it

was nearly

the Solstitial

75

18'

10",

in coincidence

point was

at the

hundred and sixty years

was in coin-

it

whose longitude from

then after passing over

with

3510

in

when

B.C.,

Nine

beginning of the U-phalguni.

later

it

arrived at the beginning of Purva-

phalgnni, and entered the Constellation

Magna

(at

the end of

then, after the lapse of a further period of 9G0 years,

it

it),

reached

the beginning of that constellation.

The
circle,

Solstitial Colure

then coincided with the fixed unchangeable

assumed and called the

line of the Rishis, passing

that fixed point (the first of M-agha)

through

and the Pole of the Ecliptic in

the year 1590 B.C., and in about 335 years later, or in 1255 B.C.,

leaving the line of the Rishis in

Cratu or

Ursae Majoris.

This

its
is

with
retrogression, it coincided

an epoch before referred to by

Davis, Colebrooke and Bentley, but reckoned b}^

them

have been

to

at a little earlier date (see p. 54).

The longitude

of

Ursae

Majoris,

deduced

from the Right

Ascension and Declination, as given in the Almanacs of 1894,

133

44' 25",

this

and the longitude of the

first

shows that the Colure, when

it

55" from the position which

it

38'

with the beginning of Magha,

of the Ecliptic

i.e.,

Magha

is

138

23' 20",

coincided with Cratu was

occupied when

the line joining

it

the line which was technically called

astronomers "the line of the Rishis."

cided, it

of

When

it

coincided

with the Pole

by the ancient

the two lines coin-

would appear that they both went by the same name

one fixed and the other moveable

is

the

from which circumstance the

more modern Indian astronomers have confounded the

following the one that was moveable,

made

a supposed

lines, and.

movement

of the stars themselves.

It will be observed that a line
of the Ecliptic * to the

drawn on the

beginning of Magha,

figure
lies

from the Pole

between

and

ft,

which agrees with the statement of the commentator Sridhara

Hindu Astronomy.

76

Next, with, regard to the further statement of this writer,

Swami.

and of others who were

in motion,

and that

it

of opinion that this line of the Rishis was

remained in each Asterism a hundred years

It will be observed that the astronomers of the period

between

the 10th and 14th centuries before the Christian Era had made

many

and amongst others

discoveries,

this,

was moving backwards along the

Col ure

that the Solstitial

Approximate

signs.

values of the rate of motion were computed, which computations

resulted, as stated
Solstices

had

by Bentley, in

fallen

back 3

their finding that in 945 B.C. the

20' in respect of the fixed stars during

a period of 247 years and one month, from the position they had

mean annual

in the year 1192 B.C.

This makes the

backwards 48-56661".

Now, neglecting the decimal part of this

which would express what was to be stated

value of the regression,

in

rate of motion

round numbers, and reducing the arc of an Asterism, or 13

to seconds,

seen that there are exactly 48,000" in an Asterism,

it is

and, dividing this by the annual rate, 48", it

thousand years
fact, it

20',

would take just one

for the Solstitial point to travel over

In actual

it.

takes 960 years, as previously stated.

Now, what
should be

more natural than that omissions

is

made

in the

original astronomers,

numerous copies

who

lived

or mistakes

of the statements of the

more than 28 centuries

a cipher should have been lost, or even a dot (which,

ago, or that

we

are told,

ancient writers used in lieu of a cipher), at the end of the number,

and that modern Hindu writers should have been misled in stating
100 instead of 1,000 years, 2,700 years for a revolution instead of

27,000?

With

mean

value of 50" for the, precession, we reckon

25,920 years for the revolution of a Solstice or of an Equinox.

In the preceding passages with
respect to the Rishis, quoted by

Colebrooke from various astronomical works of the Hindus, the

writers agree in the
line of the Rishis,

common mistake

of a supposed

and in the opinion that a

each Asterism in 100 years

Solstice

motion oi

the

moves through

but we can only regard these mutilated

The Rishis.

V?

common

fragments of a nearly perfect theory as having had a

origin, in a

We may

remote age.

suppose that they have been

handed down from the same Jyotish family, by

scendants,

and that the original doctrines have

scattered de-

its

lost their true

liability to error

would be increased by the complex nature

lost to the successors of

known and

this

of the

short, the rate of

motion

so near to the truth,

became

In

subject without sufficient explanation.

of the Solstices, originally

form,

and

from repeated transcripts, during long periods of time,

the earliest astronomers.

HINDU THEORY OF A LIBRATION OF THE EQUINOXES.

To the theory of a revolution of the Colures there was a

which

doctrine,

may have

rival

been the cause of the former theory

This was

becoming neglected, and, in a great measure, forgotten.

the doctrine of a libration of the Equinoctial

and

Solstitial points.

Colebrooke, in his essay on the equinoxes, has given the views of a

number
to be

of writers

on the subject

by some the motion

is

considered

an entire revolution, through the whole of the Asterisms

others,

and those the most numerous,

certain limits

whom was

on each

it

was a

side of a fixed point;

the celebrated astronomer

by

libration, between

by a few, amongst

Brahmagupta, who (though

he was aware of the fact that the Southern Solstice had been formerly in the middle of Aslesha, and the Northern in the beginning
of

He remarks

Dhanishtha) had doubts regarding the motion.

upon the passage in the text relating to their former position,

'*

this

only proves a shifting of the Solstices, not numerous revolutions

of it

through the Ecliptic."

It will not be necessary in this connection to give

extracts
lion.

from

authorities

The

more than two

the doctrine of a libra-

passage from Bhascara's description of the Armillary

Sphere states that

"

who have assumed

intersection of the Equinoctial

and Ecliptic

Cranti-Pata, or intersecting point of the sun's path.

circles, is

the

Its revolu-

Hindu Astronomy.

78

on the authority of Surya, are retrograde, three myriads

tions,

in

a calpa."

This

the

is

Munjala and

same with the motion

others.

The following
Siddhanta
"

The

In a
is

the corresponding passage from the

is

Asterisms moves Eastward 30 score in a Yuga."

circle of

later translation

The

circle of

by Pundit Papu Deva

Sastri, the passage

Asterisms librates 600 times in a great Yuga,"

and the translator, in explanation, proceeds thus

"
(that

Surya

thus rendered
"

of the Solstice, as affirmed by

to sa}

is

all

the Asterisms at

first

move Westward 27.

Then, returning from that limit, they reach their former places;
then,

from those places they move Eastward the same number

degrees,

and returning thence, come again

to their

Thus, they complete one libration, or revolution, as

this

the

way

number

of

revolutions

in

own

places.

it is called.

Yuga

is

of

In

600, which

answers to 600,000 in a Kalpa."

Now, Bhaseara was

too good a mathematician to have

made

mistake of putting 30,000 for half of a revolution, or for the

grade motion of the libration, instead of 300,000.

the

retro-

There must,

have been some mistake in the transcript or in the trans-

therefore,
lation.

In these two statements

poses the

Equinoctial

it

point

may
is

Siddhanta assumes that the entire

first

27

on one side of a

motion,

circle of the

whereas the
Asterisms

point, and then 27

Surya

oscillates,

on the other

This supposed motion of the whole of the con-

side of that point.

stellations

mean

be noticed that Bhascara sup-

in

may have

led Bentley to assume that the ancient astrono-

mers had two systems of Lunar Asterisms, the one fixed and the
other moveable, the latter of which he called the
Tropical Sphere,

which was
from

at one time in coincidence with the Sidereal

Sphere,

this it has

precession.

been separating, at a rate equal

to the

and

annual

The Rishis.

The theory

of a libration, as expressed in various astronomical

works, has been

shown by Colebrooke

from very early times.

valent

79

have been generally pre-

to

was

It

maintained

also a doctrine

by Aryabhatta and Parasara, and by most of the Hindu astronomers of later times.

The conception of a vibration was, without doubt, suggested by

motion

the peculiar

Equator about the Pole of

of the Pole of the

the Ecliptic.

The choice of 27

was obviously an arbitrary selection

on each

limit of a libration

Nacshatra of

20'

mean

side of a

The

point.

would not have served the purpose

the

for

arc of a

so well, for

Other arcs which might

connecting the motion with the Calpa.

have been made use of did not lend themselves conveniently to the

The number 27

construction.

Mansions, double that number

in

the
If

mean annual

we view
we

sphere,

the same as that of the seconds,

is

rate of motion in the libration, namely, 54".

this subject in its connection

see

still

Lunar

the same as that of the

is

with the geometry of the

further evidence of design, in the choice of 27

as the limit of the vibration.

Let

the

circle

large

E 8 C

Ecliptic in the plane of the paper.

tion of its pole,
in

and

let

APP'

which the Equinoctial Pole

indicated

by the order of these

Suppose
great circle

P
*

The

represent

figure

the

being the projec-

centre

be the projection of the small circle

is

moving round

in the direction

*,

letters.

to be the place of this

P 8

the

in

Pole at any time, then the

joining the two Poles will represent the position

of the Solstitial Colure at that time,

and

S, the point

sects the Ecliptic, will in this figure represent the

where

Summer

it

inter-

Solstice,

being nearest to the Equinoctial Pole.

Now,
i.e.,

if

to

suppose

we assume the

arc of the Ecliptic

to be equal to

be the limit of a vibration of the Solstice from

a great circle ot

touch the small circle in

the sphere

1
,

TOP

1
,

to be

drawn

intersecting the Colure

S,

27,
and

so as to

""PS

in 0,

Hindu Astronomy.

80

then

I)

would be a point about which, as a fulcrum, any other great

circle joining it

with the Equinoctial Pole, would

and the

oscillate,

points of intersection of such a circle with the Ecliptic would librate

For example,

within the prescribed limits.

arc of such a circle,

meeting the Ecliptic in

between the two supposed limits of 27

let

t,

then

represent an

would

librate

on each side of the mean

point S, and would complete a revolution in the same time as the

Equinoctial Pole would describe a revolution round

It will be observed that, in accordance

limit of

27, the

spherical triangles

27,

figure

T S

in the other * P'

ing to

is

Ecliptic

may

From

with the hypothesis

of a

shows that there are two right-angled

and

*-

p' 0, in one of which

S T

is

given

the measure of the obliquity, and, accord-

Hindu Astronomers, equal

are equal.

to

24

also the vertical angles at

these conditions the distance of

from the

be determined, and we find

And the angle P

* P' or the arc

45

33' 6".

P', will

be 63, or the complement

The Rishis.

27.

of the limiting arc

arc P'

direction

P", or

234,

Thus, while the Pole moves through the

be moving from

will

81

to

t'

in a retrograde

through 108, but through the same arc in the direction

of the signs, while the Pole

The answer

to

moves from P"

the question,

"

How

to P'.

could a libration of the

Equinoxes according to the hypothesis of the Hindu Astronomers

be explained and reconciled with our

was

first

own theory

of their

motion

sought in the solution of the two spherical triangles

and * P'

?"

T S

which gave the two formulae

= sin S T cot *
= tan * F tan
cos F *
S

tan

P'.

(1.)

S.

(2.)

Multiplying (1) and (2) together, and suppressing

common

factors,

we have
cos P'
or the angle P'

sin

the complement of the arc

is

This

S.

is

general solution which would apply to other arcs of libration besides

that of

27.

To return

will observe that the

meaning

suggestion

of that expression

astronomers in India,
theories of

"

to the subject of the

is

line of the llishis," the reader

made

to the effect that the real

was obscured

strengthened

by

to,

and by, the

later

a consideration of the

such later astronomers, particularly of that relating to

the libration of the Equinoctial point.

When

it is

considered that the earliest

Hindu astronomers

re-

garded the whole starry firm anient as fixed, and accordingly framed
their Ecliptic, as a fixed dial, peculiar to their system, it is easily

seen that the Solstitial point

as

and Oolure

an index finger moving on such

dial.

(to

them

so important)

Further,

when

it is

was
con-

sidered that they definitely announced, at intervals, that the Colure

had retrograded so

many

degrees, minutes,

and seconds

since a

previous occasion, giving the annual rate very closely to the rate

now accepted

as the truth,

"line of the Rishis

"

we

are driven to the conclusion that the

was a part of

their fixed system,

and was a

Hindu Astronomy.

82

line represented

they fixed
first

by the

it, i.e.,

when

Solstitial

Colure as

so coincident

was in 1590 B.C.

fixed, as the
"

Rishis in

by means

and more fropi

it

first

of

Thus, the

The date when

of the

"

it

line of the Rishis

Magha," and thus

was a datum from which

Magha

historic times

"

when

at the date

the Solstitial point was coincident with the

point of the Lunar Asterism, Magha.

mained

was

it

to

"

"

was
re-

the line of the

reckon in /those ante-

moving Colnre which separated more

just as subsequently, in A.D. 570, the

'

first of

Aswini" was made by later astronomers a fixed datum on the

In conEcliptic from which to reckon their apparent longitudes.
clusion,

may

it

be

stated

that,

although probably the epoch

3102 B.C. (the commencement of the Kali Yuga) was an epoch

arrived at

by

calculation backwards

yet the epoch 1590 B.C. was

one fixed by observation of the then astronomers, and always

ferred to subsequently

by

allusion to

"

re-

the line of the Rishis," then

established.

In a subsequent chapter, which deals with the decadence of Hindu

astronomy whilst the nation was under Buddhist influence, and
whilst the

Hindu

accessories)

religion (with its astronomical

was under a cloud, an endeavour

and mathematical
will

be

made

to

explain how, probably, the ancient accurate astronomical knowledge must have, to some extent, been

lost.

CHAPTEE

It is

natural for

nomena

men

to

form theories

to account for the phe-

of the TTriiveirse.

Guided by appearances in regard

earth itself

was thought

moon, the

sun, the

a daily c

mrse

planets,

and when

matter to account for the

all

to

surrounding objects, the

at first to be a vast plane over

and the

it

stars

seemed each

of a

sphere, it

manner by which

the celestial bodies

which the

to

perform

was found that the true form

was more nearly that

surface

with

VI.

it

moving round

was

still

no easy

was upheld in
it

daily,

of the

space,

except by

reference to supernatural agencies.

For thousands of years this apparent motion of the sidereal

sys-

tem, or, in reality, the actual diurnal motion of the earth round
axis,

its

has been going on uniformly, without sensible variation;

although the axis

itself

has undergone constant change in position

by a slow conical motion, requiring nearly 26,000 years to complete

one revolution.

The astronomers

of the Siddhantas, influenced,

no doubt, by their

reverence for the sacred writings and the fear of offending caste
prejudices, say very little regarding the causes of the planetary

motions, beyond giving a general statement of them, as understood

by the more ancient astronomers.

The common opinion was that the sun and the

stars,

called

planets, with the

were carried diurnally Westward by a mighty wind or

aether,

Pravaha, which was moving continuously in a kind of whirl-

ing vortex.
It

was supposed that the apparent Eastward motion of the

planets in their orbits

q 2

was brought about by an overpowering

Hindu Astronomy.

84

influence of the stars, causing

them

irregular motions wore produced

by

to

hang back, and that the

invisible Deities at the apogees

different orbits, those at the apogees attracting

and the nodes of the

them unequally by means

them

of reins of winds, thus guiding

in

their course, whilst the others, situated at the nodes, deflected to

the North or the South of the Ecliptic.

The notion

that the planets were carried by an aether whirled

about the sun (however ridiculous

modern

science)

of Kepler

was one

appear in the light of

may

also prevalent in

Europe before the times

Even Descartes and Leibneitz and

and Newton.

much

of followers bestowed

it

a crowd

labour and extensive learning in prov-

ing the system of vortices to be a necessity; and

was not

it

till

long after the publication of the Principia, that the Cartesian

doctrines were abandoned at Cambridge.*

Bhaskara, in his Siddhanta Siromani, after giving a number

moon

is

and that the sun

is

reasons proving that an eclipse of the

the

shadow

of the earth,

caused by
eclipsed

covered by the moon, as with a cloud, goes on to say

its

by

of

entering
its

being

"Those learned astronomers who, being too exclusively devoted

to the

Rahu

doctrine of the sphere, believe and maintain that

cannot be

the. cause of the

ing their assertions

obscuration of the sun and moon, found-

on the above-mentioned

ences in the parts of the body

causes of obscuration,

etc.,

first

varieties,

and

differ-

obscured, in the place, time,

must be admitted

to assert,

what

is at

variance with the Sanhita, the Vedas, and the Puranas.

The Principia was

first

published in 1687.

David Gregory gave instruction upon the Newtonian Philosophy in

Edinburgh for several years prior to his removal to Oxford in 1690.
Whiston, in the memoirs of his own life, says, referring to him:
" He had
already caused several of his scholars to keep acts, as \v<> (all
them, upon several branches of the Newtonian Philosophy, while we

Cambridge (poor wretches) were ignominiously studying the

at

fictitious

hypotheses of the Cartesians."

The Physics

of

Pohault were in use

to a

much

later period than this.

Theory regarding the causes of the Planetary Motions, &c.

85

"All discrepancy, however, between the assertions of the above

referred to

and the sacred Scriptures

standing that

it

is

Rahu

the dark

be reconciled by under-

may

which, entering the earth's

shadow, and which, again entering the moon in a

obscures the sun

by the power conferred upon

it

solar eclipse,

by the favour

of

Brahma."
It

was usual with the authors of the Siddhantas

Hindu Cosmography

fabulous description of

give the

to

as set forth in the

Vedas and the Puranas, though they themselves might not be at

the pains to assert their faith in

Bhaskara, with great patience,

it.

goes through the account of the six Dwipas and the seven seas of
milk, curds,

clarified

butter,

sugar-cane juice, wine, and sweet

water; the positions of the mountains in

Jumbu Dwipa and

the

nine valleys, the Golden Meru, the abode of the Gods, the gardens,
the lakes,

and

rivers in

which the

celestial spirits,

when

fatigued

with their dalliance with the fair Goddesses, disport themselves.

But he himself attaches no

concludes with the words

"
:

credit to

What

is

what he

describes,

and he

stated here rests all on the

authority of the Puranas."

He
"

thus reasons regarding the various supporters of the earth

were supported by any material substance or living

If the earth

creature, then that would require a second supporter, and for that

second a third would be required.

an interminable

remain firm by

own

power be supposed to

He
"

inherent power, then

exist in the first, that

why may

is,

not the same

the earth ?"

asserts that the earth has an inherent power of attraction

The earth

attracts

any unsupported heavy thing towards

thing appears to be falling, but

the earth.

The

it is

fall ?

To the Bauddists, wlio

nally in space, he says

it.

The

in a state of being drawn to

ethereal expanse being equally outspread

where can the earth

of

If the last of the series be supposed to

series.

its

Here we have the absurdity

all

around,

n
assert that the earth is

going down

eter-

Hindu Astronomy.

86
"

Baudha, that every heavy body pro-

Observing, as yon do,

jected into the air

comes back again

to,

and overtakes, the

bow, then, can yon idly maintain that the earth

is

falling

earth,

down

in

space (thinking that the earth, being the heavier body, wonld go
"
faster and wonld never be overtaken
by the lighter) ?

To the
says

Jaina,

who

is

a heretic, and disliked by the Brahmins, he

" But what shall

say of thy

t
Jaina, who, without objec

folly,

or use, supposest a double set of constellations, two suns,

moons ?

Dost thou not

tions take a

"

not

see that the visible circumpolar constella-

whole day to complete their revolutions?

If this blessed earth were level like a

plane mirror, then

sun revolving

the

visible to

sun

and two

is

above

at

distance

men, as well as to the Gods (according

always revolving about

Mem

from
to the

the

why

is

earth,

Puranas the

above the earth and hori-

zontally)
"
If the

Golden Meru

is

visible when, it intervenes

the cause of night, then

between us and the sun?

being 'admitted by the Puranas to

the North,
"
that the sun ris?s (for half the
year) to the South?
lie to

why is it not
And Meru,
how comes

it

This and the like reasonings of the authors of the Siddhanta

Siromani, exhibit a keenness of observation which would do credit
to latter-day

European philosophy.

CHAPTER

VII.

ARITHMETIC, ALGEBRA, AND GEOMETRY OF THE HINDUS.

In histories of the mathematical sciences

trace our

knowledge of arithmetic

it

to the Arabs,

has been -usual to

and our numerals

from those of the Greeks and Romans by the

are distinguished

symbols termed Arabic.

Dr. Peacock, in his

work on

arithmetic,

nothing in

the Greek notation which in the

slightest degree resembles our

own, and nothing in the object pro-

observes

there

is

posed in the researches of Archimedes and Apollonius which could

naturally lead to

its

invention.

In Bhascara's Vasana,

numeration

is

it is

stated that, according to the Hindus,

of divine origin,

with the device of places, to

"the invention of nine

make them

suffice for all

figures,

numbers,

being ascribed to the beneficent Creator of the Universe."

Dr. Peacock remarks upon this passage

"

Of

its

great antiquity

amongst them there can be no doubt, having been used

at a period

anterior to all existing records.

"Most

human

other

memorable inventions they have attributed

authors, but this, in

common with

to

the invention of letters,

they have ascribed to the Divinity, agreeably to the practice of the

Greeks, Egyptians, and most other nations, with respect to more

important inventions in the arts of

life

whose origin

remoteness of antiquity."

The Sanscrit names

of the ten numerals are

1.

Eca.

G.

2.

Dwau.

7.

Sapta.

3.

Traya.

8.

Ashta.

4.

Chatur.

9.

Nova.

Ponga.

10.

Dasa.

5.

Shata.

is lost

in the

Hindu Astronomy.

88
"
all

These have been adopted, with slight variations, not merely in

languages of the same class and origin, but likewise in

others which are radically different

from them.

the expressions of higher numbers,

we

of their formation

by the combination

If

find the

of

many

we proceed

to

same general law

names

of the articulate

number's, wit}h those of the nine digits.

"From

consideration that

when a

national literature, whether

oral or written, is so generally diffused as to

a test of purity, which, while

upon

all

it

form a standard,

or

enforces a legitimate character

existing terms, watches over the introduction of all others

with extreme jealousy; from this consideration alone, independently of other evidence,

we should be

inclined to assign to the

Sanscrit terms for high numbers, and, consequently, to their system

of

numeration upon which they are founded, an antiquity at

as great as their

most ancient

impositions of so
of each other,

literary

many new names

and in numbers,

possibly be required for

monuments

for the

also, so

least

as the arbitrary

most part independent

much

greater than could

any ordinary application

of them,

would

be a circumstance entirely without example in any language which

had already acquired a

settled

and generally recognised character."

ALGEBRA.

It has

been usual to ascribe the origin of Algebra

Arabs, but there

that

we

is little

doubt that

possess, for it is a natural

it is as

also to the

old as any knowledge

method by which the mind

investigates truth.

The name Algebra

Arabic words

Geber, to

by

is

supposed by some to be derived from

others from a supposed inventor whose

which the particle Al

is

name was

added, malting Al Geber,

signify-

ing in Arabic, the reduction of fractions to integers.

Peter "Ramus, in his Algebra, says the

name Algebra

is

Syriac,

signifying the art and doctrine, of an excellent man, and that there

was a certain learned mathematician who sent his algebra written

and Geometry

Arithmetic, Algebra,

of the Hindus.

and he named

in the Syriac language to Alexander the Great,

Almu

Cabala, that

is,

89

it

the book of dark and mysterious things.

Indications of the science are traceable in the writings of the

ancient philosophers, whose contemplation of nature required such

an

aid.

The

earliest

Arabic work on algebra, written by a Mahomedan.

by themselves, a

is,

as declared

of

Mahomed Ben Musa,

of

which was the production

treatise

Kowarezm, in

tjhe

reign of the Caliph

Al Mamun, son of the famous Caliph Haroun Al-Easchid

written

about the beginning of the 9th century A^.D.

A
is

manuscript copy of this work, dated 743 A.H., or 1342 A.D.,

preserved in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and

it is

surmised to

be the earliest cop^y in existence.

translation of

it

was made from the Arabic into English by

Fredric Rosen, and published in 1831.

The author, in

his preface, states that

"Encouraged by the
Faithful,

by the

lating,

what

etc.,

is

Imam

he was induced

Al

Mahmun, Commander

and reduction, confining

in arithmetic, such as

men

all.

their dealings with one another, or

and

The design

of

trade,

and

where the measuring of

lands, the digging of canals, geometrical computation,

objects of various sorts

it to

constantly require

in cases of inheritance, legacies, partition law suits,

in

of the

compose a short work on calcu-

to

rules of completion

most useful

and other

and kinds are concerned."

the work does

not extend

beyond questions

requiring for their solution either simple or quadratic equations,

and these are solved by the same rules as those employed in the
treatise

of

Diophantus

but

it

is

not piobable that Ben

borrowed anything from that work, for

it

was not

of the fourth century of the Hejeira (about

treatise of

till

Musa

the middle

960 A.D.) that the

Diophantus was translated into Arabic by Abul Wafa

Buzani.

Mr. Rosen was of opinion that the Arabs received "their

first

Hindu Astronomy.

90

them with
knowledge of algebra from the Hindus, who furnished
their decimal notation of numerals, and also with various important
points of mathematical and astronomical information

"as
to

but he adds

Ben Musa's performance, he seems

them in the manner of digesting and

to the subject matter of

have been independent of

it

treating

as well as in

Hindu
It

;"

at least the

method he

follows in

showing their application,

differs

his rules

considerably

from

writers."

was a matter

of

much importance

which the Arabians were indebted

ment made by them

to ascertain the degree in

to the

Hindus

entered

upon an investigation

is

for the improve-

in mathematics and astronomy, at the earliest

period in which the sciences were cultivated

* It

expounding

by them.

of this question,*

Colebrooke

and gathered

stated in the preface to the astronomical tables of

to-

Ben-al-

Adami, published by his continuator, Al Casern in 920 A.D., that in

the reign of the second Abasside Kalif Almansur, in 773 A.D., "An
Indian astronomer, well versed in the science he professed, visited the
court of the Kalif, bringing with him tables of the planets according to
the mean motions, with observations relative to both Solar and Lunar
Eclipses,

and the ascension

of the signs

taken, as he affirmed, from

The Kalif embracing the opporthus

to
commanded
the book to be published for
him,
tunity
presented
a guide to the Arabians in matters pertaining to the stars." The task
devolved on Muhammed Ben Ibrahim Alfazari, whose version is known
to astronomers by the name of the greater Sind-Hind (Arabic of hither
and remoter India). It signifies, according to the same author, Ben-alAdami, the revolving ages. Colebrooke supposes the word may have
been Siddhanta or Indu-Siddhanta, and appears to have been that which
tables

computed by an Indian Prince.

is contained in the Brahma Siddhanta.

It is cited by the astrologer of
Balkh Abu Mashar, but he does not specify which of the Indian systems
he is citing. But it is distinctly affirmed by later Arabian writers, that

only one of the three Indian doctrines of astronomy was understood by

the Arabs.
Colebrooke Essays, Vol. II, p. 504.

Colebrooke was of opinion that the Sind-Hind was a copy of the revised

Brahma Siddhanta of Brahmegupta, and that the fact was deducible

from the number of elapsed days between the beginning of the planetary
motions and the commencement of the present age of the world according

Arithmetic, Algebra,
all

gether

and Geometry

the information he

of the Hindus.

could find relating to

it

91

in the

which
writings of Arabic authors and historians, and the evidence
he brings to bear on the subject appears to prove that during- the

reigns of the four Abasside Caliphs of Bagdad, Al

to the

Indian reckoning as

it is

Balkh), and which agrees

Essays, Vol. II, p. 505.

Mamun, Haroun

quoted by Abu Mashar (an astrologer of

Colebrooke
with Brahmegupta.

precisely

"The work
to

of Alfazari, taken from the Hindu astronomy, continued

be in general use among the Mahomedans until the time of Almamun,

for

whom

it

was epitomised by Mohamed Ben Musa Al Khuwarezmi

and his abridgment was thenceforward known by the title of the less
Sind-Hind. It appears to have been executed for the satisfaction of

Almamun, before

this prince's accession to the Caliphate,

which took

and 9th A.D."

Colebrooke

place early in the 3rd century of the Hejira

Essays, Vol. II, p. 509.

The author

of the

Tarikhul-Nucama, a writer of the 12th century,

595 A.H., 1198 A.D., quoted by Casiri, observes that "owing to the
"
distance of countries and impediments to intercourse
scarcely any of the
writings of the

Hindus had reached the Arabians. There are reckoned, he

adds, "three celebrated systems (Mazhab) of astronomy; one only of

which has been brought to us, namely, the Sind-Hind, which most of

the learned

Muhamedans have

After naming the authors of

followed."

astronomical tables founded on that basis and assigniog the interpretation

of the Indian title and quoting the authority of Ben Adami, the compiler

mentioned by him, he goes on to say, "that of the

Indian sciences no other communications have been received by us but a
of the latest tables

treatise

on music, of which the

title

in

Hindi

is

Biyaphar, and the sig-

knowledge), the work entitled Calilah and

and a book of numerical computations which

nification of that title (fruit of

Damanah, upon

ethics

Abu Tafar Muhamed Ben Musa Al Khuwarezmi

which

a most expeditious and concise method and

and acuteness of the Hindus."
is

The book here noticed

as

a treatise on

amplified (basat), and

testifies the ingenuity

ethics

is

the well-known

Bidpai (Sans Vaidyapriya), and was

translated from the Pehleir version into Arabic by command of the same
collection of fables of Pilpai or

Abasside Khalip Almansur,

who caused an

astronomical treatise to be

translated into Arabic.

"

The Arabs, however, had other translations from Indian writers,

on Medicine and Materia Medica, another on poisons, and

several

numerous others."

Colebrooke Essays,

Vol.

II, pp. 510-511.

Hindu Astronomy.

92

of about

Al Kaschid, Al Mamun, and Al Motaded, during a period

150 years, from 754 to 904 A.D. the greatest eagerness prevailed
to acquire the scientific

knowledge of the Hindus and the Greeks,

Learned Arabians were employed in translating into Arabic, works

Geometry of Euclid, the Brahma Sidd-

that were best known, the

hanta of the Hindus, the Almagest of Ptolemy, the Algebra of

Diophantus, with various works on music, medicine,

etc.,

from the

Sanscrit.

An

Indian astronomer was invited

to the court of

Al Mansur,

to

give instruction in the Indian astronomy, from wdiich tables were

The Indian system was then adopted by the Arabs, and

the name Sind-Hind was given to one of the Indian works with
formed.

which they became best acquainted, and which, according

brooke, appears to have been Brahmegupta's Siddhanta.

by command

of the Caliph,

matters pertaining to the

was used

as a guide to the

all these facts,

This book.

Arabians in

stars.

Colebrooke concludes his examination as follows

"From

to Cole-

joined with other circumstances to be

noticed in progress of this

note,

acquaintance of the Arabs with

inferred

it is

that the

First,

Hindu astronomy,

is

traced to the

middle of the second century of the Hejira in the reign of Al

Mansur, upon authority of Arabian historians citing that of the

preface
their

of ancient astronomical

knowledge

commenced

of the

tables

until the subsequent reign of

translation of the

(622

-f-

150) A.D.

Greek astronomy does not appear

Almagest

auspices of the Barmacide

is

Haroun

said to have

Yahya Ben

Alraschid,

while

to

have

when

been executed under the

Khalled, by Abu,

Hiau and

Salaina employed for the purpose.

"
Secondly, that they were become conversant in the Indie

method

of numerical

computation within the second century;

before the beginning

is,

of

Almamun, whose

accession to

th;
tl

Caliphate took place in 205 H. (827 A.D.)

"

Thirdly, that the

first treatise

on algebra in Arabic was pub-

Arithmetic, Algebra,

and Geometry of

is

not traced

by any

Writings to a period anterior to

93

acquaintance with the work of

lished in his reign: /but their

Diophantus

Hindus.

the

historical facts collected

from

their

the middle of the fourth century of

when Abrilwafa Buzjani flourished.

Muhamed Ben Muza Khuwarezmi, the same

the Hejira (972 A.D.),

"

Fourthly, that

Arabic author, who, in the time of

abridged an earlier

sion,

Almamun and

before his acces-

work taken from the Hindus, and who

published a treatise on the Indian method of numerical computation, is the first, also,

who furnished

the Arabs with a knowledge

upon which he expressly wrote.

treatise on algebra bearing his name, it may here be remarked,

of algebra,

"

was in the hands of the Italian algebraists, translated into the

Italian language not long after the introduction of the science into

that country

by Leonardo,

at a later period

both by Cardan and by Bombelli.

of that version is, however,

The

treatise

now

extant

son of Bonacci, of

In the account which

of his work, he says that

Greece, and Sicily

!No manuscript

or, at least,

on arithmetic and Algebra entitled

by Leonardo, the
1202 A.D.

It appears to have been seen

of Pisa.

Pisa,

known to be
"

was

so."

Liber Abbaci,"
published

in

he gives of himself in the preface

he travelled into Egypt, Barbary, Syria,

that being in his youth at Bugia in Barbary,

where his father Bonacci, held an employment of scribe at the

custom house, by appointment from Pisa

resorting thither), he was there
of accounting

by nine numerals.

commodious, and far preferable

visited

Pisan merchants

grounded in the Indian method

Further, that finding

it

more

to that used in other countries

by him, he prosecuted the study, and,

his own,

(for

A\ith

some additions of

and taking some things from Euclid's Geometry, he under-

took the composition of the treatise in question, that "the Latin

race

might no longer be found

of that

method

the complete doctrine of

The

treatise

deficient in the complete

knowledge

of computation," and he professes to have taught

numbers according

to the

Indian method.

on algebra by Diophantus, before referred to as

Hindu Astronomy.

94

having been translated from the Greek into Arabic, in the reign
the Caliph Al Motaded, about A.D. 900, although

was apparently unknown

to

time of Eegiomentanus.

He

Astronomy," of the

who

well known,

European mathematicians before

(in the preface to the

the

"Elements

of

Arabian astronomer, Alfragan, whose name

derived from the place of his birth,

cand, and

now

of

Fergan in Sogdiana

is

or Samar-

flourished about 800 A.D.), informs us that Dio-

phantus wrote 13 books on arithmetic and algebra, which are

still

preserved in the Vatican Library. Bombelli, in the preface to his

"
"
Algebra (1572 A.D.), says that there were only six of these books

then in the library, and that he and another were engaged in a

These six books have been published in Greek

translation of them.

and Latin

Those particularly mentioned

at different later times.

are two editions

one by Bachet, Paris, 1621

by Fermat, Toulouse, 1670.

As a science little knoAvn

to the

the other with notes

Greeks of

later times,

Diophantine Analysis was a subject on which, according

the

to Suidas,

the celebrated Hypatia, in her capacity of President of the Alex-

andrian School of Philosophy, lectured before that society, as her

father, the

mathematician Theon, did

also in the

same

office

on the

Syn taxis of Ptolemy.

Now, in the year 415 A.D., Hypatia was brutally murdered by
a

mob

of

monks

Orestes.

in

an outbreak against the Governor

of Alexandria,

For 1,000 years afterwards the work of Diophantus does

not appear to have been known, except in name, to either Greeks

or

tomans, although

them

it

was known

to the Arabs,

in the reigns of the Abasside

Caliphs of

and appreciated by
Bagdad, soon

after

the Arabs were in possession of Alexandria.

The age when

stated

by

it

was supposed

different writers,

and

to
it

have been written

was supposed

to

is

variously

have had

its

origin in Alexandria.

Abnlfaraj considers Diophantus to have been a contemporary of

the

Emperor Julian about 365 A.D.

Arithmetic, Algebra,

and Geometry of

the

Other writers suppose the date to have been

Hindus.

95

50 A.D.

Bachet

flourished was about the time

conjectures that the age in which he
"
of Nero, 54 A.D.
Cossali, in his
Origine dell Algebra," was of

opinion that he lived about 200 B.C.

Amid

so

much

conjecture and uncertainty with reference to the

origin of this work, a suggestion

explanation regarding

it,

be permitted by

may

way

of

namely, that the book was a translation

from some ancient original manuscript, one out of the numerous

rolls

then in the library, which had been brought from the East, the

spoils

of war in the Asiatic

w ould appear
T

position

Creek word Diophantus, as a

"Explained by the Gods."

are supposed to

of Alexander.

Campaign

to receive support
title

to the book, it

have a divine origin, but this work

It

may

possibly have

That an Asiatic origin

the

is

of the

would signify

Now, most Indian works on

respects from known Indian works on algebra, as

hereafter.

This sup-

from the meaning

science

differs in

some

will be explained

had a Persian or a Chaldaic

origin.

most probable, derives evidence from

manner in which the Alexandrian Library was formed and

received

We

its increase.

are told that

Ptolemy

Soter, the favourite General of Alex-

ander, was a great lover of literature

for the collection of manuscripts,

and

He had

science.

a passion

and had ample opportunities

the indulgence of this favourite pursuit, in the

for

campaign in Asia,

which he acquired, and the manuscripts

of

which he collected as the spoil of war, and carried away from

its

the literary wealth of

palaces and temples.

"When he became fully

settled in his sovereignty >as

King

of the

Egyptian province, to which he had succeeded after the death of

Alexander, he devoted

much

time

to the

formation of a library.

This was undertaken at the suggestion of Demetrius Phalierus,

who had taken refuge

in Alexandria on his flight from Athens,

where he had been Governor, being received with great hospitality

by King Ptolemy.

This library was that which, under his sue-

Hindu Astronomy.

96

cessors,

Philadelphia and TTergetes, who inherited his father's love

of the science,

was increased

to

abont 400,000 volumes, among

which were valuable and curious manuscripts from most countries

then known.
It is said of TTergetes that he adopted a

most unscrupulous method

that he seized books

of adding to the library, as, for instance,

imported into

Egypt from neighbouring countries, and, having

caused them to be copied, returned the copies to the owners, keeping

the originals for the library.
Tli ere

must have been many ancient manuscripts in this vast

Greek language, so Ptolemy adopted

collection not written in the

a course

which was best calculated

to

make him acquainted with

their contents.

He made

his court

an asylum for learned and talented men, who,

from war or persecution, having been driven from their homes, and
being received and established
treated with munificence

and

under his

liberality,

own

protection, were

and the doctrines they pro-

fessed listened to with toleration.

The members forming

took of the

this great society lived together

common bounty

principal schools, of

which the

first

and par-

They formed four

of the Sovereign.

consisted of critics

and com-

mentators, the second of mathematicians, the third of practical

astronomers, and the fourth was a school of medicine and anatomy,
of

which

last,

dissected 600

we

men

are informed, one professor,

named Herophilus,

example in sharing their labours and taking part in their

discussions on philosophical subjects, he excited emulation and

By

his

aroused a spirit of enquiry, which raised the Alexandrian School

to the highest distinction in literature

and

science.

For about 300 years before the conquest of Egypt by the Romans
this School flourished and became famous by reason of the distinguished philosophers

Among

who were members

the mathematicians

of

it.

and astronomers of

this period,

whose

and Geometry of

Arithmetic, Algebra,

names have descended

the

Eratosthenes

those

(240

Euclid (280 B.C.), Aristarchus,

of

Conon,

B.C.),

Archimedes (250 B.C.), who

97

and which are deservedly honoured at

to us,

are

present day,

Hindus.

the

is

and,

said to

according

to

Troclus,

have studied under Conon, in

the reigns of Philadelphus and Uergetes.

About the same time
I there flourished the
geometricians Apollonius and Nicomedes, and

the eminent astronomer Hipparchus (135 B.C.), to

little later

whom

Ptolemy, the astronomer (70 A.D.), was so greatly indebted

in the compilation of

Iris

great

work

called the

"Syntaxis"

the

Almagest of the Arabians.

The

principles of mathematics

embodied in his various works by

Euclid were, before his time, taught by Plato (390 B.C.) and by

Pythagoras (550 B.C.), and, doubtless, to some extent by other more

ancient writers.

The great merit

of Euclid was, that he reduced to order the funda-

mental principles delivered by the

able arrangement of
step

by

earlier writers,

and by

them formed that system

his admir-

of logic, which,

step, carried conviction of their truths to the

mind, by

a system of reasoning which has never

fragible demonstration

been surpassed, and which, in his "Elements of Geometry,"

holds

its

own

irre-

still

in the schools of the present! day.

The aid which must have been afforded by the library to the
philosophers of the Alexandrian School is incalculable. To state
the degree in which the

writings of this period

more ancient
is

impossible.

sciences were

The subject

embodied in the
has, in a great

measure, been avoided, and modern writers have been content to

ascribe to eminent

were, in fact,

men

of the

made long

Alexandrian School discoveries which

before that School was established.

It cannot be doubted that,

manuscripts, containing the

which there

is

now no

stored in the library, were

wisdom

record, but

many

of ancient Eastern nations, of

which must have been translated

and embodied in the works of Greek authors at about

this period.

Hindu Astronomy,

98

In the words

of Laplace

"Such have been the

nations,

human

vicissitudes of

affairs,

that great

whose names are hardly known in history, have disappeared

which they inhabited

from the

soil

and even

their cities

have been obliterated, and nothing

and industry but a

their science

their annals, their language,

confused

tradition

is left

of

and some

and uncertain origin."

scattered ruins of doubtful

About the years 1587 and 1634 A.D., Akber, the Emperor
India, caused translations to be

made from

of

the Sanscrit into the

Persian language, of the Lilawatee and the Vija (xanita, treatises

on arithmetic and algebra

of the

Hindu mathematician, Bhascara

Acharya, which have already been referred to in a previous section

of this work.
The first of these was translated by Abul Fazel, the
confidential

Rushudee.

minister of Akber,

They

and the second

by

Utta Ulla

from ancient Hindu works]

are both compilations

connected with numbers, geometry, and mensuration.

At the end of the

last

century partial translations, of these works

of Bhascara, from the Persian into English, were

made by Mr.

Davis

and Mr. Reuben Burrows, and a complete translation was made from
the Persian by Mr. Edward Strachey, of the Indian Civil Service.

In

1817, Mr. Colebrooke published his translation of these treatises

directly

from Sanscrit versions, and he added various notes and the

commentaries of other Hindu writers,

In 1796, Dr. Hutton, in his " History of Algebra," gave a short
description of these two works of Bhascara, and, as a result of the
investigation

which he made with reference

to the origin of algebra,

he expresses his opinion as follows:

"From

a comparison of the algebra of the Arabians and the

Greeks and that of the modern Europeans, with the Persian translation of the Vija Ganita

the algebra of the Arabs

and the Lilawatee,

is

iiie

would appear that

quite different from that of Diophanttti]

and not taken the one from the other

from,

it

that

if

the Arabs did learn

Indians, they did not borrow largely from them.

and Geometry

Arithmetic, Algebra,
"

That

tlie

of the Hindus.

99

Persian translations of the Vija Gnnita and Lilawatee

contain principles which are sufficient for the solution of any pro-

Arabian or in the Diophantine algebra

position in ^he

translations contain propositions

which are not

principles that could be supplied

by the Arabian

that these

to be solved

or the Diophantine

and that the Hindus were further advanced in some

algebras;

branches of this science than the modern Europeans, with

improvements,

He
"

on any

till

all their

the middle of the 18th century."

further remarks

General methods for the solution of indeterminate problems

are found in the fourth

is

fifth chapters,

which

differ

much from

Hindu Algebra contains, in Mr. Strachey's opinion,

Diophantus' work.

which

and

highly probable, a great deal of knowledge and

skill,

which the

Greeks had not, such as the use of an indefinite number of unknown

quantities

and

tjhe

use of arbitrary marks to express

arithmetic of Surds
the

first

degree

them

a good

a perfect theory of indeterminate problems of

a very extensive and general knowledge of those

of the second degree

a perfect acquaintance with quadratic equa-

tions, etc.

Hutton continues " the arrangement and manner of the two works
:

are as different as their substance

the one constitutes a reg ular body

of science, the other does not ; the Vij a Ganita is quite connected and well
digested,

and abounds in general

rules,

which suppose great learn-

ing; the rules are illustrated by examples, and the solutions are

performed with

skill.

"Diophantus, though not entirely without method, gives very

few general propositions, being chiefly remarkable for the dexterity

and ingenuity with which he makes assumptions for the simple

solution of his questions.

by treating

it

The former

systematically

teaches algebra as a science,

the latter sharpens the wit

by

solving

a variety of abstruse and complicated problems."

The

solution of certain problems,

Geometry,

is

by the application of Algebra

remarked upon by Mr, Strachey.

to

Hindu Astronomy.

100

Some

of these have

names

peculiar to themselves.

Thus, the

" the
" bride's
chair,"
wedding chair,"
figure designated as the

is

square made up of the four right-angled triangles, which are equal

to

twice the rectangle of their sides, together with the small square'

which

[is

Mr. Strachey

the square of the difference of the sides.

was of opinion that the Hindus were well acquainted with most of
the propositions in Euclid's elements.
It is easy to see

from the following original proposition

Hindu work, that the Pythagorean theorem

is

in the

intended to be

understood.

" The
square of the hypotenuse of every right-angled triangle
equal to twice

tjhe

is

rectangle of the two sides containing the right

angle with the square of the difference of those sides."

x and y be the

It is evident that if

sides

and z the hypotenuse,

the proposition makes

z2

= 2xy + (x
= x +y
2

y)

and obviously

The geometrical proof being that the two rectangles are equal to
the four right-angled triangles containing the sides and that, with
;

the square of the difference of the sides, they together

make up

the

figure of the bride's chair.

The name
its

of the figure,

it is

conjectured, has been suggested by

resemblance to the tonjon or palanquin, in which

it

was usual

for the bride to be carried to her husband's house.

Hutton was

from the many questions about rightangled triangles worked algebraically, that it was probably in India
])r.

of opinion,

where Pythagoras acquired his mathematical knowledge which

carried back with hiim

and taught

to his

countrymen.

With

lie

refer-

ence to the algebra of the Grreekp, he says

"
It is doubtful if the Greeks had any other algebra than that of
:

Diophantus, and

may

it

may

be worthy of remark that at Alexandria he

have had access to Indian literature."

Arithmetic, Algebra,

what

Or,

is

more

and Geometry

of the Hindus.

101

likely, that, as before suggested, the treatise

Diophantus was of a more Eastern origin, supposed

entitled

divine, as the

name

in the library

the author lias

It has

to be

Since the Greek translation was found

implies.

in later times, with no explanation of

its

true origin,

been supposed to be some Greek named Diophantus

been before suggested that the

earliest

form

of the

sun dial

was the shadow cast on the horizontal plane by the tent-pole of the

Nomadic tender of

wandering over the great

cattle,

level plains of

The changes which, the shadow underwent during the day

Asia.

and throughout the year must have been always noticed by the
inhabitants of the high, lands or steppes of Asia long before the

by the upright pole, the shadow and

extremities, became a subject of much

right-angled triangle formed

the solar ray joining their
attention.
less

By all,

it

would have been seen that the shadow, growing

from sunrise to midday, increased again from noon to sunset.

They noticed during the year that the midday shadow varied in
length, being shortest

when

and longest at the AVinter

Their

rise

would be noticed by

Thus, they
before

Solstice,

trees or other

these
at

phenomena

which the sun

marks, or by the

shadow produced backwards, and the points of

would be seen

as it were, to

made

and the points of the horizon

direction of the
sunrise

Summer

Solstice.

occupation of tending flocks

familiar to them,

would

the sun was in the

to

change throughout the year,

oscillating,

extreme points North, and South of the East points.

may

have been long familiar with these appearances

measurements of the upright, the shadow, and the line be-

tween their extremities were made.

The innumerable changes which the form of the triangle and the
length of the shadow underwent at
subject of great perplexity;

measurements led

first to

but

it

first
is

could not fail to be a

most probable that these

the numerical discovery that the squares

on the sides of the

right-angled triangle added together are equal
to the

square described on the hypotenuse.

Hindu Astronomy.

102

Now,

it is

Hindu mathematics

a proimiiient feature of

in their

algebra, geometry, and astronomy, that the numerical properties

of the right-angled triangle are principally
of problems.

employed in the

solution

General theorems were framed for special purposes.

Theorems, relating both to abstract and concrete numbers, were

invented, and applied to problems, the solutions required being

sometimes in integers, and at other times, in a more general rational

form, integral or fractional.

The

solution of problems in concrete

numbers was such

relation to the requirements of the age in

formed

number

tents of conical

mounds

etc.

interest of

rules were

measurements of land, contents in the excavation of

the

tanks,

which the

money

to illustrate

Granita,

some

con-

and stacks; sawing of timber;

of grain

few examples are here

and the Vija

canals,

of bricks in piles of different forms

purchase and

bad

as

sale, etc.

inserted, extracted

from the Lilavatee

and expressed in the modern form, in order

of the

methods employed in those

treatises:

Ex. If x and y be sides and z the hypotenuse, then for the solution
of the indeterminate equation

x2
Let

m and n be

we have

+ y =0
2

2
,

all

in integers.

any two arbitrary integers,

greater than n,

for solutions

= 2 m n,
n
y = m
=
z
m +n
x

2
.

2
.

For solutions generally in rational numbers, integral or

of the equation, x 2 -f

When

z*.

one of the sides x

Assume y

==

m
m -f-l
m -l
1

And

fractional,

is

given
.x

(m

being any arbitrary integer).

and Geometry of

Arithmetic, Algebra,

Hindus.

the

103

Otherwise

Assume

=i

2/

to

s= *(S+ m
When

the hypotenuse z

is

)-

given
2 m z
m -j-l

Assume x

nv
y

-(-l

Again, Ex. 60, for the solution of the equation, x~ if

let

Ex. (Gl.)

y'-

=-

==

[-

-j- 1,

where

I.'

and z

2m + to
1

is

arbitrary

z~.

m~.

-\(1

x-y
f

\2

(^-')~

z'-

For the solution of the equation x

-{-

= 8m -f], where m
y = 8 m
s = 4 m (2 m- + 1)
z
1 = 16 m* (2 m
1)

Assume

And

y-

z-

is

arbitrary

consequently ar
(201) Rule.

-j-

~-

-f-

When

the diameter of a circle

is

multiplied by three

thousand nine hundred and twenty-seven, and divided by twelve

hundred and

fifty,

the quotient

is

the near circumference;

multiplied by twenty-two, and divided

circumference.

Thus

by

seven,

it

is

or,

the gross

Near circumference

= 3997
1250

Gross circumference

'

22
L

X d
X

3*1416

d.

d.

(203) Rule.

In a

circle,

a quarter of the diameter multiplied by

the circumference, is the area.

Hindu Astronomy.

104

the net all round the ball.

is

That, multiplied by four,

This

content of the surface of the sphere, multiplied by the diameter and

divided by

six, is

Thus

sphere.

the precise

termed cubic, content within the

solid,

= 3* 141 6 X d*
of a sphere = four times

Area of a
Surface

circle

Contents of a sphere
G^anesa shows

how

3*1416

area of a great circle.

oJ

the area of a circle

is

the product of the semi-

circumference and the semi-diameter, thus:

into

two equal

parts, cut the content of each into

angular spaces, and expand

straight line.

Then

let

Thus

it

of

becomes a

so that the circumference

may

enter into the similar intermediate vacant spaces

is

an oblong,

of

which the semi-

one side and half the circumference the other.

product of their multiplication

Ganesa then proceeds

of the sphere, thus

is

to demonstrate the rule for the solid content

many

little

with an acute tip and square base, as

which the surface

The

the area.

Suppose the sphere divided into as

is

pyramids or long
is

the

number by

measured, and in length (height) equal to half

the diameter of the sphere

the scale

any number

of the other, tjhus constituting

needles,

circle

the two portions approach so that the sharp angular spaces

of the one

diameter

Dividing the

the base of each pyramid

by which the dimensions

is

an unit

of

of the surface are reckoned ; and

the altitude being a semi-diameter, one-third of the

product of their

and Geometry

Arithmetic, Algebra,

multiplication

is

the content

of the Hindus.

105

for the needle shaped excavation is

one-third of a regular equilateral excavation, as shown in

Therefore (unit taken into) a sixth part of the diameter

and

tent of one such pyramidical portion;

221.

the con-

is

by the

that, multiplied

surface, gives the solid content of the sphere.

If there be one thing

the

which distinguishes Hindu astronomy from

modern more than another,

it is

in the assumed radius of a

circle.

The circumference

of

21,600 minutes of arc, then,

line

wrapped

divisions, 57

along the

be reduced to minutes

The nearest integer

little
is

if

the radius be supposed to be a flexible

circumference,

will

it

cover

an arc equal in length to

is
it

its

to

of

these

to this

mixed number

be the radius of any

in ordinary cases the difference

Thus, every circle furnishes

lines, in minutes of arc.

and versed

radius.

If

becomes very nearly 3437J minutes.

is

3438.

more than 15 seconds from the actual length, and

assumed

sines

being divided into 360 degrees or

17' 44" 48'", &c.

This, in every circle,

it

circle

any

It

is

circle in its

It differs

this

own minutes

by

number
of arc

would be scarcely appreciable.

its

own

scale for

reckoning straight

in this scale that the

Hindu

table of

sines is formed, in nearest integers of minutes, for

24 arcs of a quadrant, the arcs differing from each other by 225', or

3

45'.

The Hindus divide the number

of minutes in a semi-circle, 10,800,

by the minutes in the radius, 3438. and obtain 3.14136, as the

ratio of the circumference to the

diameter of a

circle, differing

3.14159 (commonly assumed by us) by .00013 only!

from

This (the

Hindu) may have been one of the most ancient methods of calculating the circumference of a circle

from

its radius.

CHAPTER

VIII.

ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The

so called) used

may be

principal instrument (if it

Hindu astronomers was the Moon, which, from the

by the

rapidity of her

motion, and the known places of the fixed stars on each side of her

means of determining the

path, was an efficient

of the planets

by referring them

positions

and motions

she passed, to the

directly, as

nearest Yoga-taras of her course.

During the day observations were made, of the sun's

amplitude, and for the times of observation, by means
cast

by the

vertical

gnomon

of a dial,

altitude,

of the

and

shadow

and differences of time from

sunrise, estimated for astrological purposes.

Bhaskara gives a brief detail of a few astronomical instruments

which were in use in his time, but he says
is

Ingenuity which

is

" of

all

instruments,

it

the best."

Colebrooke, in his essay on the Indian and Arabian divisions o

the Zodiac (Vol. 9 of the "Asiatic Researches"), says:
"
The manner of observing the places of the stars is not explained

in the original works

briefly that the

The Surya Siddhanta only hints

cited.

astronomer should frame a sphere and examine the

apparent longitude and latitude.

The commentators, Ranganatha

and Bhudhara, remarking on the passage, describe the manner of the

observation,

and the same description occurs, with

commentaries on the Siddhanta Siromani.

They

little variation, in

direct the spherical

instrument Golayantra to be constructed according to the instructions contained in a subsequent part of the text.

an armillary sphere.

and minutes,
pivots.

It is

is

An

precisely

directed to be suspended on the pins of the axis as

named Vedhavalaya,
the

is

additional circle, graduated for degrees

to be a circle of declination.

instrument,

This

instructions

or intersecting circle,

and appears

After noticing this addition to the

proceed to

Golayantra, or armillary sphere, which

the

is to

rectifying

of

the

be placed so that the

Astronomical Instruments.

axis shall point to the pole,

107

and the horizon be true by a water

"The instrument being thus

placed, the obstvver

is

level.

instructed to

look at the star Kevati, through a sight fitted to an orifice, at the

centre of the sphere

and, having found the star, to adjust,

the end of the sign Pisces

The observer

on the Ecliptic.

is

by

it,

then to

look through the sight, at the Yo<ra star of Aswini, or of some other

proposed object, and to bring the moveable circle of declination

over

The distance in degrees from the

it.

and Ecliptic to the end of Mina or Pisces,

in degrees

declination,

from the same intersection

its

Yickshepa, North, or South.."

From

is its

longitude, dhruvaca,

and the number of degrees on the moveable

latitude,

intersection of this circle

this description it will

or principal star of
then, at the

an

circle of

to the place of the star, is

be seen that when the Yoga-tara,

A'sterism, is in the

same moment, a point

Meridian of any place,

of the Ecliptic is determined,

namely, the point of intersection of the Ecliptic with the Meridian

by the Hindus the Kranti Pata, the intersecting

the Ecliptic, with, a circle of decimation. The arc of the

this point is called

point, of

circle of declination

latitude,

from

and the arc

this point to the star is called the apparent

of th.3 Ecliptic,

from the same point

beginning of the Asterism Aswini, or to the

is

first

point of Mesha,

The observations necessary

the star's apparent longitude.

to the

to find

these co-ordinates, for the place of a star, were not difficult to accomplish, especially

effecting the

when Hindu astronomers had

same

means

for

object.

The Armillary Sphere, however, was

to be

different

of a nature too complicated

used as an instrument for making accurate observations, and

was rather for the purposes of explanation, and of giving instruction

on the numerous
it

circles

and motions

of the several spheres of

which

was composed.
It consisted of at least three separate spheres,

axis, or

Dhruva-Yasti.

First:

on the same polar

fixed celestial sphere

named the

Khagola, composed of circles for a given latitude, such as the horizon,

Hindu Astronomy.

108

the equinoctial, the meridian the prime vertical, the six o'clock hour
circle,

the vertical circles through, the N.E. and N"."W. points of the

horizon; the names of these circles respectively in this order are

the Kshitija, the Nadi-Yalaya (marked with

60

Ghatikas), the

Yamy-ottara-Yritta, the S&mamandala, the Unmandala, the two

Kona-Vrittas, with other
the same place.

azimuth

circles,

which remain always the same

Besides these fixed

circle is attached,

a moveable altitude and

circles,

by a pair of

for

pins, to the zenith

and

nadir points of the Khagola, for showing the altitude or azimuth

of

any

The horizon being divided in

star.

degrees, either

Meridian line or from the East and West points.

Secondly

Move-

and round the axis of the Khagola was the starry sphere

able within

named

from the

the Bhagola, which comprised the Ecliptic, with the paths

also of the

moon and

planets,

named Kshepa-Yritta,

the circles of

declination, or Kranti, the diurnal circles called Ahoratra-Vrittas,

the azimuth circle through the JNouagesimal point,

is

called the

The Bhagola is supported within the Khagola

means
of
two
by
supporting cii cles called the Adhara-Yrittas, correDrikshepa-Yritta.

sponding with the Meridian and horizon of the Khagola.

On

the axis of the Khagola produced, a third sphere

It is called

the Driggola

which, the circles of the

Bhagola.

ments,

Khagola

are

which

is

supported.

a system in

mixed with those

The Khagola and Driggola remain

Bhagola alone
Bhaskara

or double sphere,

is

Thirdly

fixed,

of the

while the

revolves.

also gives a brief description of several other instru-

among which

are the Nadi-Yalaya, a circle representing the

Equinoctial divided into Ghatikas, and on

it

are the positions of

the 12 signs, calculated to correspond with their oblique ascensions

or risings at the place of observation.

It is used in connection with

the Khagola, whose axis casts a shadow on the circle, and

an equatorial

dial,

in fact,

the Ghatika being f of an hour.

An instrument for time,

is

is,

the Ghati or Clepshydra,

like the lower half of a water pot.

made

of copper,

A hole is made in its bottom,

Astronomical Instruments.

and when placed on a vessel of water, the

adjusted

so that it will sink to the

hence the

name

The Chakra,

109

the hole

size of

is

bottom 24 or 60 times in a day,

Ghati.

or circle,

marked on

its

circumference with 360,

is

the
suspended by a string, the beginning of the divisions being at

At

lowest point.

When

plane.

the centre

a thin axis perpendicular to its

is

the instrument

turned so that

is

its

is

plane

shadow

cident with a vertical circle passing through the sun, the

of the axis

is

coin-

thrown on some division of the circumference and the

and lowest

arc between this point

point, the zero of the divisions,

measures the zenith distance or co-altitude of the sun.

used

also

for

finding

the

longitude

of

a planet;

for

It is
if

the

instrument be inclined, and held or fixed so that any two of

the

stars

Kegulus,

Cancri,

or *

Piscium,

appear

Aquarii,

touch the circumference, the plane of the circle will coin-

to

with the plane of the Ecliptic, since these stars have no

cide

latitude.
stars

(Spica,

mar

whose latitude

inconsiderable, 2

S.,

and other

the Ecliptic, would appear also to touch the circumfer-

ence.)

The

has

orbit nearly in the

its

is

latitude of a planet, also, which

in general very small,

is

same plane with that of the

Looking, then, through a sight at the zero point of the

Ecliptic.
circle,

so

that the planet appears opposite the axis, the position of the circle

then remaining fixed, the eye

circumference, so that
axis,

is

moved along

the lower part of the

any one of the above stars

is

seen opposite the

the arc between the two positions of the eye

of longitude

between the planet and the

star

is

the difference

but the longitude of

the star being known, that of the planet will also be known.*

* In the
"Philosophical Transactions," Yol. LXVIL, p. 598, are
drawings of astronomical instruments found in an observatory at
Benares by Sir Eobert Barker, who visited it in 1772 A.D., these were
of large dimensions and constructed with
great skill and ingenuity.

The

traditionary account

Emperor Akber.

is

that the observatory

was erected by the

Hindu Astronomy.

110

The modern Armillary Sphere was

will

of a less complicated nature, as

be understood from the accompanying diagram, which has been

copied from a plate dated A.D. 1720.

"M eridian

ft

"P. Tiessenthaler describes in a cursory manner two observatories

furnished with instruments of extraordinary magnitude at Jeypoor and
Oujein, in the country of Malwa, but these are said to be modern
structures."

Robertson, p. 438.

Astronomical Instruments.

The

ball at

the centre represents the earth, with lines on

corresponding with the circles of

surface

Meridians, Parallels,
tries,

&c,

its

the Celestial Sphere,

as also the configurations of seas, coun-

&c.

The Zodiac was a band extending

to about six degrees on each

the Ecliptic, within which are confined the traces of the

side of

Moon's path, in
the

Ill

field

of

all

spiral convolutions

and the

orbits of the five planets,

their encounters with each other, their conjunctions,

occupations and eclipses

natural occurrences which gave rise to

the wild fancies of the astrologer, and invested

him with such

terrible

powers over the fears and fanaticism of the superstitious, in which

he

still

holds sway over

many

The Armillary Sphere held

ment
for

millions of Asiatic nations.

its

place as an astronomical instru-

near the beginning of the present century, and was used

till

the solution of astronomical problems, until the more accurate

instruments were introduced for observing the passages of celestial

bodies across the meridian.

Near the middle of the

last

century an Armillary Sphere was

constructed by Dr. Long, Master of

Pembroke

and Lowndes Professor in that University.

"18

feet

within

it,

Spheres,

in diameter,
to view as

and would contain more than 30 persons

from a centre the representation of the

The whole apparatus was

turned round with as

common

jack."

College, Cambridge,

This instrument was

little

Celestial

so contrived that it could

labour as

is

be

employed to wind up a

CHAPTER

IX.

SOME EARLY HINDU ASTRONOMERS AND OBSERVATIONS.

[Girc. B.C.

1590945.]

In a work dealing witih any system

as studied and practised by a nation,
some account should be given of the

of science snch as astronomy,

it.

is,

of course, expected that

men who

founded

rate, devoted their attention to the subject during

The history

of the age in

its

it,

or, at

anv

infancy.

which they lived would, in such account,

be necessarily referred to as a component part of

lishing their place in that history.

it,

and as estab-

Hitherto the writer has been

obliged to refer to the astronomers of the early periods of the

immigration to India in purely generic terms.

Aryan

Although, from a

Hindu system of astronomy, and from an

Hindu works on that science (some of which nre

contemplation of the

examination of the

intended to be hereafter considered),

there were

men of

it is

absolutely certain that

great genius, living in those distant ages, having

attainments and abilities far beyond those of astronomers of a later

date, yet their

are lost, except so far as we can vaguely connect

"
"
or
Rishis
Munis," the sages to whom reference

names

them with the

"

has been casually made.

In

later writings of

names

specifically

Hindu

astronomers, however, there are several

mentioned connected with ancient astronomical

observations said to have been

assist

made by them, which

observations

the investigator of facts in finding a place in history for the

bearers of those names.

Hindu

It is to

be regretted that the history of the

race, relating to the periods in

lived, is so

legends,

wrapped up in

and

so

which the ancient astronomers

their mythological

cosmogony and fabled

connected with their doubtful chronology, that no

Some Early Hindu Astronomers and

Observations.

113

great reliance can be placed npon the conjectures and conclusions

made and arrived at, from Hindu writings and traditions, by various
investigators.

It

is,

nevertheless, interesting to trace the circum-

stances leading to such conjectures, and, at

men who undoubtedly

as

any

rate, to point to the

undoubtedly assisted in estab-

they did not themselves originate, the system of Hindu

lishing, if

astronomy which

In the

and

existed,

it is

the object of this

first place, it is

necessary to

work

to discuss.

make

marked

distinction

between those circumstances which are derived from a consideration

of the great epic

poems

Pamayana, and even

of the Hindus, the

Mahabharata and the

of their religious scriptures, such as the

Yedas

and the Institutes of Menu, and the circumstances connected with

purely astronomical deductions.

Still

more

necessary to bear

is it

from the

in mind, as a separate set of circumstances, those derived

admitted fables and mythology

There

are, nevertheless, to

of the Hindus.

be gathered from

all

these data the

certain facts that (at a period to be located in history) there lived

and nourished in India two royal dynasties, the one styled

'*

The

Children of the Sun," the descendants of whose family are supposed

" The Children of the
to have reigned in the city of Ayodhya, and
It

Moon," who reigned in Pratishthana, or Yitora.

w ere
T

posed

they

tjhat

so styled according to the

is

here sup-

manner in which

whether from the use of a

they reckoned their astronomical time,
Solar or a

Lunar

Zodiac.

Of the former princes, the name standing out most prominently

'in

Hindu

history

is

that of Raima, the son of Dasaratha, of the

Solar race, the hero of the great epic

poem

of the

Hindus

called the

Ilamayana.

The princes of the latter dynasty find a place in the other

the events of the great
poem the Mahabharata which describes
war between the Pandus and the Kurus, the successful
which was in favour of the Pandus,
the chief of

whom was

five brothers of

Yudhisthira.

the

issue of

Lunar

race,

Hindu Astronomy.

114

Contemporary with

this prince

The

Parasara and Garga.

were the two Indian astronomers,

precise period in

which they, and

also

Yudhisthira, existed, and, therefore, the period of the Mahabharata,

is

a vexed question, which

it is

work

needless in this

to enter into,

except in a cursory manner.

This much, however,

sara

and Garga were

most probable,

is

men

if

not certain

of astronomical genius,

that Para-

and that Yudhis-

thira lent his powerful aid in the development of their researches,

as evidenced

by the

activity apparent in the study of the heavens

during that remote period.

"

Captain "Wilford, in his

"

Chronology of the Hindus," says

been asserted that Parasara (who was contemporary with

It has

Yudhisthira) lived about 1180 B.C., in consequence of an observation of the places of the colures.

But Mr. Davis, having

the subject with the minutest attention, authorises

observation

this

Christian Era.

the

by a passage from

the

This

also confirmed

is

it

is declared that the Udaya, or helia-

Canopus (when at the distance of 13 from the sun,

according to the

Hindu

astronomers), happened in the time of

Parasara on the 10th of Cartica; the difference

Having communicated

days.

me

formed

to say that

must have been made 1,391 years before

Parasara Sanhita, in which

cal rising of

me

considered

that

it

now amounts
Mr. Davis,

this passage to

to 23

lie

in-

coincided with the observation of the places of

the colures in the time of Parasara."

Sir

W. Jones found great difficulty in reconciling

the fables of the

Hindus, so as to obtain probable dates for the times of Yudhisthira

and Rama.

He

"
says

We

find Yudhisthira,

who reigned

con-

fessedly at the close of the brazen age, nine generations older than

before whose birth the silver age

Kama,
"

is

allowed to have ended.

Paricshit, the great nephew of Yudhisthira,

and who was the grandson of Arjun,

to have
axjes,

and

is

whom

he succeeded

allowed, without controversy,

reigned in the interval between the brazen and earthen

to

have died at the setting in of the Kali

Yuga

(3102 B.C.)"

Some Early Hindu Astronomers and

According to one hypothesis, Paricshit

is

115

Observations.

placed at 1029

B.C.,

and by another he would have a probable date of 1717 B.C.

On

other hand, a hypothetical date of

Hindu

was even

tradition,

From various

so early as

(its

author)

with the position

it

it

has been inferred

had made observations on the

position of the Solstitial Colure in his time,*

it

and that he compared

occupied in the time of Parasara

when, as stated by that author, the

a period

Solstitial points were, the

in the middle of Ajslesha, and the other in the beginning of

ishtha.

Thus,

"

the

2029 B.C.

passages in the Yarhi Sanhita,

Varaha Mihira

that

Rama,

according to

a passage cited

one

Dhan-

by Bhattotpala, the commentator

of Varaha, Mihira, corresponds in import to a pasage quoted

by Mr.

Davis and Sir "W. Jones from the third chapter of the Yarahi Sanhita."

The passage

"When

referred to,

and translated by Colebrooke,

is

the return of the sun took place from the middle of

Aslesha, the tropic

was then

right.

It

now

takes place from

Punarvasu."

From

this

brooke, Sir

and other similar passages,

W.

it

was reckoned by Cole-

Jones, and Davis, that the time

when

the Solstitial

Colure occupied such a position corresponded to the year 1181 B.C.,

and that this was the time when Parasara was living.
Reckoning, however, the precession or regression of the Solstice
at a

mean annual

rate of 50", the period at

in the middle of Asler-ha

From

referred to

which the Solstice was

would be 1110 B.C., the difference between

a statement of Varaha, that the solstices in his time, as

by him, was one in the first degree of Carcata, and the other

in the first of Marcara, the period

when he (Varaha)

lived

was deduced

by Sir W. Jones and Bailly to have been 499 of our era. The astronomers of TJjain place the date of Varaha at 505 A.D.; and Colebrooke
from the position of the Colures, with respect to Spica Virginis, computed
The greatest difference between these dates
the date to be 472 A.D.
being 33 years, was within the duration of a man's life. Any of these
dates might therefore represent the time when Varaha lived.
I

Hindu Astronomy.

116

the dates being accounted for by the lower rate of precession assumed

by Colebrooke and others in computing the time.

The same date (1181 B.C.) would appear to have been adopted by
Bentley for the place of the Solstice in the middle of Aslesha, which

own from

agrees with certain calculations of his

other sources.

But he does not accept the opinion that Parasara was then
giving reasons for supposing that the date

when

with Yudhisthira and Grarga, flourished, and when the

Bharata took

place,

somewhat

than by means

was some 600 years

method

inferior

living,

this astronomer,

war

ol

later.

of determining astronomical dates

of the Colures has sometimes

been employed, namely,

by computing from rules given by Hindu astronomers regarding

the heliacal rising and setting of a particvdar star.
rising

Thus, the

and setting of Agastya or Canopus appear in India

to

have

been important on account of certain ceremonies to be performed

when that

star appears, rising

of this star is referred to

Mihira says

"

short of the sign Yirgo

comes

visible

*'

is

The

"
;

visible at

Ujjayni

rising and setting

Yaraha-

others.

when the sun

but he afterwards adds,

when the sun reaches Hasta, and

sun arrives at Rohini."

lias

is

Agastya

with the sun.

by Yaraha Mihira and

"

is

the star be-

disappears

when

the

His commentator remarks that the author

here followed earlier writers, and has quoted Parasara as

saying

When

the sun

in Rohini."

is

in Hasta the star

Upon

this,

rises,

and

it sets

Colebrooke remarks that

when
it is

Parasara's rule was foamed for the North of India.

seen, however, that if the date

when

the sun

probable

It

w;l[ be

the star rose as indicated be

established, the date of Parasara's assertion is also established.

Bentley (as before stated) contended that both Colebrooke and

Davis were wrong in placing the date of Parasara, and, consequently,

of Yudhisthira, at 1181 B.C.

and, from a theory of his own, he

calculates the date to have been 575 B.C.

The passage
states that

"

referred to regarding the heliacal rising of Canopus

the star Agastya (or Canopus) rises heliacally

when

the

Some Early Hindu Astronomers and

sun enters

From

the Lunar Asterism Hasta, and disappears, or

when the

heliacally

117

Observations.

sets,

star is in Kohini."

the times of rising and setting of Canopus thus given,

Bentley calculates the latitude of the place of observation, which he

finds to

be nearly that of Delhi, 28

for his

575 B.C., he finds the longitude of Canopus 68

date,

the latitude 76

8'

declination 52

From these

32"

8.,

the right ascension 81

47' 10",

and the

data he seeks the longitude of the sun from the Yernal

at Delhi, in the year

To compare

43' 25",

supposed

58' 53" S.

Equinoctial Point at the time,

by

and

38' N.,

when the

Canopus rose heliacally

star

575 B.C., which he finds to be 145

this with the observation of Parasara,

reference to

10' 5".

he ascertains,

Cor Leonis, in the British Catalogue of 1750, the

longitude of the beginning of Hasta from the Yernal Equinoctial

Point in the year 575 B.C. to be 145

The

difference being only 5' 53",

4' 12".

he concludes to be

sufficient

proof of the accuracy of the observation of Parasara.

He

further remarks that the place of observation was a few miles

to the

South of Delhi, called Hastina-pura, the seat of government

in the time of

Yudhisthira,

which would make the agreement

between the observation and the calculation

still

more

correct.

Bentley's contention that the epoch of Yudhisthira and Parasara

w as 575 B.C. (and not

T

to receive

11^81 B.C., as stated

by

others)

would appear

some confirmation from certain further statements of

Yaraha Mihira, who, in the Yarahi Sanhita (472 A.D.,

p.

115), has a chapter

expressly on the

see note

subject of the supposed

motion of the Rishis in Magna.

Colebrooke says he (Yaraha) begins by announcing his intention
of stating their revolutions

and proceeds as follows

conformably with the doctrine of Garga,

"

When King

Yudhisthira ruled the

Munis were in Magha, and the period of the era of that

2526. They remain for a hundred years in each Asterism,

earth, the

king

is

being connected with that particular Kacshatra to which,

rises in the East,

the line of their rising

is directed."

when

it

Hindu Astronomy.

118

In

this statement of

authentic, there

is

Yaraha,

the date could be relied

if

one item which would

was the brother

of the four

were the victors in that war, in the battle which

great Indian poem, the Msdiabarata.
is

a much-disputed

war between the Pandus and the

races of the Aryans, or the

K/urus, for Yudhisthira

as

war between the Solar and

point, namely, 1jhe date of the great

Lunar

settle

upon

Pandus who

is

described in the

The period

of Yudhisthira

here stated to be 2526, meaning from the beginning of the Kaiy

Yuga, the epoch of which

of "Xudhisthira

But

is

3102 B.C., which would make the date

and Parasara 576 B.C.

there are two circumstances in the above statement

which bear a suspicious character, and which

brooke to hesitate about receiving

Yaraha

states (1) that

or Rishis were in

as

may have

led Cole-

an authenticated

fact.

Yudhisthira was the ruler when the Munis

Magha he also
;

years in each Asterism.

it

by Yaraha

Now,

if

says (2) they remain for a hundred

Yaraha intended by

this that the

Munis, which are fixed stars, were moving through the fixed
Asterism Magha, no intelligible
meaning could be attached to the
but
as
before
statement;
if,
explained, it was the Solstitial Colure to

which he

referred,

and which

may

have got the name of the move-

able line of the

Munis when

Rishis, in about

1590 B.C. or 1630 B.C., the Yernal Equinox would

it

coincided with the fixed line of the

* In the

Ayeen Akbery, II., p. 110, it is stated that the great war

happened in the end of the Dwapar Yuga, 105 years prior to the
commencement of the Kali Yuga,
4831
anterior to the
"

being

years

"
fortieth year of the
present reign
(that of Akber).
The fortieth year of Akber was 1595 A.D.
.\

4831

1595 A.D.

= 3236 B.C. -

commencement of the Kali Yuga.

The commencement of the Kali
Era of Yudhisthira,
according

= 3131,

105

Yuga being reckoned

to Garga, per

to

be 3131 B.C.

Yahara Mihira, 2526

Therefore

605

..

Some Early Hindu Astronomers and

have gone back through 30

from 3

Crittica to the first point of Aswini,

Observations.

Lunar Asterism

20' of the

and the Solstice in the same

time would have retrograded through an equal arc of 30

of

first

Magna

to 10

119

from the

of Punarvasu.

The received opinion, however,

as before stated, is that Yudhisthira

(with (larga and Parasara) lived

some time about the 12th or

13th.

centuries before the Christian Era, whilst Davis believed the date
of

Parasara to be even as early as 1391 B.C.

Contemporary with Parasara, the epoch,

Purasurama

is

described as a great encourager of astronomy, and

said to have lived about

Dr. Buchanan, in his

states thalj the

the Indian Prince

supposed to have been established.

is

Purasurama
is

also, of

200 years before Rama.

"

Journey

to

"

Malayala

(September, 1800)

astronomers there reckoned by cycles of 1,000 years

from Purasurama, and that of the then current

cycle,

976 years

were expired in September, 1800, and that 2,976 must have elapsed

from the epoch of Purasurama to the year 1800 A.D.

it is

concluded that the epoch of that prince

The years

of this epoch of

with the sign of Virgo,

Purasurama

or, rather,

is

from which

1176 B.C.

are reckoned as beginning

with the month of Aswina.

According to Hindu tradition, Purasurama was a Brahmin, who

had a great contest with the Kshetrias,

whom

he vanquished, and

he also reduced to subjection the Sanchalas, a wild and barbarous

nation said to feed on

One
tration

of the

many

by Daniel,

human flesh.

Grotto temples of Ellora appears, from an

to go

by

his

name, from which

it

illus-

may seem

that

he was of an earlier date than that when the temples were excavated

but not of a date so old as the grotto temples of Elephanta,

or the still older

mixture of large Buddhist sculptures in the grotto

temples of Salsette and Karli, immense undertakings which furnish,

like the pyramids, convincing proof of the long duration of time

required for their construction.

Whatever conjectures may be

made concerning Purasurama and

his time,

no one doubts that at

Hindu Astronomy.

120

some early period of Hindu

men who

the case of

hero of so

more definable than in

have been mentioned, the famous Rama, the

adventures, as related in the

Ramayana and

other

works of the Hindus, had a real existence as a sovereign

poetical

ruler of

many

history, perhaps

Ayodhya

but the period when he lived

is

a question, never-

theless, not easily determined.

The Hindus place him

and brazen

ages.

some time between the Indian

at

Sir ~W. Jones, in a table of his chronology, gives,

two supposed approximate

as the best of

During the time

dates, the year

and that of his

of Rama^,

wise and pious prince, the

study

of

thatj Sir

W.

1399 B.C.

father, Dasaratha, a

astronomy received much

encouragement, and was cultivated with

been seen

silver

much

It has

attention.

Jones could derive no authentic information

regarding him from Hindu chronological records, and, indeed,

it is

improbable that such information could be derived from a source

which

is

mostly of a

Horoscope of
can be no

Rama

fictitious

character.

But

the

if

Lagna

or

be correctly recorded in the Ramayana, there

difficulty in fixing the date of his birth.

Bentley, from such a source, calculated that

Rama was

born on

the Gth April, 961 B.C.

This date can be easily verified

by reference to the position which

each of the celestial bodies

the sun, the moon, and the five planets

were stated to have occupied on the ninth lunar

day of Chaitra,
the sun being then in Aries, the moon in Cancer, Yenus in Pisces,
Jupiter in Cancer,

Mars in Capricorn, and Saturn in Libra. Bentley

suspects that these positions were obtained as the result of

calculation, and not by actual observation,

signs were not

known by

modern

for he " thinks that the

names in the time

Rama.

But,

whether from computation or otherwise,

they point out that
was bora on the date which he has

Rama

these

of

given."

Further

"
:

Dasaratha,

approaching

When Rama attained the

in consequence

of

to a conjunction,

certain

age of manhood his father,

positions of

supposed to portend

the

evil,

planets,

wished

to

Some Early Hindu Astronomers and

Observations.

share the

government with him, Dasaratha says:

Rama,

crowded with portentous planets

is

installed in

come, the

announce her entering Pushya to-morrow

to

Lagna

of

begun

sun's ingress into

to

Mars,
"

be thou

Pushya being now

Rama was

ascend above the horizon, the

and

Jupiter,

star,

(the sign Cancer, in which

Karkata

the sun disappeared,

shine;

locusts,

The

Pushya.

born) having

'My

the sun, the moon's

To-day the moon rose in Punarvasu,

ascending node, and Mars.

the astronomers

121

while

the

moon

forbore

was day, a cloud of

it

other

inauspicious

planets

approaching.'

The

facts pointed out here (says Bentley)

eclipse, of the

show that there was an

sun at or near the beginning of Karkata at the moon's

ascending node (Rahu being present), and that the planets were not

From

these circumstances, he cal-

culated the time to have been the

2nd

July, 940 B.C., and that then

Eama was

old.

from each

far distant

other.

one and twenty years

Here, however, Bentley points out that the beginning of Pushya

and that of Carcata, or Cancer, were supposed

implies that the

Summer

Solstice

to coincide.

was then the

of

first

This

Pushya,

which would make the position of the Equinoctial point then only
20' short of the first of Aswini.

through 3

20' has

The time

for

a regression

been shown before to be about 240 years, which,

taken from the epoch 570 A.D., leaves 330 A.D. as the time
the

first

of Carcata coincided with the

first

of

Pushya.

Bentley makes the date 295 A.D. (upwards

the time

and from

when
it

was written.
of

of 1,000 years after

the recorded deeds are supposed to have happened),

he infers that this w as the period when the

r

And

Valmika, as

when

he says

it is called,

Ramayana

"

In giving the age of the Ramayana

I do not mean to say that the facts on

which that romance was founded, in part, did not exist long before.

On the

contrary,

my

opinion

is

that they did, and probably were to

be found in histories or oral traditions brought

down

to the time.

The author of the Ramayana was more a poet than an astronomer,

Hindu Astronomy.

122

and, being unacquainted with the precession, he

alluded

to, foV I do not suppose it

was

fell into

the mistake

intentional, as that could

answer no purpose."
There

is

another circumstance which (Bentley says) must have

occurred in the time of

the Ocean," founded

Rama,

upon the various

which took place, according

sun,

the fiction of the

i.e.,

"

Churning

of

incidents of an eclipse of the

to his calculation,

when

the Yernal

Equinox was in the middle of the Asterism Bharani, in the year

945 B.C., on the 25th October.
an

It is a highly- coloured fable (an allegory of

a pretended fight between the Suras and the Asuras, the

language

Gods of Light and Darkness, and their

An

account of

it is

described in the great

chap.

5),

offspring.

given in the Puranas, but

poem

of the Hindus, the

a translation of which

cribed in full

In

eclipse) in poetical

is

it is

more

Mahabharata

given by Wilkins, and

fully

(B. 1

trans-

by Bentley.

this eclipse

Saturn was discovered.

He

is

said to have been

"born in the moon's shadow, which pointed towards the Lunar

Asterism ltohini."

The name given by the Hindus

to the

new planet was Chaya-Suta

(Offspring of the Shadow).

It is further supposed as probable that the

Hindus was invented

Theogony

at about this period (945 B.C.),

heavens were then divided, and shares of

it

of the

and that

the

assigned to the several

Gods.

from Hesiod, given by Bentley, describes the war

between the Gods and the Giants, a fiction resembling that contranslation

cerning the "Churning of the Ocean" of the Puranas, the former

being supposed by Bentley to be borrowed from the Hindu fable

at a period

some 200 years

later, or

this connection, enters

largely into

about 746 B.C.

a comparison of the mythology

of the Hindus, the

Chaldeans, the Egyptians,
it

will bo needless in this

work

Bentley, in

to follow

him

and the Greeks

but

in such a comparison.

Some Early Hindu Astronomers and

It is also stated

then recorded, the

Lunar Asterisms Aslesha

in 3

20'

Solstitial

moment

months always

solar

the sun enters a sign of the Zodiac, and the

day on which the eclipse happened being the 23rd of the

Kartica, it is deduced that the first

day of
it

"

moon.

tlie

B.C.),

Colure cut

and Sravana in 10.

Reckoning from the fact that the Hindu

begin at the

123

by Bentley that in the same year (945

according to observations
,he

Observations.

day of the month

fell

month

on the sixth

This being the time of the Autumnal Equinox,

was found by observation that the Colures had fallen back in

respect of the fixed stars 3

20' since the former observations in

1192 B.C."
be observed that, from this retrograde motion of 3

It will

mean annual

247 years, the

rate of precession

(48lff")

20' in

may

be

"

In the same period of 247 years and one month

they found that the moon had made 3,303 revolutions, and one sign
readily found.

were also 3,056 lunations or synodic periods, and

o\er, that there

the

number

of days in the

Fron: these data

whole period was 90,245J."

easy to deduce

it is

Days.

The length of the

tropical year
sidereal

moon's tropical revolution

lunar

Now, there
thus stated

month
is

hrs.

= 365
= 3G5
=27

29

nothing improbable regarding the observations

by Bentley.

They

are just the kind of observations the

Hindu astronomers were constantly making, to determine the days

when the sun was in an Equinox or a Solstice those four days of
the year

when

Supreme Being
sulted in

sacrifices

and

offerings were to be

observations which, as expressed

made

to the

by Laplace,

re-

"the remarkable exactness of the mean motions which

they (the Hindus) have assigned to the sun and the moon, and
necessarily required very ancient observations."

Bentley, moreover, from a study of the ancient

Hindu

calendars,

and from the circumstance that the period of 247

TV years con-

Hindu Astronomy.

124

tained a

month

"

more than 247

it obvious that
years, considered

must begin and end with the same month of the year
and that the next succeeding period would begin with the month

this period

and thereby change the commencement of the year one

month later each period; and, moreover, as there was a complete
following,

number

of lunations (3,056) in the period, it follows that the moon's

age would be always the same, at the commencement of each

succeeding period."

This would prove that in these early times the solar year wa9
tropical,

and estimated from Equinox

our modern system, only that

in each period of

247^

In accordance with
of all the changes

entirely

laid

introduced

to

1
0/

Pi

aside,

Equinox, just as

it is

beginning would be a month

in

later

years.

this statement

made

from 1192 B.C. down

its

to

to

in the

he gives the following

commencement

of the

"

Table

Hindu

year

538 A.D., when the ancient method was

and the

present,

or

sidereal

astronomy

Some Early Hindu Astronomers and

nents of the Equinoctial and Solstitial Colures, forms

>f

of astronomical

system

Bentley's

125

Observations.

chronology

the

of the

basis

Hindus,

terminating with the date 22nd March, 538 A.D.

The Hindus themselves

state

that the great change in their

astronomical system, from a moveable to a fixed origin, a point of

the Ecliptic,

made when
the

from which their longitudes are now reckoned, was

the Vernal

Equinox coincided with the

Lunar Asterism Aswini.

as above,

the

mean

tors of

by Bentley,
of

to

The date when

have been 538 A.D.

two calculations, 582 A.D.

point of

first

this occurred is stated

;

by Colebrooke, from

by the American

the Surya Siddhanta, 570 A.D., which

is

transla-

reckoned from the

longitude of S Piscium.*

The

differences in these several dates arise principally

different estimates of the precession

from the

which are used in the respective

calculations, foi a variation of half a second in the precession pro-

duces a difference of twelve years in the calculation over 1,200 years

* The
longitude of
fifth

Piscium in 1800 was about 17

6',

magnitude, and 110' West of the beginning of Aswini.

it

is

of the

CHAPTEK
RISE OF

THE BUDDHIST HERESY AND

"

ITS EFFECT

ON HINDU ASTRONOMY.

945200.]

[B.C.

According to Fergusson,

X.

the inhabitants of the Valley of the

Ganges, before the Aryans reached India, seem to have been tree and
serpent worshippers, a people without any distinct idea of God, but

apparently worshipping their ancestors and,

in

human

it

may

be, indulging

sacrifices."

Undoubtedly, however, when the Aryans spread into the country,

as

we have

Brahmins

seen,

from the North-west, there arose the religion of the

as the

dominant faith extant in the periods referred

in the last chapter.

The evidences afforded by the contents

to

of the

Vedas and the Institutes of Menu, which are almost universally

regarded as having been compiled prior to 1000 B.C., incontestibly
prove the then existence of the Brahminical faith as an organised

and

settled system,

savage worship

No

still

although probably

much

the antecedent

of

remained.

reference, however,

can be found in the Hindu writings

later date (so far as the writer has

authentic value, to the period which succeeded that

dealt with in the

"

Ramayana,

of

been able to ascertain) of any

(circ.

until the appearance of

B.C. 945),

Buddha.

In the sixth century B.C.." continues Fergussion, " Sakya Muni

(Buddha) reformed tMs barbarous fetishism into a religion now

:

known

as

Buddhism, and raised the oppressed inhabitants

Northern India to the

The
all

castes of the

first

Aryans were abolished.

could obtain beatitude

of

rank in their own country

by

All

men were

equal, and

the negation of enjoyment and the

practice of prescribed ascetic duties."

Buddhism, as introduced by Sakya Muni, appears

into the North-east of India, Cashmere, Thibet,

to

have spread

Burmah, and

to

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

The remains,

China.

names

to

still

its effect

on Hindu Astronomy.

existing, of

be found in the several

127

Buddhist temples, and the

districts,

appear also to indicate

that this religion extended across Central India to the Mahratta

country, to Malwa, the Deccan,

Nerbudda River

name

(a

of

some

and further, to Western India, and

gress, its votaries established

and

to states bordering

on the

significance in this connection),

finally to Ceylon.

In

this pro-

themselves at various centres, such as

Dhar, Baug, Ellora, Bhilsa, and, in some measure, at Oojein, each

of

which places has

the

others, in

its

own fragmentary

connection with the

history, separately

rise

from

and establishment

of

Buddhism in the country.

We

have, however, no authentic history of India previous to the

invasion of Alexander in 350 B.C.

From

men

who accompanied him in

w e gather some information of much value regarding

the officers and

of science,

his expedition,

the condition of the people at this time.

them

and powerful nation, the country

as a great

number

of

The account represents

kingdoms

which implies that

it

of great extent,

as divided into a

and population

a description

must have taken long periods of time for the

The Greeks, also,

growth and consclidation of the then nation.

accumulated

much

the territories

information regarding the physical character of

which they had

entered, with respect to

soil,

produc-

and climate, though, the extent of country over which they

tions,

had an opportunity of forming an opinion was limited

of the

to a portion

Punjab, and to the borders of the provinces through which

they passed, along the banks of the Indus, in the famous voyage

down 1,000 miles

of that river,

which took them nine months

to

reach the ocean.

In.

the brief time during

which they rem allied in the country

they learned that the people were divided into four classes, or castes.

The highest,
rest.

It

was

as a sc.cred

body

of divines, held

supremacy over the

their province to study the principles of religion, to

Hindu Astronomy.

128

conduct

its offices,

and

priests, philosophers,

The
rulers

class

to cultivate the sciences, in the

capacity of

and teachers.

next in order, the warrior

caste,

held the position of

and magistrates in times of peace, and of commanders and

soldiers in war.

The third

class consisted of the

husbandmen and merchants, and

the fourth of artisans, labourers, and servants.

They noted
and

also the character of the inhabitants, their political

social institutions, their

came under

else that

These were

all

their

manners and customs, with everything

own

particular observation.

narrated with minute accuracy, insomuch that,

to

who have been long familiar with similar things,

has appeared wonderful how little they are changed from what

our countrymen
it

they were twenty- two centuries ago.

Soon

after the death of Alexander, the several

had opposed him became united under one

origin,

own

who had usurped

sovereign.

kingdoms which

ruler, a

man

of low

the throne of Maghada, after killing his

This monarch, called by the Greeks Sandracottus,

but named in India Chandra Gupta, became king in 343 or 315 B.C.

His court was held

at Pataliputra, or Palibothra,

being exceedingly large and populous, whose

as

known, but believed to be that on which Patna

a city described
site is

now

un-

is situated.

Both Chandra Gupta and his son, Bindusara, appear to have been
Hindus of the true orthodox faith; but Asoka, the grandson of
Chandra Gupta, became a convert
tisans of

to

Buddhism, between the par-

which persuasion and those of the Brahminical faith a long

controversy had existed.

On the

death of his father

the great patron of the

(circ.

new

266, or 263 B.C.),

Asoka became

the third
faith, and presided over

Buddhist* Council held in 245 or 242 B.C.

*

The founder

of this religion,

"

Sakya-Muni, or Gautama Buddh, was

who for a long period subsequent to the

a prince of the Solar dynasty,

advent of the Aryans into India, had held permanent sway in Ayodia

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

Max

Professor

on Hindu Astronomy.

its effect

Muller observes:

129

"Though Buddhism became

recognised as a state religion, through Asoka, in the third centuryonly, there

can be

little

doubt that

had been growing in the minds

and though there is some

it

of the people for several generations,

doubt as to the exact date of Buddha's death, his traditional era

begins 543 B.C

and we

may

safely assign the origin of

Buddhism

about 500 B.C."

to

Bentley says, regarding the

fifth

Chronology, marked in his table

December, 204 B.C., that the

at the

Magha,

Winter

"

(p.

astronomical

period

his

124) as beginning on the 25th

Hindu year began with

Solstice,

of

and in the

first

the

month

point of the

of

Lunar

Asterism Sravana, marked in the calendar with the word Makari

on the seventh of
Saptami, denoting that the sun entered Capricorn

Sometimes

the moon.

Now,

since the third

it is

marked Bhaskara Saptami."

Buddhist Council

is

stated

by Max Muller

have been held in 245 or 242 B.C., and by Fergusson

to

250 B.C.

(at

which period Buddhism was the

at

about

state religion),

and

from early caves of Behar, Fergusson deduces that the time of

Dasaratha, the grandson of Asoka, must have been about 200 B.C.,

About the 10th

the modern Oude.

superseded by another race of

the

Lunar

race,

who

much

or 12th century B.C., they were

less

purely Aryan blood,

transferred the seat of

power

known

as

to capitals situated in

In consequence of this the lineal

the northern parts of the Doab.
descendants of the Solar kings were reduced to a petty principalty at
the foot of the Himalayas, where Sakya-Muni was born about 623 B.C.
He spent many years in meditation and mortification as an Ascetic, to fit

himself for the task of alleviating the misery incident to human existence,

by which he had become painfully impressed, and for forty-five years he

steadily devoted himself to the task he had set before himself, wandering
from

city to city, teaching

gentle

means could

effect to

and preaching and doing everything that

disseminate the doctrines which he believed

were to regenerate the world and take out the sting of

The date

Max

entertained as to the period.

misery."

has been estimated both by General Cunningham

Muller to have been 477 B.C., but no certainty is

of his death

and Professor

human

Hindu Astronomy.

130

it

follows that Dasaratha

must have

near the beginning of Bentley's

With regard
Professor

Mix

fifth

lived at a period somewhere

astronomical period.*

position of Indian literature at this time,

to the

Muller says, "that in the third century B.C., the

down

ancient Sanscrit language had dwindled

Pracrit,

mere Yolgare,

or

and the ancient religion of the Veda had developed into

Buddhism, and had been superseded by

of
religion of Asoka, the grandson

The

to a

own

its

offspring, the state

Kandra Gupta."

between the Orthodox

subjects of discussion in the controversy

Brahmins and the Buddhists appear

to

have been principally on the

assumed divine authority of the Yedas, the

utility of sacrifices

and

ceremonies for the dead, and on the iniquity of killing animals for
food.

The Buddhists, moreover, were regarded

as heretics

by

par-

tisans of the other faith.

Ferguson, a great authority on the Architecture of India, remarking

"The Aryans wrote books but
to, says:

upon the times here referred

they built no buildings.

and the Laws

of

Their remains are to be found in the Yedas

Menu, and

in the influence of their superior

power on

but they excavated no caves, and they reared no monuments of stone or brick that were calculated to endure after having

the lower races

served their original and ephemeral purpose.

" Our
history (Indian Architecture) commences with the Architecture
of the Buddhists.
Some of their monuments can be dated with certainty

and we not only know from history that they

are the oldest, but they bear on their face the proofs of their primogeniture.
Though most of them are carved in the hardest granito, every form and
as far back as 250 B.C.,

every detail is so essentially wooden, that we feel in examining thorn

we are assisting at the birth of a new style.
"The circumstances of the architectural history of India, commencing
with Asoka, about 250 B.C., and of all the monuments for at least 500

that

years after that time being Buddhist, are two cardinal facts that cannot
be too strongly insisted upon or too often repeated by those who wish
to clear

away a great

deal which has hitherto tended to render the

subject unintelligible.
" The
principal monuments

by which Asoka

is

known

to us are his

Three of these are engraved on the living rock, one near

inscriptions.
Cuttack, on the shores on the Bay of Bengal another near Ionaghur, in
;

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

its effect

About 204 B.C. (according

to Bentley)

new and more

n astronomy;

"

improvements were made

accurate tables of the planetary

improvements, the Hindu history was divided into

3esides these

)eriods for chronological purposes,

night never be

which

that they
periods, in order

or disputed, might, with the assistance

lost, or, if lost

be again recovered, were

a few data,

manner

fixed

by

commence and

end,

been previously fixed on, the inventors then, by computa-

determine the month and the moon's age, on the very day on

tion,

which Jupiter
of

and

settled

istronomical computations," in the following

"
The years with which each period was to
liaving

131

and positions were formed, and equations introduced.

Liotions

>f

on Hindu Astronomy.

is

found

to

the years so fixed on

and other books, might

any doubt, in case of

;"

at

be in conjunction with the sun in each

which, being recorded in the calendar

any time be referred

to for clearing

up

necessity.

For two or three centuries before Asoka began

his reign, there is

an unaccountable dearth of information regarding the astronomy of

that period.

Bentley suspected that there had been a great destruc-

tion of manuscripts.

He

"

states that there is still a tradition that the

Maharattas, destroyed

all

their books in wells, tanks,

Maharastras, or

the ancient works, that the people hid

and other

Guzerat, 1,000 miles of the last

places,

and a third

at

but

to

Kapur

no purpose, for

di

Griri,

900 miles

north of Ionaghur.
"
to

the Lats or pillars, erected

Slightly more architectural than these are
contain edicts conveying the principal doctrines of the Buddhist

religion as then understood.

" One of them is at
Delhi,
his palace, as a

" Three

monument

having been re-erected by Feroze Shah in

of his victory over the Hindus.

more are standing near the Eiver Gunduck, in Tirhoot

and

one placed recently in the Fort of Allahabad. A fragment of another

was discovered near Delhi, and part of a seventh was used as a roller on
the Benares road
Vol.

IL,p. 458.

by a Company's officer."--

Ferguson's Indian Architecture,

Hindu Astronomy,

132

hardly any escaped, and those that did then escape were afterwards
picked up by degrees, that none were allowed to be in circulation.
.

facts

Which

will (he says) account for the paucity of ancient

and observations that have reached our times."

In the above period he could

mentioning, in 215 B.C., when
Solstice, or the

moon were
It

find only one observation worth

it

was found

Winter

beginning of the solar month Magna, the sun and

in conjunction at sunrise on a Sunday.

be as Bentley has remarked, that there was a search made

may

for manuscripts at this period of

would not be made

Hindu astronomy

It

may
men of

preserved.*

the learned

relics

but certainly

many

and

it is

it

pro-

manuscripts have been

be that the search was made at the instance

of

the time, for the purpose of restoring their

ancient literature and science.

manuscript

for the purpose of destroying them,

bably owing to such a search that so

families

that, at the

Amongst

would be preserved with

would have become

extinct,

found their way into foreign hands.

and

the Jyotishticas, the

care,

but

many

their writings

Many,

also,

of the

would have

would have been

Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that in the ancient

lost.

were
writings of that period were found the materials from which

compiled and condensed the relatively correct

planets,

and

the rules of astronomy

mean motions

of the

and mathematics, given in

the

* The number of
separate works in Sanscrit, of which manuscripts are
still in existence, is estimated
by Professor Max Muller to amount to

about 10,000, which makes him exclaim, "What would Plato and
have said, if they had been told that at their time there existed
in that India which Alexander had just discovered, if not conquered, an

Aristotle

ancient literature far richer than anything they possessed at that time in

Greece?"

We

can readily conceive that amongst these manuscripts there are

fiction innumerable, and treatises on literature and

dramas and works of

science,

and

but there

is little hope of their

being completely investigated
and only like nuggets in a mine are the really valuable works
be found accidentally.

sifted,

likely to

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

Rist

joct

'ere

its effect

on Hindu Astronomy.

Some

computed the various tables already mentioned.

and bear evidence of

ndia),

of

earned into Siam (probably by ancestors of the Buddhist

riesthood of that country, where they were finally driven

their

from

Indian origin, by the corrections

equired for the difference of longitude of places,

ries.

33

books preserved in different parts of India/ and from which

kese were

It is not improbable, also, that the

m the

two coun-

Buddhists who found a

iome in China when their rulers were compelled to retire from Hin-

dostan, in the persecution instigated

by Sancara, and Ildayana

Acharya, by princes of the Yaishnava and Saiva Sects, carried with

ihem tables

Again, there were, no doubt,

of a like character.

among the manuscripts

which have been

sought,

many

ancient mathematical works

cited as authorities in later works,

and which must

have been in existence at the times when they were quoted in such
later works.

Thus, in 1150 A.D. we find Bhaskara mentioning the names of a

number

of

when he wrote

possession
his

works on algebra, which he must have had

work

(218)

manabha

his

the following lines at the conclusion of

work on the Yija-Ganita,

tary

in;

or Algebra,

commending

his elemen-

"As

the treatises of Brahmegupta, Sridhara, and Pad-

are too diffusive, I (Bhaskara) have compressed the sub-

stance of them, in a well-seasoned

compendium,

for the gratification

of learners."

(219)

" For the volume contains a thousand

lines, including precept

and example.

Sometimes exemplified,

to explain the sense

bearing of a rule, sometimes to exemplify

one while to show variety of inferences

the principle.

For

these, there are

its

and

scope and adaptation

another while to manifest

no end of instances, and there-

fore a few only are exhibited."

In the body

of the Vija-Ganita,

Bhaskara

and from Padmanahha's Algebra, and repeatedly

writers in general terms.

Where

from Sridara

also cites

his commentators,

refers to other

w ho must have
r

Hindu Astronomy,

134

had the works in

their possession, understand

Aryabhatta, Brahmegupta, and the

him

to allude to

Scholiasts, Chaturveda, Prithu-

"

daea Swami, and other writers, Colebrooke says

long and

diligent research in various parts of India has, however, failed of

recovering any part of the

Vadmanabha, and

Padmanabha

of the algebraic

Yija,

or Algebra,

of

and other works of Aryabhatta."

There can, however, be no doubt that, judging from the extracts

and from references

given,

Bhaskara and other

of

writers,

many

previous works were existing, and some of them doubtless compiled

time (200 B.C.), when, as Bentley says, there was a great

at the

revival

and reconstruction

of the

Hindu astronomy

of that date.

Colebrooke was more fortunate in regard to Sridhara and Brah-

He

megupta.

possessed Sridhara' s Arithmetic and an incomplete

copy of the text and Scholia of the

edited

by Brahmegupta, which

Brahma

will be

Siddhanta, revised and

more particularly described

further on.

In the third volume of the "Asiatic Researches," Davis, near

end of the

the

named by
and expense won

last century, referring to the ancient writers

Colebrooke, remarks that "almost any trouble

1. 1

be compensated by the possession of the three treatises on algebra

from which Bhaskara declares he extracted his Vija-Ganita, and

which

(in

Bengal) are supposed to be entirely

lost."

The suggestions that enquiries should be made

Europeans who had access

to

for the works by

Oojein have been acted upon, but

without success.
Thus, the paucity of material supplied to the narrator of the events
relating to the period under consideration, forbids

an exhaustive

discussion of the state of

astronomy at that date; but
nevertheless, be gathered

The

from

isolated circumstances.

success of the revolution

religion

is

population,

much may,

which made Buddhism the

state

supposed to have been owing to a great increase in t he

and a wide-spread discontent amongst the lower

which found in the new government a

relief

orders,

from the severe

dis-

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

cipline of the

abolished,

its effect

on Hindu Astronomy.

Brahminical and other higher

and the freedom of the subject

classes.

asserted.

35

Caste was

The overthrow

Aryan ride was, therefore, easily accomplished. We can

form
conjectures regarding the attitude of the Brahmins in
only
of the

conjuncture of their

this

It

affairs.

may

be that some of them

temporised with the ruling powers, compelled by circumstances to

conform

new

to the spirit of the times,

and appeared

appear to

Others

have turned their attention to literary pursuits, and created

those allegories, fables, and tales of fiction,

the

as converts to the

faith, concealing their opinions to avoid persecution.

amusement and foamed the mythology

which have

since been

of the country for

many

centuries.

It does not, however, appear

that

cruelty

ever practised towards their adversaries

or persecution

was

The

by the Buddhists.

tendency of their religion was to promote the advancement of their

faith

by

gentle means,

and

to obtain proselytes

Brahmins, therefore, appear

studies in peace

to

by

have been allowed

The

persuasion.
to carry

on their

and without molestation.

Their Sanscrit schools must have been conducted upon nearly the

same principles as they are now, the love of their ancient language,
descending in families which traced their lineage backward to

who have been distinguished

of their history

and at

all

for their

title

learning at various periods

times there were amongst them

learned in the four Yedas, and

who had

men

attained to the rank and

of Acharya.

It is

surmised that at some time during the Bhuddist supremacy

the various sects of astronomers of that period were led

liberal rulers to a freer intercourse

tion

men

which they themselves appear

among

by

with each other, that the

to

tolera-

have practised was encouraged

the teachers of different systems of astronomy,

who were

allowed to discuss their diverse doctrines, or to discourse upon

at the courts of the

better

their

Buddhist princes.

them

This tended to promote a

which a
understanding of their respective systems, from

Hindu Astronomy.

136

mutual improvement in methods of calculation and observation

was adopted in their teaching and in their text books.

It

was by means

of these Sanscrit seminaries (which have existed

from time immemorial) that their learning has been transmitted

from age

to age, either orally or

writing, and condensed to the

by

merest formulae in words, seemingly framed for the memory, as a

supplement

to the teachers' lectures,

and which would supply the

their
explanations and proofs necessary for fully understanding

import and uses.

In the Buddhist period the men

of learning, sages

among

the

Brahmins, retired with their disciples and adherents to their quiet

rural homes, and there composed, compiled, or revised,

works of literature and

time and the

during so

many

many

science.

many

of the

These have escaped the ravages

vicissitudes to

of

which they have been exposed

subsequent centuries.

From an examination

of these works, it

teaching in astronomy was theoretical,

would appear that

their

founded upon rules which

had been constructed by the Munis of preceding ages, and their

calculations were based on astronomical tables that had become
obsolete, consequent

upon a severance

of theory

Through neglect in applying the necessary

mean

become

tions,

practice.

corrections (Bija) to the

motions, errors in them, multiplying and increasing year by

year, would seem

to

from

to

have caused the whole system of their astronomy

so confused, that rules relating to

conjunctions, opposi-

and other phenomena, though demonstrable and true (when

applied Avith correct numerical constants), became

at variance

now

completely

with the facts of observations, and hence the calendar

became utterly untrustworthy.

In the subsequent reconstruction
evidence of the great use that was

of their astronomy,

made

there

is

of the Yija-Ganita, the

ancient algebra of the Hindus,

regarding which the testimony in

every form tends to show that

it had its
origin in India and to tHe
ancient astronomical works were often
appended separate treatises.
;

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

a the
;

on Hindu Astronomy.

its effect

137

form of chapters on arithmetic, algebra, mensuration, spherics

nd trigonometry.

We

are informed

by Indian

authorities that the earliest

uninspired writer on astronomy was a mathematician

ihatta,

Lave

lived near about this Buddhist period.

been of a

sect

somewhat

different

astronomers of a later time.

al
'>[

who

algebra to questions in

known

named Arya-

He

seems to

from the orthodox Brahmini-

He was

skilled in the application

astronomy, and

is

reported to have been

acquainted with an analytical method of solving problems, which

^vent

by the name

of Cuttaca (translated,

to grind, or Pulverise)
*;he

"

Pulveriser," from Cutt,

a method resembling one of our

own

solution, in all cases, of indeterminate equations of the

degree.

for
first

This method will be described more

fully hereafter in

connection with the

Brahma

Siddhanta.

Aryabhatta wrote a number of works on astronomy, which are

now known only by quotations from his writings, given by Brahmegupta and other subsequent astronomers, for the purpose of controverting the doctrines maintained in them.
these citations that Aryabhatta

astronomer,

who was

It is in general

was known

at least anterior to

as a very

by

eminent

Brahmegupta, and probably

flourished in the beginning of the Christian Era.

Oolebrooke, from various considerations, concluded that he must

unquestionably be placed "earlier than the

Saca,

and probably

so,

by

several (by

fifth

more than tw o
T

centuries, and, not unlikely, before either Saca or

'*

century of the
or three)

Sambat

eras.*

In other words, he flourished some ages before the sixth centuvy

-of the Christian Era; and perhaps lived before, or at latest soon
after, its

Erom

commencement."

Brahmegupta we learn that Aryabhatta

maintained the diurnal rotation of the earth round its axis. The
the quotations of

starry sphere

"he afnims

* Sambat

era,

is

stationary,

and the

56 B.C., Saca era,

earth,

789 A.D,

making

Hindu Astronomy.

138

revolution, produces the daily rising

and setting of the

and

stars

planet3."

To which Brahmegupta answers

in a prana, then
roll,

then

why

"If the earth move a minute

whence and in what route does

do not lofty objects fall?

it

The commentator of Brahmegupta, Prithudaca Swami,

replies

"

Aryabhatta's opinion appears,

Tf

proceed?

it

"

nevertheless,

satisfactory,

since

planets cannot have two motions at once; and the objection that
lofty things

would

fall is contradicted, for

every ,day the under part

of the earth is also the upper, since, wherever the spectator stands

on the

earth's surface,

even that spot

is

the uppermost point."*

From numerous

quotations of Bhattopala and other eminent

"
Indian mathematicians, it was also known that
Aryabhatta

accounted for the diurnal rotation of the earth on

wind or current

its axis,

by

of aerial fluid, the extent of which, according to the

orbit assigned to

it

by him, was

from the surface of the

earth.'

little

more than one hundred miles

Also that he possessed the true theory of the causes of "lunar

and

solar eclipses, affirming the

only illumined by the sun;

Solstitial

moon

u scribed to

be essentially dark and

that he noticed

and Equinoctial Points, but

oscillation, of

to

the

motion of the

restricted it to

a regular

which he assigned the limit and the period

the Epicycles,

by which the motion

that he

of a planet is repre-

* The
theory that the earth moves daily round an axis, and that it lias
a motion round the Sun as a kind of centre, which is
completed in a year,
is

a doctrine so far removed from the evidence of our senses and so con-

trary to our daily observations, that before the proofs are understood, if
it is received at all, it will be received as a mere
opinion of men belter
able to judge of such matters, which
may or not be true.

In the times of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, it is not therefore

astonishing that a theory which was so contrary and so entirely opposed
to that which had been so
universally received, and which had prevailed
in all countries from the
beginning of the world, should have been met
with ridicule, and with the persecution of its authors and their followers.

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

S(

ated, as

its effect

on Hindu Astronomy.

a form varying from the circle and nearly

recognised a motion of

li

all

elliptic

139

that

the nodes and apsides of all the

p imary planets, as well as of the moon.

"The

text of Aryabhatta specifies the earth's diameter 1,050

and the

Ti

ojanas,

393 Yojanas.
"

The

21 to

earth's orbit, or circnmference of the earth's wind,

ratio here

7,

to the diameter is

employed of the circnmference

an approximation nearer than that which both Brahme-

g upta and Sridhara employ in their mensuration.

"

He

problem

treated of algebra,

etc.,

for the resolution of

under distinct heads of Cuttaca, a

indeterminate ones, and Vija, principles

of computation, or analysis in general."

is

Aryabhatta

ly a thousand

according to the statement of Colebrooke,

cited,

Hindu

writers on astronomy, "as the author of a

system and founder of a sect in this science."

It is stated that about the

era the Arabs

Hindus.

firstt

Hindu

middle of the eighth century of our

became acquainted with the astronomy

astrologer

and mathematician was drawn

the court of the Abbasside Khalifs,

mean motions

of the planets

were made the foundation of the Arabian astronomical

Cndian sciences was

made

li stance

of the countries

The three primitive

the subject of complaint

who assigned

by the Arabic

as the cause the

and the various impediments

sects into

tables.

an insight into the

this time the difficulty of obtaining

authors of the Tarikhul hucama,

to

Almansur and Almamun, and,

by order of the Khalifs, the Indian

At

of the

to intercourse.

which the Indian astronomers were

divided differed from each other, amongst other things, in their

mode

Audayaca from TJdaya

night,

rising, Ardharatrica

their

names were

from Ardharatri Mid-

and Madhyandinas from Madyandina Mid-day.

The founder
to

and

of beginning the astronomical day,

of the first of these sects

was Aryabhatta, who

is

said

have had more correct notions of the planetary motions than any

of the writers

who

lived in later ages.

He

is

mentioned as having

Hindu Astronomy.

140

made

by him from

corrections in a system received

and referred

to a$ that of Parasara,

mean motions

for the

earlier sources,

from which he took the numbers

of the planets.

It is probable that the earlier

sources here referred to were his father and other astronomers,

were living during the period of the Buddhist supremacy or

wards,

when Yicramaditya became

It is probable that about

of the

this

Hindu astronomy began,

was invented by the Brahmins

who

after-

the ruler at Ujein.

time (200 B.C.), when the revival

the allegory of the death of Durgai

for the purpose of keeping in

brance the decadence of their favourite science, and

its

remem-

subsequent^

revival.
|

The death
spectacles,

of

Durga

is

still

sometimes represented in private

wherein large figures are constructed

to take part in

tableaux illustrating some of the scenes described in the

Ramayana

and the Mahabharata, such as Rama's lament over the death of

Luksmi, and others of a

Plate XII.

like nature.

is

taken from a

photograph of figures representing the calamity which overtook

Hindu astronomy

at this eventful period.

The great importance given to time as a mighty worker of events

was well understood in its personification as Siva.
Years were
personified as his wives, one of

whom,

Kalee, was described as an

which was in

insatiable monster devastating whole countries,

times but a figurative

way

of expressing that such

had been calamitous in famines,

pestilence,

earlier

and such years

and wars, which would

have depopulated the world, had not Brahma personally interfered

with Siva and induced him to keep his wife in order.

bewildered,

had no other means

throwing himself at her

feet,

of stopping her

and only

as she

Siva,

madness than by

was stepping on

his

body did she become aware of the disrespect she was showing to
her

husband;

and,

from

shame,

sue

then

ceased

from her

devastations.

Durga, an a3tronomical representation of the year, and

wife of Siva, was of a higher caste.

also a

She was the daughter of

Hindu Astronomy.

Plate XII.

Rise of Buddhist Heresy

Daksha

its effect

on Hindu Astronomy.

141

But Siva was regarded

(a representation of the Ecliptic).

by the higher class of gods as a dissolute character, with snakes

and other

reptiles crawling over

the Nagas,

One

who were

him, alluding to his worshippers,

devoted to his service.

tradition regarding! Siva

had invited to a great feast

was that his father-in-law, Daksha,

all

the gods, celestial and terrestrial,

and Munis, with their worshippers. The

was intended to show the importance attached to

the planets, stars, Bishis,

feast, as

a figure,

astronomy, but without reference to time, which was an insult to

This gave great pain to Durga, who, after

Siva.

was permitted

much

to present herself at her father's house,

in the assembly

and

entreaty,
to

appear

but such was her distress at witnessing the eon-

tempt shown towards her husband that she died

of grief.

In other

words, the year (which, in the ancient astronomy, had been derived

from the Ecliptic, by means of a long

sun,

moon and

dictions

stars,

and had become

to agree

upon

Through disregarding the

effects

with the events), had been

To revenge her death,

army, by means of which

feast of

Daksha were

The meaning of

all

many

of the calendar that even the

became unknown
Siva,

lost.

produced by time, and neglecting

had crept into the predictions

length of the year itself

tlie

to the times of the vear

apply the necessary corrections to their calculations, so

errors

on

so exact in length that pre-

and calculations having reference

could be depended

to

series of observations

or

Durga

died.

from his own body, created a numerous

the gods

who had assembled

at the

destroyed.

this is that a multiplicity of errors arose

in

computations regarding the planets, seasons, and months, causing

the greatest confusion in periods of religious observances, until at

length no regard was paid to astronomical observations, and

knowledge of the
motions was
with

all

celestial

lost.

all

sphere of the Ecliptic, and of the planetary

Astronomy was no longer

studied.

Daksha,

the other Celestial Deities, were slain.

At length, Brahma, moved with compassion, caused Siva

to relent.

Hindu Astronomy,

142

A search was made for the bodies of

all

the gods to

was effected

life

the dead

a restoration of nearly

but when

it

its

head was cut

since,

however,

and Paksha was restored

He retired to

with the head of a goat.

been seen

off,

to the turn of

A goat w as,

l)aksha, his body was found without a head.

found near

came

to life

Benares, where he has often

wandering about with his goat's head, and looking

very sheepish.
This part of the legend, no doubt, alludes to the revival of the

study of astronomy, and

is

intended to show that

arisen between the astronomers of Ojjain

regarding the beginning of the Ecliptic.

it

difficulties

had

and those of Benares

The question was whether

should begin w-ith the Equinox at Aries, or with the Solstice of

Capricorn.

adopt the

The sect whicjh made use of the Solar Zodiac would

latter,

longitudes)

and would have placed the beginning

on the system of Lunar Asterisms at 3

Asterism Uttarashadha, which w as by no means a

r

for this lunar system.

(or origin

20' of the

suitable origin

It seems to have been, therefore,

decided, at Oojein at least, that the years

finally

and the Ecliptic should

both commence at Aswini, which made also this beginning coincide

with the first of Meesha (Aries), then also the Vernal Equinox;
although from the legend

mers of Benares

still

it

might appear that some of the

astrono-

held the beginning of the year to be at

Capricorn.

From

w e might almost infer that the

Lunar Asterisms was that of the Brahmins of Arya-Verta,

this difference of opinion

system of

and that the system which had

was that used by a

of India;

and

it

for its foundation the Solar Zodiac

sect of astronomers of the

may have been

more Northern

p*rts

this difference of their systems

which originated the distinction between the

solar

and lunar

races

of India.

Aryabhatta

may

have been one of the Northern

sect, for

he held

what were considered to be unorthodox opinions in astronomy, which

were cited by Brahmegupta, not for the purpose of praising or

approving of them, but for contesting and controverting them.

CHAPTER

XI.

POWER OF THE BRAHMINS TO

PERIOD FROM THE RESTORATION OF THE

BRAHMEGUPTA.
[Circ. B.C.

Malcolm, in his

Sir J.

'*

54080

a.d.]

History of Malwa," describes the early

history of this province as involved in darkness

and fable

bnt he

Oojein to have had more undoubted claim to remote

supposed

antiquity than any other city in India.

"
find in Indian manuscripts
He says

We

Malwa

noticed as a

separate province 850 years before the Christian Era, when Dhunjee,
to

wh:)m a divine crigin was given, restored the power of the

Brahmins, which,

many remains

it is stated,

had been destroyed by the Buddhists,

whose religion are

of

still

to

be found in this part of

In the excavation of a mountain near Bang we

India.

trace,

both

form of the temples and in that of the figures and symbols

in the

which they contain, the peculiar characteristics of the Buddhist

With

worship."

regard to the date ascribed to Dhunjee, he remarks

that "the principal

Christ,"

about

error

is

not so old as eight centuries before

and that "his age has been accurately ascertained

five

Now,

Buddha

to be

and a half centuries before Christ."

it is

own

remarkable, from their

statements, that a great

was committed by the Hindu writers of the period here rehave added together the genealogies of two distinct

ferred to, for they

dynasties of different tribes, as if they were continuous in the

line (the princes of Avhich were, for

When

same

some time, contemporaneous).

this error is corrected, the date of

Dhunjee

is

brought down

from 850 B.C. to 109 B.C., and also places the era of Raja Bhoja
(a great

prince celebrated for the encouragement given

learning), at a

mean

date of 533 A.D.

whereas, the

by him

Hindu

to

writers,

Hindu Astronomy

144

by

the error referred to, have placed

11th centuries of our

and

a3 living in the 10th

era.

to clearly present to the reader the nature of the error

In order
referred to,
(stated

him

necessary only to allude to the four names, Dhunjee

it is

by native

with 350 B.C.)

Salivahana

(at

writers to have existed at a period corresponding

Yicramaditya (56 B.C., on the same authority)

the era of the Saca, 79 A.D.), and Eaja Bhoja

any time between 900 A.D. and 1100 A.D.). The

writer proposes to show that, although the periods assigned to
(stated as living

Vicramaditya and Salivahana are approximately correct, yet, by

reason of the confusion between two dynasties, Dhunjee

The

from

five to

placed

and Eaja Bhoja

at a period at least seven centuries too early,

assigned to a date

is

is

seven centuries too late.

corrected date agrees with nearly all the conclusions, regard-

ing Raja Bhoja, which Colebroo'ke had arrived at on other grounds,

although, to reconcile the inconsistencies in the

had been many princes

believed there

of the

Hindu

name

of

accounts, he

Raja Bhoja.

(Essays, Yol. II., P. 53.)

This error of the

ing account

Hindu writings

will be apparent

from the follow-

In the "Summary of the History

which we find in the Ayeen Akberi, a
several dynasties of the

Kings

of

of the Princes of

Malwa,"

series of tables is

given of

Malwa.

These must have been furnished to Abul Fazel by learned

men

of his time, when he was compiling the "Institutes of Akber," and

he appears himself to have visited Oojein. Now, the first of these
tables,

headed by Dhunjee (described as the chief of a tribe of the

Deccan), comprises the names of five princes,

recorded to have reigned 387 years 7 months.
this

list

is

Salivahana,

and

his

who

together are

The third prince on

two predecessors are

have reigned altogether 186 years and 7 months.

Salivahana

is,

undoubtedly, the Saca, which in India

reckoned to be

789

A.D.

The

The
is

said

era

to
of

universally

era of Dhunjee, according to this

Period from Brahminical Restoration

to

145

Brahmegupta.

imputation, would, therefore, be about 108 B.C., thus giving the

late

when Brahminism was

oi

re-established.

"

Ayeen Akberi ") consists of 18

Punwar Dynasty, beginning with Adut Punwar, who,

Table II (given in the

the

ing to Sir J. Malcolm,

was a Rojput, and the seventh on

princes

accord-

this list is

Vicramaditya.

But we

are told also

by the Hindu

writers that Salivahana

made

war upon Vicramaditya and took him prisoner, but granted his
request that the Sambat, which

is

the era of Vicramaditya, and

now

universally admitted to be 56 B.C., should not be discontinued in

public transactions.

made

the throne,

Nevertheless, Salivahana, on his accession to

use of another era ("Ayeen Akberi," Vol.

I.,

p. 330).

In the same table are recorded the names of the remaining 12

princes beginning with Vicramaditya, inclusive, all being predecessors of

and

five

Raja Bhoja, whose reigns altogether amount

to

636 years

months, which, reckoned from the beginning of the Sambat

or 56 B.C.,

would place the reign of Raja Bhoja

at about

580 A.D.

Abul-Fazel, however, states that Bowj (or Raja Bhoja) succeeded

"
of Vicramaditya (t.e,,
to the kingdom in the 541st year of the era

485 A.D.), and that he

made

considerable additions to his dominions

His reign was celebrated for his justice and

by conquest.

and he gave such encouragejinent

to

men

of learning

liberality,

and wisdom

that no less than 500 sages were to be found in his palace.

made

trial of

the abilities of

them

all,

amongst them were Beruj and Dhunpaul, whose compositions

highly esteemed to this day."

(1595,

He

and found the most eminent

"Ayeen

Akberi."

are

Vol. II.,

p. 55).

If this explanation of the error of

would

also

Hindu

writers be admitted, it

explain how there should have arisen such gr>at

ences amongst

European

writers, regarding the important periods

of the re-establishment of the religion of the

of Bhoja, which,

differ-

Brahmins and the age

from the errors having been carried forward by

Hindu Astronomy.

146

Hindu

been placed anywhere between the 9th and 12th

writers, has

centuries,

A.D.

The date which Abul-Fazel gives for the age of Raja Bhoja is
certainly more to be relied upon than that deduced from the table

Hindu manuscripts

of the

of Oojein, for in the court of the

Emperor

Akber, Abul-Fazel was surrounded by the most learned Hindus

his time,,

who were

Akber."

In

his assistants in compiling his

"

of

Institutes of

his researches regarding the Hindus, he could have no

motive for altering the narratives and facts communicated to him,

and he seldom resorted

He
set

admits that he

my

heart

to conjecture.

is

"I had

not infallible, for he says:

long

writing something of the history of Hindostan,

upon

together with an account of the religious opinions of the Hindus.

I knoAv not

if

my anxiety herein proceeds from the love

country, or whether I
truth,

am

is

my native

impelled by the desire of searching

and relating matter of

In his researches he

of

after

fact."

equally desirous with ourselves of obtain-

ing trustworthy evidence regarding

the compilation of his work.

He

all

that was related to

him

for

possessed advantages of obtaining

information far superior to any that subsequent amateur antiquaries

have ever enjoyed.

when

He

lived at least 200 years nearer the times

the incidents and facts of his information

better

known,

authority he held in the empire gave

information on every

Few

have been

him

the

means

of obtaining

side.

Indian names have excited more curiosity than that

of his time

who were

of

In his court were assembled most of the learned

Vieramaditya.

men

may

and, as the confidential minister of Akber, the high

amongst them were the

the ornaments of his court

poet Calidas, author of a

number

so-called nine gems, poets

one of them was the celebrated

of dramatic works,

and

other

poems, in which are depicted the manners and customs of the age
in

which he lived

foet,

another was the distinguished lexicographer and

Amera-Sinha; his poems are said

to

have perished.

In

Period from Brahminical Restoration

r<

igion he

was

who were

?rs

r(

lated

writers also give the

names

of several astrono-

guests, but nothing further appears to

have been

regarding them.

The two
i]

147

Brahmegupta.

Buddhist, and reputed to be a theist of tolerant

Hindu

p inciples.

a,

to

eras,

iportant in

Sambat (56 B.C.) and Saca

Hindu astronomy

as

(789

A.D.), are

marking the time when the era

Yudhisthira was discontinued or superseded by them.

(i

Thus, the ancient astronomers, Parasara and Garga, employ the

and Colebrooke makes use of the argument that the

astronomer Aryabhatta, about whose period there is some degree
older era,

of

uncertainty, since he does

Vicramaditya

nor the

not

make

Saca era of

employs the epoch Makabharata (that

fore,

he must have flourished before

use of the Sambat of

Salivahana, but

exclusively

of Yudhisthira)

is,

this

there-

epoch was superseded.

Further, Davis seems to have held the opinion that before the older

epoch was superseded there

is

evidence to show that the solar year

b3gan at the Winter Solstice, whereas the year of the Sambat of

Vicramaditya begins at the Vernal Equinox.

For some centuries

most part

after the era of Vicramaditya, a period for the

full of political

and religious disturbances, from parties

contending for supremacy, and from the expulsion of the Buddhists,

which probably took place during this interval,

I

no wn regarding the changes

little

or nothing is

Hindu astronomy had undergone

in

is reconstruction.

At the epoch of the Saca, the Vernal Equinox, the moveable

origin of the Solar Zodiac,

was at least

to the east of the first of

Aswini, the subsequently fixed "origin" of the

Astronomers,

made use
found

who were

of rules of

much

Lunar Asterisms.

at this time, doubtless, acquainted

with and

both the Lunar and Solar systems, must have

inconvenience from this difference in position of the

two points to which the longitudes were referred.

Other inconveniences must,

also,

have been

felt

by those astrono-

mers who used the Solar Zodiac with a moveable origin, owing to

l2

Hindu Astronomy,

148

the

different

hold

opinions

Equinoxes, the

amount

regarding

the

which was stated

of

of

precession

differently

by

the

different

authors.

was a general opinion,

It

as before stated, that the precession

resulted from the libration of

an Equinox, within limits

assumed number of degrees, on each

the various opinions cited

side of a

by Colebrooke

mean

of an

Of

fixed point.

(Essays,

p.

374,

etc.),

the one which gives the nearest to a correct value is that of Parasara.
"
The same doctrine (of a libration) is taught in
It is as follows
:

the

'

Parasara Siddhanta/ as quoted by Muniswara; and

rely on the authority of a quotation of this author

of Aryabhatta,

it

was

also

amounted

as

from the works

number

of libra-

to 581,709, and, according to the latter, of 578,159

in a calpa, instead of 600,000 (the

Siddhanta)

we may

maintained by that ancient astronomer;

but, according to the first-mentioned treatise, the

tions

if

and Aryabhatta has

number given in the Surya

stated the limits of the libration

24 instead of 27."

Now, from the former

a complete libration
tion), of

4X24

or

statement, or that of Parasara, reckoning

as it

(or,

96,

was by some authors

mean annual

called, revolu-

precession of 46.53672"

is

deduced, and from that of Aryabhatta 46.2572" results, both of

which are nearer the true value than that of the Surya Siddhanta
of 54", which was adopted in all the other Siddhantas of modern

astronomy.

About the year 480 A.D., the astronomer Yaraha-Mihira

is

described as noting and seemingly expressing his surprise that the

time of the Bishis, were, as recorded

in

former Sastras, the one in the middle of Aslesha, and the other

in

Solstices which, in the

the

first

the

first

degree of Dhanishtha, should now, in his time, be, one in

degree of Carcata, and the other in the

first

of Macra.

This

would imply that the Vernal Equinox was now, in his time, near
the

first

of Aswini.

He was

of a sect

which made use of the

Zodiac for expressing their longitudes, and he

may

Solar

have been one

Period from Brahminical Restoration

to

those wlio perceived the advantage which,

149

Brahmegupta.
would

arise

aking the beginning of the Solar Zodiac, Mesha, fixed and coin-

dent with the

Equinox when

it

was in the

first

of Aswini,

)Ssion.

mbassy

to that city, that there

Yaraha Mihira

05-6 A.D. Sir

W.

ascribed a date 122 Saca,

to another a date of

reasons, supposed that,

A.D., and the other

from two
at

Colebrooke, for similar

calculations, one placing

580 A.D., he

mean

427 Saca, or

Jones supposed, from astronomical data, Yaraha

Mihira to have lived about 499 A.D.

<)60

in an

were two astronomers of the name

them they

to one of

corresponding to 200-1 A.D.

may have

him

at

been living at the

date of the two, or about 470 A.D.

Now, much
j

and

erecting the longitudes afterwards by merely adding the pre-

The astronomers of Oojein informed Dr. Hunter, who was

from

of the authenticity

and accuracy of our information

regarding the more ancient at-tronomy of the Hindus depends upon

the evidence that is derived

He

from the numerous writings of Yaraha.

appears to have been of some astrological sect

Solar Zodiac

for the

familiar with the

the

foundation of their opinions, but he was

more orthodox doctrines

the ISTacshatras or

who had

Lunar Asterisms

of astronomers,

as the

groundwork

who had
of their

system.
It

however, evident that he misunderstood and misrepresented

is,

some of their doctrines, such as in the contradictory opinions which

he ascribed to Aryabhatta, and the strange doctrine before referred
to,

concerning the motion of the Bishis

through each Asterism in

one hundred years, an erroneous doctrine which was not held by the

mathematical astronomers, Parasara, Brahmegupta, Bhascara, and

other orthodox writers.

He

is

described as the author of a copious

consisting of three parts,

Tantra)

astrology,

which he declared was abridged from

It related to the computation of a planet's place

earlier writers.
(called

work on

to

lucky and unlucky indications (named hora)

Hindu Astronomy.

150

and

regarding various matters, journeys, weddings,

to prognostics

nativities, etc.

(denominated Sacha).

of the second part,

known under the

prising 26 chapters,

is still

The

part of

third

couplets, in

known and

cited, as

first

section

Vrihat-Jataca,

com-

astrological

work,

and

containing

4,000

is

unimpaired, and

the Vrihat Sanhita, or great course of astrology.

number

of the Hindus.

works

work, the

title of

also surviving,

is

It is evident, however, that

his possession, a

this

extant.

this

06 chapters,

Of

Varaha had recovered and had

more orthodox astronomical

of the ancient

It appears that

he had the writings of

He

Parasara, Garga, and Aryahhatta, which he commented upon.

was

also the editor of five different

orthodox works, entitled the

Siddhantica," a "knowledge of which he required, as

"Pancha

requisites in the qualifications of

culate a calendar.

Among

an astronomer competent

other attainments,

be conversant with time, measured by Yugas,

five

to cal-

he required him

etc.,

to

as taught in the

Siddhantas upon astronomy, named Paulisa, Romaka, Vasish-

tha, Saura,

The

"

and Paita-Maha."

Pancha Siddhantica,

has not been recovered

Siddhanta,
to

in

mean

is

the

as a complete work, edited

but the Saura, under the name of the Surya

supposed to be entire, and the Paita-Maha

Brahma

by Varahai

Siddhanta, and

all

is

intended

the others are cited and

assigned to different authors.

From

all this it

may

have been

be inferred that he admitted these ancient

established and referred to as great authori-

works

to

ties in

times long anterior to the date in which he was living

from

all

his references to Parasara

and other Munis or

llishis,

and

although

he was mistaken with regard to some of their opinions, he had faith

in the correctness of the observations recorded

As
of

before stated

by the author

of the

by them.

Ayeen Akberi,

Raja Bhoja in 485 A.D., there were assembled 500

at the court

sages.

It

may

well be conceived that in this great assembly of learned men, there

were present as honoured guests the most eminent mathematicians

Period from Brahminical Restoration

to

Varaha, and probably Jishnu, with his more celebrated

of the age.

Brahniegupta, also astronomers of another

son,

151

Brahmegupta.

Aryalhatta,

may

followers of

sect,

have been present, maintaining the doctrines of

their leader, in discussions

w ith Brahmegnpta.
T

In such assemblies mathematicians sought for distinction by

propounding and giving solutions to

At

on astronomy.

Brahma Siddhanta,

of the
scrit,

On
"

difficult algebraical questions

the end of the 8th section of the 18th Chapter

translated

by Colebrooke from the San-

about 60 questions on astronomy are proposed

concluding this chapter, Brahmegupta says

devise a thousand others, or

resolve

may

by the

problems proposed by others, as the sun obscures the

the proficient
rules taught,
stars, so

the proficient eclipse the glory of other astronomers, in

of people,

by the

solution.

These questions are stated merely for gratification

may

for

recital of algebraic problems,

and

does

an assembly

still

more by

their solution,

"

These questions recited under each rule with the rules, and their

examples amount

to a

on the Pulverizer

is

Some fow

hundred and three

of these questions, with the

is

methods which were adopted

held in the highest esteem by

The age near which he lived is

observations which he made and

writers.

certain

this chapter

be given in a subsequent part of this work.

The name of Brahmegupta

From

and

the 18th."

for their solution, will

Hindu

couplets,

calculated the date to be 535 A.D.

fairly well

all

known.

recorded, Bentley

Colebrooke, from the posi-

by Brahmegupta, and allowing

was disposed to agree
uncertainty in inaccurate observations,

tion of the heavenly bodies observed

for

with Bentley, but assigned 581-2 A.D. as the result of his calculaThe astronomers of Oojein also gave 550 Saca, or 628 A.D
tions.
as the date of

Brahmegupta.
work was a revised and corrected edition of
remarkable
most
His

the ancient sacred work, the

copy.

Brahma

Siddhanta, from some earlier

This edition by Brahmegupta will be more particularly

described hereafter.

Hindu Astronomy.

152

This astronomer, as has been previously remarked, combatted the

rotation of
theory of his predecessor, Aryabhatta, concerning the

the earth, and extracts from his arguments have been given

Colebrooke remarks that Brahmegnpta

more fortunate in

is

re-

futing a theory of the Jainas, who, to account for the alternation of

day and night, imagined that the daily changes were caused by
"

the passage of
stars,

of
is

many moons, and

two suns and as

a double

and minor planets round a pyramidical mountain,

which

is

His confutation of that absurdity

this habitable earth."

copied by Bhascara,

notion ascribed

set of

at the foot

who has added

by Brahmegupta

to it the refutation of another

to the

same

translation of the earth in space, founded

sect respecting the

upon the idea that

being heavy and without support, must perpetually

The answer given to this is

the

descend.

earth,

"

The earth stands firm by

its

own power without

other support

in space.
'*'

If there be a material support to the earth,

and again another of

of that,

finally, self-support

instance

"As

is

and

recognise

in the sun and

it

fire,

by

"The

nature.

How

limit.

If,

it

in the

first

coldness in the moon, fluidity in

is

in

air,

and immobility in the

wonderful are the implanted faculties

earth possessing

iron, says

no

in this multiform earth

water, hardness in iron, so mobility

earth,

so on, there is

must be assumed, why not assume

Why not

neat

this,

and another upholder

an attractive force

(like

loadstone for

the commentator on
Bhascara), draws towards

itself

any
heavy substance situated in the surrounding atmosphere, and that
substance appears as if
ethereal space

which

is

it fell.

But whither can the earth

equal and alike on every

"Observing the revolution of the

ledge that the earth has no support
to

stars,

fall,

in

side ?

the Buddhists acknow-

but, as nothing heavy is seen

remain in the atmosphere,
they thence conclude that it falls in
;

ethereal space.

"Whence

dost thou deduce,

Baudda,

this

idle

notion,

tha t

Period from Brahminical Restoration

to

153

Brahmegupta.

because any heavy substance thrown into the air falls to the earth,
therefore the earth itself descends ?

an arrow shot into the

force

was expended,

that it

moves

air

and

is

Nor can

projectile
it

be said

overtaken by the arrow, for heaviest

Abul Fazel gives a short but

it

when the

it

would descend.

bodies fall quickest (he supposes),

the Hindus, as

the earth were falling,

would not return to

since both

slower,

if

For,

and the earth

is

heaviest."

faithful account of the astronomy of

was known by them during the past 18

centuries,

and he relates a few instances regarding religious observances which

eeem

to point to

doctrines

some

somewhat

different

from those

of the Brahmins.

In theAyeen Akberi (A.D. 1591, Vol.

that

"

In the Soobah (province) of Berar are

which

is

Kotum

(i.e.,

Gotuma

Maha-Deva

and hold

it

When

or

many

rivers, the princi-

The Hindus have dedicated

Buddha) in the same manner

They

relate

wonderful

stories

as the

******
(Siva).

this river to

Ganges

regarding

it,

in great veneration.

the planet Jupiter enters the sign of

from great distances

In page 164
"

narrated

it is

Gung-Kotemy (Gung, Gotuma), and

called the

sometimes the Godavery.

"

II., p. 69),

pal of

to

who held

sect of ancient priestly astronomers

it is

to

worship this river."

related that

In Kotehar (a place in Cashmere) there

tinues dry for eleven years,

is

a fountain which con-

and when the planet Jupiter enters the

sign of Leo, the water springs out

the rest of the

Leo the people come

week during the

on every Friday, but

is

dry

all

year."

This was probably a natural syphon, which was only allowed to

flow every Friday during the year in

which Jupiter was passing

through the Constellation Leo.

Again, page 167
"
Adjoining the
extremity of which

Gurgong
is

is

a pass

called

Sowyuru

a plot of ground measuring 10 Jerebs.

at

the

When

Hindu Astronomy.

154

Leo

the planet Jupiter enters

>

for a month's continuance, the soil

of this place is so intensely hot that it destroys the trees,

kettle is set

on the ground

At page 353, referring

it

to

It

astonishing that

is

a place near the junction of the

when

middle of the Ganges and

remains for a month, so that people go upon

want

it

and perform divine

Mr. Barlow was of opinion that this legend about a

Ganges would seem

rising out of the

to

Jumna

the planet Jupiter enters the Con-

stellation Leo, a hill rises out of the

worship."

if a

will boil."

and the Ganges, Abul Fazel observes

'

and

of rain,

of the harvest,

and

to indicate a

low river owing

might readily be associated with a

this

and would hardly be forgotten

if it

hill

failure

occurred two or

three times in succession.

At page 183:
"In the reign

of

Raja Bunjir

(Castunri), whilst the sun

was

in

Leo, there was a fall of snow which totally destroyed the harvest

and occasioned a

From

terrible famine."

the circumstance of so

much

importance

having

been

attached to the entrance of Jupiter into the Constellation Leo, we

may

infer:

First, that the astrological priesthood of the sect

specific

which made

this

circumstance a stimulus to the devotions of the people, had

the Solar Zodiac for the foundation on which they based their

astronomy.
Secondly, that they
thi3

had

at least one of the

two Cycles of Jupiter,

being his year consisting of nearly 12 Saura years, the other

being the Cycle of Yrihaspati, consisting of 60 years.

Each

of the

GO years was called Yrihaspatis Mana, or Madhyaana, his mean

motion through

These years had each a separate name.*

on-3 sign.

* The
cycle of Yrihaspati of 12 years, as described by Parasara, quoted
by Varaha-Mihira, is thus explained.

"The name

of the year

is

determined from the Nacshatra in which

Period from Brahminical Restoration

Thirdly, that the Constellation

to

Leo should have been deemed

more sacred than any of the

others, over each of

pied a year in the transit^

is

Solstice was in
all

155

Brahmegupta.

which Jupiter occu-

when

significant of the period,

the

Leo ; a propitious time, which was equally sacred

the tribes of the East, as a time

when

sacrifices

were ordained to be offered to the Supreme Being, the

to

and prayers

memory

of

Vrihaspati rises and sets (heliacally), and they follow in the order of the
lunar months."

"The years beginning with

and

Cartic

commence with the Nacshatra

Critica,

each year there appertain two Nacshatras, except the 5th, 11th
and 12th years, to each of which appertain three Nacshatras."
There was a difference of opinion amongst the Astronomers regarding
to

the

naming of the years.

The names and order of the

were not the same as

2 Vrihaspati years

those of the cycle of 60.

According to^Sasipura and others, the Nacshatra in which Jupiter

rises gives the

name

to the year.

Casyapa says the name of the Samvatsura Yuga and the years of the
cycle of 60 are determined by the Nacshatra, in which he rises, and

Garga gives the same account. Some make the cycle to begin on the
day of the month of Chaitra, &c, whatever may be the Nacshatra in

first

which Jupiter

is.

According to Parasaras'

corresponding

which gives also the

names and order of the

rule,

character distinguished as good or bad, with the

they are set forth as follows, with the

Nacshatras,

presiding deities.
Nacshatras.

Years.
Cartic

Agrahayan
Paush

Kohini

Critica,

Mrigasiras, Ardru

Punarvasu, Pushya

Magh

Aslesha,

Phalgun

Purva Phalguni, U-Phalguni, Hasta

Chaitr

Chitra, Swati

Vaisach

Jaishth

Ashar

Sravan

Bhadr

. .

Aswin

Magha

Characters.

Deities.

Vishnu
Surya
Indra

Agni
Twashta

Bad.

Bad.

Good.

Bad.

Ahivradna

Neutral.

Good.

Yisacha, Anuradha

Pitris

Bad.

Mula
P-Ashara, U-Ashara

Viswa

Bad.

Soma

Good.

Good.

Good.

Good.

Jyeshtha,

Si-avana-Dhanishtha

. .

Satababisha, P-Bhadrapada, U-Bhadrapada

Eevati, Aswini, Bharani

The commentary states, "It

Devas are thus stated.

is

Indragni

Aswina

Bhaga
in the

Soma

Sanhita, that the presiding

Hindu Astronomy.

156

had been preserved, although the Solstice had

passed out of the Constellation Leo nearly 3,000 years before that
which, circumstance

time.

In the 3rd Volume of the "Asiatic Researches, Davis has given

the results of an investigation regarding the cycle of 60 years of
Vrihaspati, which some have supposed to be of Chaldean origin, or

He

the Sosos.

Davis was a

says that it
civil

was wholly applied

servant of the East India

to astrology.

Company

at

Bhau-

gulpore in 1789 and 1791, he gave two papers to the second and third

volumes of the " Asiatic Researches," Calcutta.

The first on u The Astronomical Computations of the Hindus
the second on "

The Indian Cycle

;"

of 60 years."

In the latter paper, to illustrate some of his remarks, he publishes

Hindu

a plate of the

ecliptic, of

which plate annexed (page 157)

is

a reduced copy.

He

"Its origin

says,

from Spica

is

considered as distant 180

a star which seems to have been of great use in regulating

their astronomy,

although they

and to which the Hindu tables of the best authority,

differ in other particulars,

In the cycle of 60 years are contained

five cycles

or Yugas, are

"The

Parivatsara

,,

,,

Idavatsara

,,

,,

Anuvatsara

,,

Udravatsara

,,

first

of

..

,,

Magha, Vrihaspati

Agni.
Area.

.,

Chandra.

Brahma.

JSiva.

named Prabhava, begins when,

rises in

the

Nachshatra Dhanishtha, because when Vrihaspati

s
Surya (the Sun) must be 10 6 12'."

Names

which

five cycles of twelve,

year of the cycle of sixty,

month

agree in assigning six

named

Samvatsara, over which presides

in the

in longitude

first

degree of the

rises in 9

s
,

23

20'

are given to all the 60 years of

Jupiter, beginning with
first.
The order in which these years are arranged is

Prabhava as the

given by Davis in the accompanying plate, which is copied from the one
" Asiatic Researches,"
given hy him in the third volume of the

Period from Brahminical Restoration

of longitude,

signs
first

Brahmegupta.

157

counting from the beginning of Aswini, their

Nacshatra."

In a preceding Chapter
the Nacshatra, the
to

to

it,

in several

first

Ecliptic

has been stated that the beginning of

Hindu works, by means

identified as Z Piscium,

The Hindu

it

of Aswini, was determined from a reference

of a star, which has been

and from the statement that when the vernal

and Cycles

of^ Jupiter.

According

to

Davis' "Asiatic Researches"

Vol. III.

equinox coincided with this

reckoned as

fixed,

star,

the longitudes were afterwards

and that the time when

this

change was made

was about 570 A.D.

The

principal object of Mr. Davis' plate

was to show the nature of

the two cycles of Jupiter, the smaller cycle consisting of 12 Saura

years,

The

and the larger cycle comprising

line

five of these, or

60 Saura years.

a passing through the beginning of Dhanishtha and the

Hindu Astronomy.

158

middle of Aslesha, shows the position of the

solstitial eolure

about

the year 1110 B.C., and the line b through the beginning of Critica
represents the position of the equinoctial eolure about the year 1305
B.C., whilst the other line a, passing

when the

position of the latter eolure

through Bharani, shows the

solstitial

was

at the

beginning

of Dhanistha (1110 B.C.).

Davis observes that

the like

number

"The

of Nacshatras

solar
;

months correspond

this is ascribed to the

in

name

with

months having

been originally lunar, their names derived from the Nacshatras in

which the moon, departing from a particular point, was observed to

be at the

full."

The most ancient Indian

lent to the time

year,

named

Saura,

made

a day equiva-

taken by the sun to pass through each degree of

the Ecliptic; so that in one revolution of the sun the Saura year,

number (360)

corresponding to a motion of 360, had the same

of

Saura days.

By

analogy, Jupiter's period consisted of 12 times his

hama, or "his mean motion through one sign."

year consisted of one-twelfth of his period.
to Laplace, Jupiter's Sidereal Period, in

The

To be

mean

Madhy-

Vrihaspati

exact, according

solar time, is 4,332

days 14 hours 18 mins. 41 sec, so that the Vrihaspati year would be

361 days 1 hour 11 min. 30

therefore, a period of either

of the time

sec. of

mean

solar time.

was

not,

Saura days or of mean solar days, but

he took through each sign of 30 of the

cycle was complete

It

when the 360

Ecliptic,

and his

of his path was completed.

It

but they were neither solar years nor

Saura years, for one or other of which they have sometimes been

was called a cycle of 12

years,

mistaken.

Davis was of opinion that as the year Cartic

first

of the 12 Yrihaspati years, it

time

when

12,

began

He

the

Hindu

may

is

always placed the

be inferred that there was a

solar year, as well as the Yrihaspati cycle of

with, the sun's arrival in or near the ISTacshatra Critica.

remarks

that,

"The commentator

of the

Surya Siddhanta

Period from Brahminical Restoration

to

159

Brahmegupta.

expressly says that the authors of the books generally termed Sanhitas,

accounted the Deva day to begin in the beginning of the sun's

Northern rond

now

the

Deva day

is

the solar year, and the sun's

Northern road begins in the Winter Solstice.

"

This might, moreover, have been the custom in Parasara's time,

for the

phenomenon which

is

mark

said to

the beginning of the

Yrihaspati Cycle of 00, refers to the beginning of Dhanishtha, which

is

precisely that point of the Ecliptic

Colure passed

We

when he

writers that the Buddhist sages were

divided into six sects, that their works were

phical subjects

Solstitial

wrote.

by Hindu

are told

through which the

they had a

of religious distinctions

treatise

on

upon various

philoso-

logic, another on the folly

and ceremonies; they had a history

of

Buddhist philosophers, other works on the doctrines of Yrihaspati,

and

also a treatise

on astrology.

Now, an astronomical
the

or astrological

Hindus under the name

Siddhanta.

It is

of

work was known amongst

the

Brihaspati

or

Vrihaspati

mentioned in the Ayeen Akberi among nine

astronomical works of the Hindus, as one of four, which were sup-

and that this had been dictated

posed to have had a divine origin,
by Jupiter, or Yrihaspati, whose name

it

bore.

Hitherto this work

has not been recovered.

That the name of the planet should have been associated with
that of the sage Yrihaspati
this astronomical

would seem

to

work with the Buddhist

Siddhanta of Yrihaspati would

imply a connection

religion,

and

of

that, in the

rules
probably be found

which

faith.
regulated the observances of the Buddhist

About

this time it

would appear that

astrological sects

had

become partially recognised by the more orthodox astronomers, for

some of their

tenets, as also the

Cosmogony

of the Puranas, obtained

a place alongside of the strictly mathematical doctrines of the

this concession
Siddhantas, which they have since retained. But
does not extend to the absurd belief in the interposition of the

dragon

Hindu Astronomy.

160

or monster

Rahu

in eclipses.

Yet some

not dispute the divine authority of the

of the devout

Pur anas, and

Hindus can-

the learned trv

to evade the question, some of them saying that certain doctrines as

"
stated in other sastras,
Might have been so formerly, and may be
so

still,

but for astronomical purposes astronomical rules must be

followed."

Xerasinha, in his commentary on the Surya Siddhanta, explains

that

"Rahu and

mean

Ketu, the head and

the monster, could only

the position of the moon's nodes, and the

on which

eclipses depend,"

amount

but he also says that

actual presence of such a monster

faith,

tail of

may

without prejudice to astronomy."

"

of latitude

the belief in the

be believed as an article of

CHAPTER

XII.

ASTRONOMICAL WORKS OF THE HINDUS.

On

the restoration of their power

by the Brahmins, some time

before the beginning of the Christian Era, their astronomical system

was reconstructed, npon an orderly plan, and regular in

the detached portions of
rules

more ancient

being arranged and

treatises

its parts,

being collected, the

set forth in text books,

without proof, and

often without explanation.

The

under which modern Hindu astronomers have

difficulties

laboured, and which have kept them in a stationary position with

regard to their astronomy, as compared with the progress in other

countries,

printing.
printing,

may

be well conceived when we consider the absence of

Consider the period in Europe, before the invention of

when accumulated knowledge

existed principally in

manu-

guarded, loaned out, but protected by sufficient

scripts, jealously

security for their

Had

due return.

existed to the present time,

such a condition of things

what w ould have been the

T

fate of

the
astronomy, and of the mathematical sciences, in the absence of
Principia, the

Mechanique

Celeste,

matical works of the last century

and the many other great matheCould we, indeed, have claimed

over that
any superiority of knowledge, under such circumstances,
the Mediaeval astronomers of India ?

displayed

by

Of the eighteen or twenty ancient astronomical works referred

by ancient Hindu

writers,

under the name of Siddhantas, or

lished Conclusions," nine are

tutes of

Akber, namely

"

Estab-

mentioned by Abul Fazel in the Insti-

1.

Brahma Siddhanta.

6.

Narada Siddhanta.

2.

Surya Siddhanta.

7.

Parasara Siddhanta.

3.

Soma Siddhanta.

8.

Brihaspati Siddhanta.
G-arga Siddhanta.

9.

Pulastya Siddhanta.
Vasishtha Siddhanta.

'4.
5.

to

162

Ilindu Astronomy.

The names

Vyasa.

16.

Lomasa.

11.

Atri.

17.

Pulisa.

12.

Kasyapa.

18.

Yavana.

13.

Marichi.

19.

Bhrigu.

14.

Maim.

20.

Chyavana.

15.

Angiras.

The
first

of others are those of

10.

first

four are reputed by the Hindus to be inspired;

the

supposed to have been revealed by Brahma, the second by the

sun, the third

by the moon, and

the fourth,

others are supposed to [have been dictated

by

by

All the

Jupiter.

mortals, and of these

few are now extant, being principally known by citations from

mathematical writers.

An

astronomical work not mentioned in the above

servedly held in great esteem,

list,

but de-

the Siddhanta Siromani of Bhas-

is

cara Acharya, of comparatively more recent date (1150 A.D.)

Abul Fazel
murdered by

time (about 1550 A.D., he being

states that in bis

banditti in 1603) "there were no fewer than eighteen

and

creations

which the Universe has undergone, and he mentions the

traditions

different opinions regarding the various

changes

with reference to three of these opinions, the third of which he says

was the most generally received, and that

Surya Siddhanta, a work supposed
close of the

"

To

this

entirely
It is

Sutya

Yuga

was one related in the

have been compiled at the

(Krita

day (he remarks)

upon

to

it

Y uga).

all

the astronomers of Hindostan rely

this book."

impossible to say which of the two principal astronomical

works, the
ancient, or

Brahma Siddhanta

when

compiled, for both

or the

Surya Siddhanta,

either of the original

have undergone

is

the more

works were composed

or

revision at different periods of

Indian history.

The

difference between the

two works

is

shown by a

difference in

the modes of explanation, and in the

subjects treated by them.

Astronomical Works of

As

Hindus.

by Brahmegupta, under the

title of

163

Brahma Siddhanta

before mentioned, a revised version of the

as edited
(or

the

the

Brahma Sphuta

amended) Siddhanta, at some date between 530 and 580 A.D.

ISTrisinha,,

the commentator of the Surya Siddhanta, affirms that

Brahmegupta's rules are framed from the Vishnu Dharmottara

Purana, in which the
other works of the

same name are referred

the revised edition of

Brahma Siddhanta

Brahma Siddhanta

Brahmegupta

one of the five systems from which

to as

being anterior to

such, for instance,

which

of Sacalya,

Various

contained.

is

is

the

as

understood to have been

Varaha Mihira compiled

his

Panoha Siddhantica.

Brahma Sphuta

According to Colebrooke, the

21 chapters.

entire work, consisted of

of the subjects,

from the

1st to the 10th,

Of

Siddhanta, as an

these, the

arrangement

would appear

to

have been

nearly the same as those of the corresponding chapters of the Surya

Siddhanta.

The

1st

and 2nd consisted of the computation of the

mean motions, and true

The 3rd contained

places, of the planets.

the solution of problems concerning time, the points of the horizon,

The 4th and 5th

and position of places.

The 6th the

lunar and solar eclipses.

The

planets.

rising

and setting of the

The

7th, the position of the moon's cusps.

observations of altitudes
of the planets.

set forth the calculation of

The

by

the

Gnomon.

The

8th,

9th, conjunctions

10th, their conjunction with the stars.

The

next ten are supplementary, including five chapters of problems,

with their solutions;

and the 21st explains the principle of the

astronomical system in a compendious treatise on spherics, treating

of the astronomical
sphere

and

its circles,

the construction of sines,

the rectification of the apparent

place of the planet

motions, the cause of lunar

and

solar eclipses,

from mean

and the construction

of the
armillary sphere.

The copy in the possession of Colebrooke was

the 6th, 7th

defective,

and 8th chapters, with gaps of greater or

wanting

less extent in

Hindu Astronomy,

164

the preceding five

it

was supposed to have been transcribed from

an exemplar equally defective.

The

.1

th

is

represented as a curious chapter containing a revision

and censure of

The

earlier writers.

five chapters

from the 13th

problems concerning the

mean and

to the 17th, inclusive, relate to

true places of the planets, times,

points of the horizon, and other matters impossible to specify on

The

account of defects in the 16th and 17th chapters.

One

and 21st were wanting.

of them,

from references

to

19th, 20th
it,

appears

another, from

like references, treated of the delineation of celestial

phenomena by

have treated of time,

solar, sidereal, lunar, etc.

diagrams.
It is a matter of regret that Colebrooke has only given translations
of the 12th

and 18th chapters of

The 12th chapter

of the

this work.

Brahma Siddhanta

consists of rules for

the solution of questions in arithmetic, algebra, and mensuration,

together with a few examples applied to problems.

To show the nature

chapter, the following

of the subjects
is

which are treated in

this

a description of the contents, taken from

the words of the rules, and put in a

The questions on geometry

modern form.

are mostly intended to be answered

but the rules are usually applicable to general

solutions, suggesting an algebraical origin.
arithmetically;

Brahma-Sphuta Siddhanta of Braitmegufta.

Summary

of contents of the Vlth Chapter

Ganitadhya.
The rules are expressed in toords, but to show their
import they are
here set forth in the modern algebraical
form.
Reduction of fractions to a

common

denominator.

Addition and subtraction of fractions.

Reduction of mixed numbers to

common

Multiplication and division of fractions.

Involution and Evolution.

vulgar fractions.

Astronomical Works of
f

+ b) = a
3

-f-

a2 b

+3ab

the

Hindus.

165

-f-

6 expressed in words, preparatory

the extraction of the cube root of a number.

The

rule of three

Interest, Partnership, Barter.

Arithmetical Progression.

= (a+Q

= a+(n-l)d;

d-2a+V (2a-d)

\-S s d.

2d

Series.

1+3+6 + 10+
l

+2 +3

(ti+1 ) (2 Ti+1)
6

712

+2 +3 +
3

71

n-

Mensuration
Area of a triangle

Ql+l)

Plain Figures.

y/ s (s

b)(s

a) (s

c)

D a

Perpendicular on a base,

Segments of

base,

BD =

Radius of circumscribing
&
52.

The

half-day

lengths of the
or the

The

jp

= AD =
b
/
|( a-\

circle

\/jc

i( a-\

&\

shadow (measured in
being divided by the

Gnomon) added

to one, the quotient

is

the elapsed,

remaining portion of the day, morning or evening.

half-day, divided

of the
by the elapsed, or remaining portion

Hindu Astronomy.

166

day, being lessened by subtraction of one, the residue

Gnomons

of

the number

contained in the shadow.*

distance between the foot of the light and the bottom

The

53.

is

by the Gnomon of given length, and

divided by the difference between the height of the light and the
of the G-nomon, multiplied

Gnomon,

By

the shadow.

is

light at

is

proportion in the two triangles

DBF

and

EFA

p> r>

Cx

The shadow multiplied by the

54.

DB

supposed to cast a shadow

of the

^^
A
ill

DB

gnomon G.

OD.G
AO-G-

distance between the tips of

the shadows, and divided by the difference of the shadows,

base.

The

shadow,

Here

is

base, multiplied

the

by the Gnomon and divided by the

the height of the flame of light.

= Base,

= difference between tips of shadows.

=
06=8,, EC S AO = H.
OC =
XOC.
X CB, OA =
C

^\

* This rule
to

is

is

considered by Crishna (a commentator on this Siddhanta)

have been copied from

earlier writers,

and

useless.

Astronomical Works of

By

the

Hindus.

167

proportion

AO == OB = OC OB_DB and OB-OC

DB-EC
~~~
G~~ DB
EO''*OC EC
OC
EC
CB DB-EC hence
EC.CB S, .CB
C
"OC
EC
DB-EC" S.-S,
1

Heights and Distances.

Ex.
travels

On

the top of a

through the

hill live

air,

two

One, being a wizard,

ascetics.

springing from the summit of the mountain,

he ascends to a certain elevation and proceeds by an oblique descent

The other walks down the

diagonally to a neighbouring town.

goes by land to the same town.

to

know

Their journeys are equal.

and how high the wizard

their distance from the hill,

hill,

I desire
rose.

Let -

AB = a,AC = b,CT> = h.
By

supposition, a-\-b

Or,

a +b-h=

.-.

2ab

Or, h

Then h

(b-\-hf-{-a

j-

J.

{(b+hf+a? }.

= 2h(a+b)
ab

a+2b

h-\-

let

+2bh.

= m m being any arbitrary number.

b,

ra

m+2

.6,

The 18th chapter of the Brahma Sphuta (amended) Siddhanta

is

a treatise
principally on the solution, of indeterminate equations,

Hindu Astronomy.

168

employed partly in questions relating

numbers, but

to abstract

mostly in the solution of problems in astronomy, relating to the

sun, the

moon, and the

It begins

by

planets,

with their nodes, apogees,

stating that questions can scarcely be solved without

the "pulverizer," and a rule

This, however, from

some

propounded for

is

cause,

The

3-6.

which

divisor

Yuga

unexplained.
"
is thus given
pulverizer

the residue

and the quotients are severally

divided,

The residue

set

is

reciprocally

down one under

[of the reciprocal division] is multiplied

assumed number such, that the product having added

difference of the remainders,

That multiplier

due's divisor].

above

This

it,

is

may

and the product, added

divided

by

residue, multiplied

and added

yields the greatest remainder is

divided by that which yields the least

other.

more planets

of three or

left

"

rule for the formation of the

Rule

its investigation.

a rule for a different purpose,

is

connected with calculating a cycle or

"
"
by means of the pulverizer ; but is

The

etc.

by an

to it the

be exactly divisible [by the

is to

be

set

down

the

resi-

[underneath], and

to the ultimate term, is the

Agranta.

the divisor yielding the least remainder, and the

by the

divisor yielding the greatest remainder,

to the greater remainder, is a

remainder of [division by]

the product of the divisors.

Thus may be found the lapsed part of a Yuga

"
planets by the method of the pulverizer."
It

of three or

may, however, be gathered, from examples given

rules,

that the

method

of the "pulverizer," in

more

to different

some

respects,

resembles one of the two rules usually given in modern works of

algebra, for the solution of the indeterminate equation.

ax+c
j==~

in which

The
division

is

= y m integers,
.

called the multiplier, 6 the divisor,

fraction

-p

by the

here supposed to be in

greatest

common

reciprocal division of the numerator

its

measure,

is

and

the additive.

lowest terms, after

subjected

to

the

and denominator, and the several

Astronomical Works of

Hindus.

the

quotients are placed in order one above another.

ation

the same in both methods

is

method

the

169

So

far, the oper-

of our algebra then

supposes the formation of a series of fractions converging to

which the

last

may be assumed

convergent

method proceeds to seek

this convergent

to be

by operating backwards,

involved in each step, so that finally the result becomes

b

and the subsequent steps

is

may

x+b

-r-

supposed to be identical with those

solution,

to astronomical questions,

tions of a planet in a calpa

c is called

being

= bm-\-c

q,

= am-\-cp,

arbitrary number.

any

As applied

but by supposition a

c,

may be

modern methods of

of the

where

.cp

of

The Indian

upwards through the several partial quotients, the constant

and we have a .cq

-7-,

b the

number

the residue of revolutions,

is

number

the

of revolu-

of days in a calpa

and,

-j- the fraction of a revolution*

be expressed in signs, degrees, and minutes.

For the purpose

putation from the

of explaining a

few extracts, examples of com-

Brahma Siddhanta

are here stated.

A rule

for

the calculation of the place of a planet is given, with the table to

which

it refers,

also

a brief table of the same import with

numbers by Brahmegupta, which, instead

smaller

veniently large

and

tration

and

numbers

of the other table, were

of the incon-

employed for

for giving instruction to students of

illus-

astronomy in the

methods of calculation.

To

find the

Lanka

mean

a given midnight at
places of the planets at

Eule.

the number of
Multiply the number of elapsed days by

revolutions of the planet in a calpa,

number

of days in a calpa.

and divide the product by the

The quotient

will be the elapsed

revolutions, signs, degrees, etc., of the planet (or longitude

1st Aswini).

from

Hindu Astronomy.

170

Mean motions of the Sun, Moon For facility' 8 sake, the revolutions
and Planets in a Calpa.
and days are put asfolloivs:
Revolutions in a Calpa
according to

Revolutions

Sun

Moon

4,320,000,000

57,753,300,000

137

2,296,828,522

685

17,936,998,984

13

1,096

364,226,455

10,960

7,022,389,492

1,096

146,567,298

10,960

Mars

Mercury

...

Jupiter

...

Venus
Saturn

5
Question

(7.)

He who

1.

In

'

finds the cycle

more

several planets given,

"

knows the method

and

5,480

(Yuga) and so

fortb,

planets, from the elapsed cycles of the

What number divided by

and divided by five, has a residue of four

of three

2,740

Node

for two, three, four or

Example.

1,096 days.

$ 's Apogee

DaysinaCalpa 1,577,916,450,000

"

in least
terms.

Days

in least
terms.

Brahmegupta.

of the

'

pulverizer/

six has a
;

and by

remnant

of five

;:

four, a remainder

three, of two ?"

The answer given

to this question

But the question

given, being indeterminate in form, there are

many

The general

other answers.

N = 60 n
Thus when

1,

where

is

"
(9.)

is

59.

solution is:

any arbitrary

N
n=
59
= 2 =119
= 3 =179
= 4 = 239,

integer.

1,

All of which satisfy the conditions.

aware of

by Brahmegupta

etc., etc.

No doubt Brahmegupta

was

this.

Question

2.

He who

deduces the number of [elapsed] days

from the residue of revolutions,

declared at choice,

is

signs, degrees, minutes, or seconds,

acquainted with the method of the

'

pulveriser.'

Astronomical Works of

When

"Example.

have

in the

171

is

the elapsed portion of the calpa,

"

tell

'

if

eight

thou

pulverizer.'

The answer given

To show how

Hindus.

the remainder of solar revolutions

thousand and eighty,

skill

the

is

1,000 days.

this arises, taking the solar revolutions

from the

smaller table, as 30, and the corresponding days as 10,960, and

assuming x as the required number of elapsed days,

30 a:4-8080

= 3 x 4- 808 ==y
-^096-

10960

SU

'

Se '

y being the number of complete revolutions in x days, from which

the general solution

is

= 109 6m 96, and = 3m-l,m being arbitrary.

If m =
x = 000 days, y = 2 revolutions.
= 2 =1196
=5
= 3 = 1292
=8

i/

etc., etc.

u
(10.)

To what number

Example.

amount of hours correspond,

tions arising is four

for

of elapsed days does that

which the residue of lunar revolu-

thousand one hundred and

The answer deduced

"

S21 hours.

is

Taking the revolutions

five ?

of the

moon from

the smaller table, as 5,

and the corresponding days 137, we have, reducing the days into
hours, of

which there

are 60 to the day,

5a

4105 __
~

60X137

'

where, as before, x represents the elapsed time, and y the

of complete revolutions

number

from which we have

= 821 + 1644.2/,
x = 821,
x = 2465, etc., etc.
x

.\

=
y =

When y

0.
1,

THE SURYA SIDDHANTA.

Of

all

the astronomical works, however, of the Hindus, the one

which claims particular attention

stated.

is

the Surya Siddhanta, as before

172

Hindu_A stronomy.

Nothing authentic
less of its

is

known

its

origin.

Saura

of a

the same import.

title of

astronomy has borne the

the sun)

for

Lacshmidasa

(or

Surya) Siddhanta, which

is

Again, more than one edition of a

treatise of

Siddhanta

"Both Varaha-Mihira

Colebrooke says:

and Brahmegapta speak

much

composers, although considerable speculation has existed

regarding

of the compilers of this work,

cites

name

of

Surya (with its synonym,

one under the

title of

Yrihat Surya-

in that commentator's opinion, and

consistently with

more than one

his knowledge,

treatise

bearing the same name

existed."

Colebrooke,

when

discussing the question of the antiquity of the

Surya Siddhanta with Bentley, admitted generally the position

''
That the date of a set of astronomical tables, or of a system
the computation of the places of planets,

when

ascertainment of a time

results nearest the truth,

is

for

deducible from the

that system, or set of tables, gave

and granting that the date mentioned

(about 928 A.D.) approximates within certain limits to such an

ascertainment

the

book which we have now under the name

Surya or Saura Siddhanta

may have

of

been, and probably was,

modernised from a more ancient treatise of the same name."

No
ing

from internal evidence regard-

certain information is derived

its origin.

The work

itself states that at the

Yuga, a great demon named Maya

divine origin, to listen to a discourse

is

called

upon the

"

Hear

upon by a man

of

science of astronomy,

which had undergone some changes from Avhat

ancient times, in these words

end of the Krita

it

had been in more

attentively the excellent knowledge

which the sun himself

formerly taught to the great saints in each of the Yugas.

"I

teach you the same ancient science which the sun himself

formerly taught.
ancient works)
of the

is

The

difference

the
(between the present and

caused only by time, on account of the revolution

Yugas."

The commentator adds

"
:

Area

(the sun), addressing

Meya, who

Astronomical Works of
attended with reverence, said,

human

'

Hindus.

the

Let your attention, abstracted from

concern, be wholly applied to

what I

in every former

Yuga, revealed

of astronomy.

The planetary motions may

of the science are

to the

always the same/

may be supposed
whom the Aeharya or
It

that

Meya

teacher

is

that

is

Surya,

Munis, the invariable science

alter,

but the principles

represents some early disciple, to

giving instruction, and after thus

he proceeds

between two lands of time, one of which

immeasurable. The measuraTle

shall relate.

"

calling his attention to the subject,

the immeasurable is

173

is

to the distinction

measurable,

this

other

that to which mortals are limited,

which

may

approximate to the in-

finitesimally small, or to the infinitely great.

In calculation

it

not

infrequently happens that small fractions of time arise, which are

required to be expressed with perfect accuracy, and as this

is

not

always possible, different methods are adopted for approximating

Since the introduction of decimal fractions, the

to a true value.

more ancient divisions of time in Europe are being gradually

abandoned.

In Eastern countries tables of time include not only

days, hours, minutes

and seconds, but

the sexagesimal division of the

the Ghatica into 60 Palas,

also thirds, fourths, etc.,

and

day into 60 Ghaticas (Indian hours),

and a Pala into

six Pranas, has

some

analogy to the sexagesimal division of the circle, in the six times

sixty degrees of the Ecliptic, the degree into sixty minutes, the

minute into sixty seconds, and so on to thirds, fourths,

The ancient cycle of 60 years common

and the Hindus, consisted of

Chinese,

revolution, each of

From

analogy,

which

it

to the Chaldeans, the

five of Jupiter's periods of

consists of twelve solar years nearly.

might appear that the

cycle of five solar years

of the Vedic Calendar, as described in the 1st

Essays,

may

etc.

have been adopted from

its

volume of Colebrooke's

consisting of nearly five

times twelve, or 60 synodic periods of the moon.

In the
to Sir

W.

first

chapter of the Institutes of Menu, which, according

Jones,

is

one of the oldest Sanscrit books after the Vedas,

Hindu Astronomy.

174

there

is

a table or arrangement of infinite time, expressed in divine

which the following

years, of

"

an extract:

is

The sun causes the division

of

day and night, which are

men, and those of the Gods

sorts, those of

of all creatures in their several

of two

the day for the labour

employments

the night for their

slumber.
"

A month is

into two parts

a day and night of the Patriarchs, and

the bright half

is

their

day

it is

the dark half their night for sleep.

"
year is a day and night for the Gods, and that, also,

two parts

into

the night

when

the day
it

and in

night of

Age; and

its limits at

manner

many

as

is

divided

the sun moves towards the North

Learn now the dura-

Brahma, with that of the ages, respec-

order.

"Four thousand years

"

when

is

moves towards the South.

day and

tion of the
tively

divided

for laborious exertions

of the

Gods they

call

Krita (or Satya)

the beginning and at the end are in like

hundreds.

In the three successive ages, together with their

limits, at the

beginning and end of them, are thousands and hundreds diminished

by one,
"TJiis aggregate of four ages, amounting^ to twelve thousand

divine years,

is called

an age

divine ages added together

of the

Gods; and a thousand such

must be considered

as a

day of Brahma.

His night has also the same duration.

"

The before-mentioned days

their years, multiplied

Manuwantara.

by

of the Gods, or twelve thousand of

seventy- one, form

There are alternate creations and

worlds through innumerable Manuwantaras.

desirable performs all this again

what

similar arrangement

is

is

named

here a

destructions of

The Being supremely

and again."

given in astronomical works of

later

times, but with the ages reckoned in years of mortals, and, for

comparison,

Siddhanta

the

following

extract

is

taken

from the

Surya

Astronomical Works of

"
a

solar year consists of twelve solar

the

Hindus.

months

and

this is called

day of the Gods.*

"An

Ahoratra (day and night) of the Gods and that 01 the

are mutually at the reverse of each other (viz., a

Demons
Gods

is tjhe

the

Gods

is

six

make

a year of the Gods and of the Demons.

"

Sixty Ahoratras multiplied by

a day of the Demons).

The time containing twelve thousand years

Chatur

day of

night of the Demons, and, conversely, a night of

the

175

Yuga

(the aggregate of the four

of the

Gods

is

called

Yugas, Krita, Treta,

Dwapara, and Kali).

" These four
Yugas, including their

Sandhya and Sandhyansa,f

contain 4,320,000 years.

"The

tenth part of 4,320,000, the

Yuga, multiplied by

number

4, 3, 2, 1, respectively,

of years in a Great

make up

the years of

each of the four Yugas, Krita and others, the years including their

own sixth

part,

which

is

collectively the

number

of years of

Sandhya

and Sandhyansa (the periods at the commencement and expiration

of each

Yuga).

"According to the technicality of the time called Murta, 71

Great Yugas (containing 306,720,000 solar years) constitute a

wantara

(a period from, the

the end of
Krita,

is

it,

beginning of a

1,728,000, the whole

called its Sandhi

and

it

Manu to

number
is

its end),

Manuand

at

of (solar) years of the

the time

when a

universal

deluge happens.
" Fourteen such

Manus, with

their Sandhis, constitute a Kalpa,

* The Gods are

supposed to reside on
Pole, where the day lasts for six months.

The Demons are said

to reside at the

Mount Meru under

the North

South Pole.

f Sandhya and Sandhyansa are the Dawn and Evening Twilight,

and as the days of mortals have these, so also from analogy those of the
Gods had them likewise.

Hindu Astronomy.

176

which

at the "beginning of
as

many
"

is

the fifteenth Sandhi, which contains

years as a Krita does.

which destroys the whole world.

and his night

"And
to

make

Tims, a thousand of the Great Yngas

is

It is a

day

of the

God Brahma,

equal to his day.

the age of Brahjma consists of a hundred years, according

the enumeration of day and night.

elapsed,

a Kalpa, a period

and

this present

Kalpa

the

is

One-half of his age has

in the remaining half

first

of his age."

In these tables of long periods of time, the age of the Gods of

when

1:2,000 divine years,

multiplied

by

360, the

number

of Saura

days in the ancient Saura years, becomes 4,320,000 years, or the

Maha Yuga. For a divine year is 360 years of mortals and thus
a day of Brahma of 1,000 divine ages, becomes 4,320,000,000 years
;

named

of mortals,

the Kalpa.

Both these numbers have been

much

curiosity,

are,

modern

times, with

and sometimes with abuse, when mistaken

numbers supposed

They

received, in

for

to exaggerate periods of chronology.

however numbers, which were adapted

of facilitating astronomical calculations,

for the purpose

and they admit of a rational

explanation.

THE MAHA YUGA.

First

With

reference to the

The most ancient

assumed

to consist of

its

Ecliptic

divided

number

and from

of the sun, or the sidereal

year

of parts into
this,
is

But the Hindu astronomers

mean

and in Chaldea, was

the variable time

is

motion over each degree of the

being the same as the

is

360 Saura days.

The ancient Saura day

takes in

Maha Yuga

sidereal year, both in India

which the sun

Ecliptic, the aggregate

which the

circle of the

the apparent sidereal revolution

360 Saura days.

also reckoned the sidereal year in

solar time to be

to Pulisa, or, as a

365 days 6 hours 12 min. 36 sec, according

mixed number,
365-- mean solar

days.

Astronomical Works of

Now, the absolute time

its orbit,

the

Hindus.

177

of the apparent revolution of the sun in

or the sidereal year, is the

same for both.

divine day = 360 Saura days =365f } mean solar days.

A divine year = 360 Saura years = 360X365-|J mean so ar d avSi
12,000 deva years = 12,000X360

.*.

Saura years, or

The Maha Yuga

= 1,577,917,800 mean solar days.

4,320,000

Saura years

In the Surya Siddhanta the days of the

to

Maha Yuga

be 28 days more than in the Pulisa Siddhanta,

Yuga

= 4,320,000 years =

are reckoned

i.e.,

the

Maha

1,577,917,828 days.

These two large integers, or other integers which are taken as

equivalent to them, are fundamental in Indian calculations, which
relate to the positions of the planets,

such as their longitudes, times,

from the epoch conjunctions, and oppositions,

etc., etc.

The Maha Yuga, as a constant, is the same number in all

Siddhantas, but the number representing the days in a Maha Yuga
is

slightly different in

is

that

which

is

some

The above number

of them.

of days

given in the Pulisa and some other Siddhantas.

In the Surya Siddhanta there are 28 days more, which would

make

a difference of only the fraction of a second in the length of

the year,

when

divided

among

Siddhanta, however, the

than the above,

seconds,

so

number

many

millions.

In the

of days is given fewer

which would make

and in the Arya Siddhanta

the year less

it is

made

less

Brahma
by 1350

by about 27
by about

six

seconds.

As compared with European

of the

Siddhantas are

all

estimates of the sidereal year, those

nearly four minutes too great.

The subjoined table from Colebrooke's Essays

shows the

number

of revolutions

made by the

Yuga, as specified in several Siddhantas

(Vol. II., p. 415)

planets in a

Maha

178

Hindu Astronomy.

Astronomical Works of
his

ith

by

place

observation,

the

Hindus.

179

and the Munis gave the same

xectioii."

The celebrated mathematician and astronomer Ganesa mentions

Grahas

that the

(planets) Avere

"

right in their computed places, in

the time of Brahma, Acharya, Vasishtha, Casyapa, and others, by

the rules they gave, but in length of time they differed.

the beginning of the Kali

Aryabhatta,

many years

...

examined the heavens,

afterwards, having

found some deviation, and introduced a correction of Bija.

him,

when

After

further deviations were observed,

and others made corrections.

Brahmegupta, and made

the places of the planets

Ganesa,

In

Yuga, Parasara's book answered, but

made

corrections.

A similar table

(of

After

Durga Sinha, Mihira.

them came the son of Jishnu
Afterwards

corrections.
;

Cesava settled

and, sixty years after Cesava, his son,

,,

planetary revolutions)

is

given in our modern

works of astronomy, the difference being that the periodic time

for

one sidereal revolution of a planet instead of the time (a

Yuga) for a great number of revolutions of the same planet.

the sidereal period of one revolution of the earth is given in

mean

works as 305.2563744

solar days,

is

Maha
Thus

modern

a mixed number consisting

of an integer 365 and a fraction carried to seven places of decimals.

But
3

if this

mixed number be reduced

44wS'ii'c~> which

earth,

mean

means that

or ten millions
solar days.

precisely

to a

vulgar fraction

it

becomes

in ten millions of revolutions of the

of sidereal years, there are 3,652,563,744

Thus we, by the use of a decimal

point, express

what the Indian mathematicians meant to convey by the

use of their system of large integral numbers.

The use of the great numbers (4,320,000 years, or 1,577,917,828

and the
days), representing the years and days in a Maha Yuga,
corresponding

number

planets in that time,

of

revolutions described

might be exemplified in a variety

but one or two examples will be sufficient here.

by each

They

of

the

of cases

will illustrate

Hindu Astronomy.

180

the ease with, "which such, calculations are made.

as proposed in

some

of the Siddhantas

Using the subjoined

are expressed in the

table,

Other examples

have been already given.

formed from the words by which thoy

Surya Siddhanta

Number

of revolutions
in a Great Yuga.

The Sun

4,320,000

Mercury
Venus

17,937,060
7,022,376

Mars

2,296,832

364,220

Jupiter

Saturn

146,568

The Moon

57,753,336

and

53,433,336 Synodic revolutions.

The Moon's Apogee

Node

488,203
232,238
Number

of

days

in a Great Yuga.

Sidereal days

1,582,237,828

Solar days

1,577,917,828

Lunar days
Let

it

1,603,000,080

be required to determ ine the

parts of a revolution,

In the column
volutions of the

made by

of the table

moon in

the

number

moon

of revolutions,

in a year.

Surya Siddhanta, the number of

Maha Yuga

is

given, 57,753,336

ing this number by 4,320,000, the years in a

we have

4,320,000)57,753,336(13 revolutions,

56,160,000
360,000)1,593,386(4 signs,
1,440,000

12,000)153,336(12,
144,000
200)9,336 (46',
9,200

136

'.

Maha Yuga, and

successive divisors, omitting the factors 12, 30, 60,

200

and

re-

divid-

in the

Astronomical Works of
That

is

makes

to say, this

the

Hindus.

181

revolutions 4 signs

13

46i'

12

in

one year.

As a second example,
sidereal year,

let it

be required to find the length of the

from the days in a Maha Yuga.

Reversing the

and dividing the days by the apparent revolutions of the

process,

and omitting in succeeding divisors the factors 24, 60 and 60

sun,

we have
4,320,000)1,577,917,800(365 days,
1,576,800,000
180,000) 1,117,800(6 hours,
1,080,000

3,000)37,800(12 minutes,

36,000
50)1,800(36 seconds.
1.800

The

sidereal year

365 days 6 hours 12 minutes and 36 seconds.

ON THE KALPA.

The peculiar form in which the construction

expressed attracted much, attention

of the

more than a hundred years

and various theories were put forward to account for

Le

(xentil

that the
54",

had

this value is also

assumed

in all the

Equinoxes

modern Siddhantas.

correct value of the precession

obtained at some earlier period than that in which, the

Surya Siddhanta was compiled, and that

the 14 Manuwantaras.

He

"
says

that the old Indian astronomers

tion,

ago,

it.

of the precession of the

Jones suspected that a more

bejjn

is

had discovered from astronomical tables of Tirvalore

Hindus made the value

and

Sir ~W.

Kalpa

"We

it

had a connection with

may have

reason to think

had made a more accurate calcula-

but concealed their knowledge under the veil of 14 Manuwan-

taras,

71 divine ages, etc."

After referring to the relapse of the astronomers into error without apparent cause, he concludes bis remarks thus;

<r

Now,

as it

Hindu Astronomy.

182

is

hardly possible that such coincidences should be accidental, we

may

hold

it

nearly demonstrated that the period of a divine age

(4,320,000 years)

quently reject

was

at first merely astronomical,

from our enquiry into the

it

and

may

historical

conse-

or civil

chronology of India."
Since the time of Sir "W. Jones, Bentley, in his " Astronomy,"
(page 26), as before stated, says that the astronomers in 945 B.C.,

among

other things, had determined the rate of precession of the

Equinoxes, which they found to be 3

years and one month;

this gives

Hindu

20' in 247

the precession

tropical

48*56661" or

about 1-43" too small.

For the purpose

of

examining the preceding construction, following backwards the order in which the Kalpa has been formed, we
have

Kalpa

The Manuwantara

Great Yuga

The Krita
.-.

It

=
=
=
=

10X432,000

4X432,000

years.

years.

710X432,000+4X432,000.
714X432,000.

= (14X714-J-4) 432,000 =

4,320,000,000.

seen that this number consists of two factors, 14X714-J-4,

which has the form

The form

of the

design in view in

with

The Manuwantara

The Kalpa
is

=14 Manuwantaras-{-l Krita.

=71 Great Yugas-f-1 Krita.

t|he

m n-\-r =

10,000 and the co-efficient 432,000.

number shows
its

that

construction,

i.e.,

its

inventors had an especial

to multiply the Kali period

significant figures 432, unchanged.

design, there

If they

had no other

would have been no reason why they should have

down in the Institutes of Menu, which

deviated from the rule laid

only required that they should multiply the divine age by a thousand.

If they

had merely wished

to

multiply 432,000 by 10,000,

they would not have taken the trouble to have put the operation
into such a singular form.
alter

the

factors

already

It is clear that they did not

existing,

in the

wish

to

Kali Age, namely,

Astronomical Works of

60X60X60X2, and

would

still

be in conformity with that

Menu and

which was established in the Institutes of

there are a great

multiplied

by

10,000,

many ways

If

in the Vedas.

in which they might have

and the fact that they

The number

form (14X7144-4) shows design.

m n+r =

183

that they especially wished to multiply by

10,000, so that their system

Now,

Hindus.

the

selected this special

is

one out of the

set,

10,000.

we take

m to be any number

of the eleven factors of 5

without a remainder),

would have the form

it

X2

is

not one

(each of which would divide 10,000

would

m n-\-r,

than 100 which

less

find

division a

by

number which

and there would be 89 such

cases,

thus,

10,000

= 3X3,333 + = 6X16,666-f-4 = 7X1,428 + 4.

== 9X1,111 + 1 = 11X909 + = 12X833+4.
== 13X769+3 = 14X714+4.
1

And

so on,

Out

we might go through

of all these cases, it is incredible that the particular

14X714+4

(as

form

should have been selected by chance.

Let us for a
the

the whole of the 89 cases.

moment

suppose that the astronomers

who invented

Kalpa had made? the discovery that in 714 years the Solstice
a close approximation) had retrograded 10, as, for example,

from coincidence with Kegulus to about

of the

short of the beginning

Nacshatra Magna, through which point the great

line of the Rishis, before referred to,

the Solstice would have gone back 14

circle,

was assumed to pass.

the

Then

in 1,000 years, or 140

in

10,000 years.
In

140

there are 504,000 seconds, which, divided by 10,000

gives the precession

That

50'4".

this coincidence, out of so

happened by chance

is

many

adverse cases, could have

not only improbable, but scarcely possible.

Kalpa was not

ages, revised and

It is not surprising that the true nature of the

known

to the later astronomers,

who, in different

condensed the various editions of the Siddhantas,

when we

consider

Hindu Astronomy.

184

the sacred and mysterious character given, to

precession was,

names

amid a cloud

of words,

of the Gods, a circumstance

it

concealed, as the

and guarded by the sacred

which would seem

meddling of profane or common men.

the Siddhantas and later

it,

to forbid the

Moreover, the compilers of

Hindu astronomers may have

considered

merely as a great number, which they had seldom occasion to

they could have had any suspicion of

use.

But even

if

and

connection with the precession could have been supposed

if its

by them

as probable, they

the investigation

by

the existence of rules, which gave a less perfect

these is that contained in the

it is

true nature,

would have been prevented from pursuing

One

value of the precession than that of the Kalpa.

54" for

its

Surya Siddhanta

of the best of

itself,

which

gives

This rule was accepted by Bhaskara and other writers;

it.

referred to

writers in India,

by the author
and

also

by

of the

B a illy

Ayeen Akbery, by European

and Playfair, as a remarkably

close approximation for a period so early.

precession of 54" had been taken

If this

number already referred to,

or 10,000

it

in

the form of the

would have corresponded with

15X666 + 10, which

is

totally different in

m = 15,

form from

that of the Kalpa.

m n-\-r

Again

10.000

is

just one of

the numerous indeter-

minate equations of the Hindus, which abound in their mathematical

astronomy

equations the solution

of which

their

early

writers

sometimes challenge each other in grotesque language.

The seventh and eighth

sections of the XVIII. Chapter of the

Brahmegupta Siddhanta are made up

this nature,

of astronomical questions of

and a few specimens have been already given

At the end of the chapter Brahmegupta

p. 169.

extols a practice which

would appear to have been prevalent in his time, of reciting such

algebraical

assembly

problems

and

ol the people."

proposing them

for

solution

"in an

HINDU ASTRONOMY.
PART

II.

CHAPTER

I.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SURYA SIDDHANTA.

One

of the best

known

of the astronomical works of the Hindus,

which has descended to the present time, written in the Sanscrit

not so

the Surya Siddhanta.

is

language,

much

is,

however, a work adapted

the schools as for the observer, and intended to

for

instruct, not so

It

much in

the principles of the science as in the appli-

cation of the rules.

The reader
divide,

is

directed to add

and

subtract, to multiply

and extract the square roots of the numbers he

uses,

and

to

and in

the end he will find the result will agree with his observations.

The work

itself is a

syllabus of formulas

compilation

a collection of aphorisms, a

expressed in words so brief, and exact, as to

become almost unintelligible, and requiring a great exercise of

modern mathematical knowledge to discover their meaning, to test

their
accuracy, and to ascertain how far they apply to the subjects
they refer

The
is

to.

first

followed

chapter (Par.

8) begins with

an invocation, and this

by a short introduction regarding the origin

of this

work.

The science of astronomy

the sun to a
great
of a

man

demon or

is

said to have been

spirit

born from himself.

communicated by

named Maya, through

the agercy

Hindu Astronomy.

186

The

figurative language here used

might perhaps be

to us, as the spirit or natural genius of

of the sun, information regarding the

moon and

men

showed that sometimes

Observation

at points of the crossing of their paths,

their meetings with each other occasioned partial extinction

lights, as

in

to be a divine

common

who

sacred

disciples,

received

as

it

The
a

knowledge

revelation not to be divulged to irreligious or

to

of their

and other phenomena.

eclipses, occupations,

knowledge thus obtained was held

only

were

the planets (whose

near the Ecliptic) might be obtained.

all

translated

mathematics and astronomy, in which, by aid

led to the study of

paths were

Maya, by

which,

people, but

and

secret

communication.

The
time

ninth,

and

tenth,

First, as endless

paragraphs make a distinction between

and continuous

and, secondly, as that which

can be known.

The

two kinds, one called Murta (measurable),

latter is of

Amurta (immeasurable).
(11) Time that is measurable

the

other

which a table

that which

The

our Feconds.

The ghatica

is

sidereal

month, consists of 30 sidereal days.

distinction is

made between

from one sunrise

to the next,

aggregate for the year,

The Savana month

is,

it is of

Solar, or

called a

and the

latter reckoned

Savana days.

the moon's synodic period from one

is,

Lunar days

new moon

therefore, the

or Tithis.

to the next,

or a

day of the Gods.

It

is

and the

Lunar day.

Saura year consists of 12 Saura months, and

Deva day,

or

of course, variable, but, in the

consists of 30

thirtieth part of this period

Nacshatra Masa,

the same length.

consists of 30

The Lunar month

or

the sidereal day and the Savana,

or terrestrial day, the former being uniform,

use, of

60 palas, and the Nacshatra Ahoratra,

day and night, contains 60 ghaticas.

(13)

common

in

contains six pranas.

pala

sidereal

is

of units is formed, beginning with the prana, which

consists of four of

(12)

is

this

is

Description of the

The Saura month,

is

Surya Siddhanta.

187

the time which the sun takes to

the beginning of one sign of the Zodiac to the next,

or
is,

Saura year
at the

first

is

move from

and the Solar

reckoned to begin at the Sancranti of Mesha, that

moment when

the sun enters that sign.

This

is

also the

point of Aswini, and within a few minutes in arc of the star

Eevati, identified, according to Colebrooke (Essays, Vol. II. p. 464),

as the star S

of

Piscium, whose longitude, rectified to the beginning

1800 A.D., was 17

reckoning the
first

4'

mean annual

point of Aswini

is

48",

and latitude

13'

11"

so

S.,

that,

precession at 50", the longitude of the

18 24' 48" from the Vernal Equinox of the

present year 1896.

From paragraph (13), it would appear

Deva day, when first instituted, consisted

that the Saura year, or

of

360 Saura days, each

which was considered to be the time taken by the sun

of

move

to

over a degree of the Ecliptic.

Consequently, these astronomical

days were of unequal length, the

mean

than the true

mean

of which would be greater

Solar day, since the

mean

velocity each

day

is

only 59' 0-7".

That this ancient day

that the
the

mean

is still

Solar day of the later works on astronomy has not

same meaning as the Saura day of ancient times.

From

the 15th tq the 19th paragraphs,

the large periods of time the

of

retained in the Siddhantas implies

we have

Maha-Yuga and

the formation of

the Kalpa, the rules

which have been already cited and explained, and which were

intended to

fix,

in the past, certain epochs, at each of which, for

different purposes, it

was found convenient

origin for astronomical calculations,

to

assume a common

and from which epoch, in

order to simplify the computations, the sun, the

planets,

moon, and the

with their nodes and apsides, might be assumed to

together from the

same point of the

Ecliptic, namely, the

first

start

point

of Aswini.

The position

or place of each planet for

any given time

after the

epoch would then depend only on determining, by simple proportion,

Hindu Astronomy.

188

between the number of revolutions in a Maha-Yuga, the corresponding required revolutions in a given time from the epoch.

Paragraph (20) assumes the Kalpa to be a day of Brahma, and

his night to be equal to his day.

In 21

stated that the age of

it is

Brahma

consists of 100 Kalpas,

one-half of which, has passed away, and that the present Kalpa

the

first

of the remaining half.

(22-23)

From

passed away
is

is

six

the beginning of the present Kalpa there have

Manus with

their Sandhis

at the beginning of the Kalpa,

and the Sandhi which

27 Maha-Yugas, and the Krita-

at the beginning of the 28th.

Yuga

The sum

(24)

of these is 5,474,400

Deva

Deva

years,

from which

is to

which were passed by Brahma in

The remainder is the
creating animate and inanimate things.

be subtracted 47,400

years,

time elapsed from the beginning of the present order of things

before the end of the Krita-Yuga

In paragraph 25

it is

stated that,

5,427,0:00

"

Deva

years.

the planets in their orbits go

rapidly and continually with the stars towards the West, and hang

down

at

speed)

by the
"

(2G)

an equal distance

as if overpowered (or over-matched in

stars."

Therefore the motions of the planets appear towards the

East, and

their daily motions, determined

by

their revolutions, are

unequal to each other in consequence of the circumferences of

orbits

and by

this

their

unequal motion they pass the signs."

"

The planet which moves rapidly requires a short time

pass the signs, and the planet that moves slowly passes the signs
(27)

to

in

a long time."

In explanation of these three passages

it is to

be understood that

Hindu astronomers hold the opinion that the planets move in their
orbits with the same actual linear velocities, and that it is owing to
ihe circumference of the orbits
being of greater or less dimensions
that the planets

more

rapidly.

moving

in

them appear

to

move more

slowly or

Description of the

Thus, the Hindus found that

>rbit

Surya Siddhanta.
tjhe

189

circumference of the moon's

was 324,000 Yojanas, and the periodic time being 27.3216

lays, the daily

motion in her orbit would be 11,858J Yojanas nearly.

Then, according to this theory, for any other planet the circumference of the orbit

= Pxll,858J

Yojanas;

being here put

for

the periodic time of the planet.

This opinion that the motion of

all tihe

which was the same

velocity in their orbits,

valent not only in the East, but also in

Kepler and Newton.

This

is

was caused by a

planets

for all alike,

Europe even

was pre-

to the times of

manner in which

evident from the

of
Kepler combatted this doctrine, and the important use he made
"
it.
Soon after the death of Tycho, Kepler made many discoveries

from Tycho's observations.

from the

first rise

He

found that astronomers had erred

of the science in ascribing always circular orbits

He

and uniform motions to the planets

that the higher planets not only

moved

more slowly than the nearer ones,

their periodic times

a distance

Mere greater.

easily

saw

in greater circles, but also

so that,

on a double account,

Saturn, for example, revolves at

from the sun nine times and a half greater than that of

the earth's,

and the

circle described

by Saturn

is

in the same pro-

portion; and, as the earth, revolves in a year, so, if their velocities

were equal, Saturn ought to revolve in nine years, but not in so

great a proportion as the squares of those distances (the square of

w ere the law of

r

9 j being 90^) for if that

their motions, the periodic

time of Saturn ought to have been above 90 years.

"

A mean

proportion between that of the distances of the planets,

and that of the squares of those distances,

the periodic times, as the

mean between

9|-

is

the true proportion of

and

its

square,

90,

gives

the periodic time of Saturn in

years.

"Kepler, after having committed several mistakes in determining

this analogy, hit

upon

it

at last in 1618

exact ns to mention the precise

(May loth), for he is so

when
he
found that 'the squares
day

Hindu Astronomy.

190

of the periodic times were always as the cubes of their

sun/"

tances from the

mean

dis-

(Maclaurin).

with Indian names,

(28) Gives the table of circular units, which,
is

the same as that in general use, beginning with the Yikala, or

second of arc, thus

From

60 Vikalas make

1 Kala, a minute.

60 Kalas

1 Ansa, a degree.

30 Ansas

1 Kasi, a sign.

12 Easis

Bhagana, a revolution.

verses (28) to (33) there are given in detail the

revolutions
of the

made by each

of the planets, with the nodes

moon, in a Maha-Yuga; they are given in

here arranged in Table

of

and apogees

detail,

but are

I.

They must have been derived from

existing,

number

numbers previously
before the time when the Surya Siddhanta was compiled,
similar

in forms which

had undergone numerous

from time

time,

to

to

alterations

and

corrections,

bring them into agreement with

later

observations.

This table

is

employed in

all

the exact problems of Indian

astronomy.
It is

assumed

that, at the Creation, the sun, the

moon, and

thq

planets, with their apsides

and nodes, began

from nearly the same

Meridian, and at the beginning of each

Maha-Yuga

first

their motions together

the sun, the moon, with the moon's apsides and nodes,

were reckoned to be then in conjunction in the line joining the

first

point of Aswini, or of Me&ha, with the centre of the earth.

Hence, the

mean

places of the planets,

and most of the problems

relating to longitudes, such as those of conjunctions

and oppositions

were determined by rules which

depended only on simple proportion,

when

the epoch

w as a given
r

date in the past.

Description of the

Surya Siddhanta.

Table
devolutions of the Planets,

&c,

I.

in a great

Yuga:

The Sun

4,320,000

The Moon,

Sidereal revolutions

...

57,753,336

Mercury

17,937,060

Venus

7,022,376

Mars

...

2,296,832

Jupiter

364,220

Saturn

146,568

Moon's Synodic revolutions

53,433,336

Apogee

488,203

Nodes

The Number

232,238
of Savana days in a

Yugais
The Number of Lunar days
Yugais

From
is

is

The number

Maha1,603,000,080

of sidereal revolutions in a Great

The number of

own

Maha1,577,917,828

in a

number

of sidereal revolutions

revolutions.

months

of lunar

between the revolutions of the

is

moon and

equal to the difference

those of the sun.

The number of Adhima?as, or additive months,

between the lunar months and the
(36)

the

The

number

(37)

Yuga

risings of a planet in a Great

the difference between the

and the planet's

(35)

number

verse (34) the

1,582,237,828.

Yuga

191

difference

is

the difference

solar.

between the lunar days and the savan days

is

of sub tractive days.

There are

1,577,917,828

terrestrial

or

savan

days,

and

1,603,000,080 lunar days in a Great Yuga.

(38) Also 1,593,336 additive

days, 5 1 ,840,000 solar

months

months, and 25,082,252 subtractive

in a Great

Yuga.
The large numbers given inverses (34) to (39) are of great importance
in the construction of the Hindu luni-solar vear.

192

Hindu Astronomy.

If the ratio be formed between the additive

months in a Yuga, we have

Additive Months
Solar

In

like

1,593,336

"

Months

months and the

32-53603

51,840,000

manner, the ratio of the additive months

months in a Great Yuga is

Additive Months

1,593,336

Lunar Months

to the lunar

33*5355

53,433,336

Hence, the ratio of the solar months to the lunar months

Months
Lunar Months
Solar

Which shows
to

32

solar

_
~

32-53603
33-5355

that for the intercalation, one

months in order

solar

month

is to

to find the
corresponding

be added

number

of

lunar months.

The double month,

month

called

Adhimasa, thus

intercalated,

makes

of 60 lunar days or Tithis.

Another adjustment

is also

required in the luni- solar year, for

the difference between the lunar

The lunar day

is

and

solar day.

the time which the

from the sun, to the extent of 12

moon

takes in separating

of arc, and this

is

the 30th part

of the moon's synodic period of 29.53058 days.

The

solar

month, understood above,

is

the 12th part of the solar

year of 365.25875 days.

Now,

if at

any time the beginning

of the lunar

with that of the solar day, being a shorter day,

day was coincident

it

would terminate

sooner than the solar day, and the difference would increase daily,

and the time when they would begin together again could be

deter-

mined from the above.

But this

is effected

by means

of

what are

called the subtracted, or

omitted, days.
First, if the ratio

be formed of the number of subtracted days and

the savan or terrestrial days in a Maha-Yuga,

Subtractive Days

Savan Days

we have

25,082,252
1,577,917,828

""

62-9097

Description of the

igain, the ratio being

in a

Surya Siddhanta.

193

formed of the subtractive days and the lunar

Maha-Yuga
Subtractive Days _

Lunar Days

Iys

Or the

The correction

for the

63-9097

62-9097

Solar Days
Lunar Days

ratio

25,082,252 _
1,603,000,080

63*9097

two kinds of days

one day

from 63.9097 lunar days, in order

number

of savan or solar days.

is

made by

subtracting

to find the corresponding

Bhaskara, following Brahmegupta, makes the Avama, or subtractive day, to

occur in

being a savan day.

be owing

to

Avama

slight difference in the calculation

may

Brahmegupta's numbers being somewhat different from

those of the

The

The

64 TTT tithis or lunar days, the

effect

Surya Siddhanta>
produced by the added month upon the calendar

is to

put back the names of the lunar months, an,d to change the times of
the holidays
of CO

and

festivals.

Those occurring in the double month

days are retained in their

own proper months

but those which

follow will all be advanced, with their

respective months,

an entire

lunation.

Paragraphs 41 to 44 give revolutions of the Apogees and of the

Nodes in a Kalpa

Of the Sun

Hindu Astronomy.

194

ought to begin

Kalpa, or with the period stated in the

"
It is of no consequence to us which,

with, the

Surya Siddhanta, says

know which

since our object is only to

period answers for computa-

tion of the planetary places in our time, not at the beginning of the

The

Kalpa.

difference found in computing, according to

Brahme-

gupta and the Munis, must be corrected by an allowance of

Bija,

by taking that difference as the Kshepa but the books of the

Munis must not be altered, and the rules given by Brahmegupta,
or

Varah-Acharija, and Aryabhatta

tions.

Any

person

may

may compose

be used with such precau-

a set of rules for the

common

purposes of astronomy, but with regard to the duties necessary in

eclipses, the

computation must be made by the booiks of the Munis,

and the Bija applied."

The date
is

of the epoch, then being given, at which time the planet

supposed to be at the

first

point of Aswini, and the

number

of

days since that time being consequently known, we have the following proportion

Days

in a
:

Maha-Yuga

Elapsed days

Revolutions in the

in

Maha-Yuga

Elapsed days

<

since

Days in Maha-Yuga

Epoch

found to consist of an integral

of revolutions, and a fraction; rejecting the integer, the

fraction, if any, will be the

first

Maha-Yuga

result will in general be

number

of Planet in

Revolutions in elapsed time, or

= Revolutions

the Epoch

The

Ke volutions

\
I

elapsed time from

of Aswini, on the

mean

longitude of the planet from the

Meridian, namely, that of Ujjaini or on

first

the Meridian at Lanca.

To

find the Arghana,

i.e.,

the beginning of Creation,

th
in

sun, the

moon, and

conjunction,

up

the

when

number
all

of civil days elapsed from

the celestial moveable bodies

their nodes
planets, with

to the present day.

and apsides

were)

Description of the Surya Siddhanta.

(48-51)

The

Satya-Yuga,

is

195

elapsed years from the creation to the end of the

reckoned to be

1,953,720,000 solar years

Years of the Trita and Dwapara

Time elapsed from the creation

...

2,160,000

to
)

1,955,880,000
the beginning of the

To

this great

Kali-Yuga

number

is

now

to be

transpired since the beginning of the

of the present year,

beginning of the
the

Hindu

added the years that have

Kali-Yuga

which, for 3 .895 A.D.,

Hindu

solar year, the

Zodiac, in the

is

to the initial

day

the 12th of April, the

day on which the sun enters

first point of Mesha, or, rather, the first

point of the Nacshatra Aswini.

The present Kali-Yuga

begun

at

is

estimated by Bailly and others to have

midnight between the 18th and 19th February, 3102 B.C.,

the sun being then on the Meridian of Lanca

the elapsed time

from the Creation, therefore, according to the Hindu account,

would be

From

the creation to the Kali-Yuga

And from the Kali-Yuga

to the year

1,955,880,000 years

895 A.D.

Or the elapsed solar years from the Creation to

April 12th, 1895, i.e., to the mean ISancranti,
when the sun enters the sign of Mesha

"

Qt%K

1,955,884,996

This

number when multiplied by 12 gives the

months up to the Mesha

elapsed solar
Sancranti
...

Now,

as the

23,470,619,952

>

... )

...

...

...

day on which the elapsed time

is

required,

any day in any month after the beginning of the year,

may

be

as,

for

example, the day on which an eclipse will happen, suppose the

months and days to be

the current lunar

months

to the

months (say

month

d being lunar days

proceeds to add the number

respectively,

the rule

of
of

above elapsed solar months, and the elapsed solar

S
nearest to the given time will then be
)

23,470,619,952-{-??i.

o 2

m and d

To make these

solar

months

lunar, the addi-

Hindu Astronomy.

196

months proportional

tive

to

must be computed and added

to

S M.

To abbreviate the
let

months

calculation

assuming

initial letters for

be the additive months in a Yuga, and S

in a

Then the elapsed

Yuga.

additive

M be

months

the terms,

the

will

solar

be

M
EAM=^f!xESM,
8 M
A

adding this to

M we

have the elapsed lunar months nearest

the given day, or to the end of the

last

lunar month,

to

i.e.,

elm =('+st) esm

This number of elapsed lunar months, multiplied by 30, and
increased

by d

is

EL
The

rule

now

number

the

of elapsed lunar days, or

D=3o(l+^) XE S M+d tithis.

requires that these lunar days, or tithis, should be

converted into civil days, for which purpose the elapsed subtractive

days are

to

be computed.

Again, to abbreviate,
tracted in a

Yuga, and

let

L;

be the omitted days to be sub-

the lunar days in a Yuga.

elapsed subtractive days will be,

Then

the

by proportion,

EOD=^xELD
The elapsed omitted days being subtracted from the

elapsed

lunar days, will give the elapsed civil days to the end of the

lunar day; hence,

the elapsed

civil

days

In this formula

(l

y~T))

xE L D

from the creation

M = 23,470,61 9,952 -fm.

SM = 51,840,000 solar months.
S

LD=

1,603,000,080 lunar days or

M = 1,593,336 additive months.

OD = 25,082,252 subtractive days.

tithis.

last

Description of the Surya Siddhanta.

The

&1)

rulers of the days of the

197

week are then found and are

u dicated by the remainders on dividing the elapsed

7

thus, if there

is

a remainder

it

civil

days by

indicates Ravi-Var, or

Sunday

1 e lord of which, is Ravi, or the sun

S >ma-Var, the lord

dicate

being Soma, or the

the remainder 2 indicates

moon

remainders

3, 4, 5, 6,

Mangula-Var, Budha-Var, Vrihaspati-Var, Sucra-Var, and

S ini-Var, the lords of which are Mars, Mercury, Jupiter,

Venus

a id Saturn.

Eules are also given for finding the lords of the month and

(52)
o:c

the year.

Kule (53) gives the method of finding the mean place of a planet
a

any time, referred to Lanka, the

number
tie

of the elapsed days

number

divided

from the

Meridian in India.

epoch, is to be multiplied

of revolutions of the planet in a

by the number of

terrestrial

The

by
and
the
Yuga,
product

days in a

Yuga

the quotient

be in general a complete number of revolutions, with, a re-

vdll

Of

mainder.

these, the revolutions are to

remainder only retained;

minutes,

etc.,

and in

this

planet, or its longitude

(54)
is to

be rejected and the

this is to be reduced to signs, degrees,

form

it will

be the

mean

place of the

from Aswini.

In the same way, the mean place of the apogee of the planet

be found, and the same calculation applies to the nodes

the nodes,
etc,

first

having a retrograde motion, the result in

must be subtracted from 12

In Rule (55)

we have the

but

signs, degrees,

signs.

direction for finding the so-called present

Samvatsara.

Samvatsara

takes,

is,

as before mentioned, the

by his mean motion, to move over each sign of 30, and

which nearly corresponds

with,

one of our solar years.

cycle consists of 60 such periods, each, of

the

first

Jupiter's

which has a name, that

of

in the cycle being Vijaya.

The rule
is

time which Jupiter

directs that the

to be multiplied

by

12,

number

of elapsed revolutions of Jupiter

and to the product

is

to be added the

Hindu Astronomy.

198

number

of signs intervening

and the beginning of

by

which

60,

between the place occupied by Jupiter

Mesba

Stellar

the

sum

is

then to be divided

an integral quotient, and a remainder

will consist of

the remainder, reckoned from the period called Yijaya,

is

the re-

quired Samvatsara.

Eule (56) suggests the beginning of the Trita-Yuga,

as a convenient

epoch from which to compute the elapsed time, for the purpose of

mean

finding the

places of the planets.

Eule (57) continues that

epoch the mean places of the

at this

planets, with the exception of their apogees

coincident in the

first

Eule (58) further

and nodes, were together

point of Mesha.

states that the place of the

moon's apogee was

then 9 signs, and her ascending node 6 signs, and that the apogees

and nodes of the

five planets

had some uncertain amount of signs

and degrees.
In (59)

it is said

that the diameter of the earth

and that the product of the diameter by the root

is

from

its

of 10 will be the

This method of finding the circumference of a

circumference.
circle

1,600 Yojanas,

diameter

only one of

is

this purpose in the Siddhantas,

many

that were employed for

some of them giving much nearer

approximations to the true ratio of the circumference to the diameter.

.

which

is

also that

4966

.,

Amongst tnem

are

22
-

..

and the

....

still

nearer value

given by Bhascara in the Siddhanta Siromani.

62832
Aryabhatta gives

venience of calculation

that

the

and that

119208

it

It is said

was only

circumference

was

for con-

taken

as

diameter X VlO.

The

process

by which the Hindus obtained an approximate know-

ledge of the circumference

and diameter

of the earth, was,

no doubt,

with the aid of mid-day shadows, cast on planes by lofty objects,

such as the spire of a temple, or vertical poles in different places on
the same Meridian at the same time of the year (for instance, an

Description of the Surya Siddhanta.

Equinox

199

or a Solstice), the distance between the

places being

known

or measured.

The Aryans, in

their migrations

and progress Southward, must

have observed that the shadow of the same object,

as, for

example,

a tent-pole (an observation necessary for their religious observances

at the

time of the

Solstice),

would continually diminish

as the

latitudes of the places arrived at decreased.

On
may

account of the great distance of the sun, rays of light from

be considered as coming to

phere on which they

For,

if

fall,

we suppose two

places

assumed

vertical objects,

A M and B

A and B

are

on the same Meridian,

as a sphere, rays to the

distances of the sun at the

summits of two

N, would be in parallel

forming the vertical angles S

centre of the earth,

parts of the terrestrial hemis-

in parallel lines.

the earth being

all

it

two

Ma

places.

and S
If

lines,

b,

it,

M and

or the Zenith

C be supposed

and S C the direction to

of a ray

to

be the

from the

Hindu Astronomy.

200

A C and B C being
angle A C S is equal to
sun,

equal to the angle b

radii

from

the angle a

N S.

and

to the centre, then the

M S, and

the angle

Therefore, the angles

the zenith distances of the sun observed at

ACS
and

B C S

is

BC

S are

at the

same

and

time.

Now, the angle

and it

is

A;

C B

is

the difference between these two angles,

measured by the arc

the two places.

Hence,

A B,

the arc

if

the difference of latitude between

AB

(the distance

A and

between

B) be measured in Yojanas, and assumed equal to a

then, by

proportion

AB

in degrees

360

or the earth's circumference

The method

of

earth's circumference

360
= -^5

Xa

measuring the arc of a degree of the Meridian,

known to

the earth being considered as a sphere, was well

astronomers, as

yojanas.

is

clearly

the doctrines of the Puranas, and,

man

is

who adopt

other fanciful theories,

"
He says
As the earth

among

describe the earth as a great leTel plane.

a large body, and a

Hindu

shown by Bhascara in the Siddhanta

Siromani, in his refutation of the opinion of the Jains,

is

the

exceedingly small, the whole risible

portion of the earth consequently appears to a

man on

its

surface to

be perfectly plane.

"That
hare

the correct dimensions of the circumference of the earth

been, stated

(he gives

may be

proved by the simple rule of proportion

1581-^ Yojanas

the circumference in

this

diameter and 4967 Yojanas as

as the

mode

Ascertain

the difference

Yojanas between two towns in an exact North and South

line,

ascertain also the difference of the latitudes of those towns;

in

and
then

tha difference of latitude gives this distance in

Yojanas, what

say

if

will

the whole circumference of 360 give

"As

it is

ascertained

situated at a distance

by

calculation that the city of Ujjayni

from the Equator equal

is

to the one-sixteenth

part of the whole circumference, this distance, therefore, multiplied

Description of the Surya Siddhanta.

by

16, will

lie

201

What

the measure of the earth's circumference.

reason, then, is there for attributing such (50,000 Yojanas)

immense magnitude

an

to the earth?

" For the

position of the moon's cusps, the conjunctions of the
planets, eclipses, the times of risings

the lengths of the shadows of the

and settings of the

planets,

etc., are all consistent

gnomon,

with this (estimate of the extent of the) circumference, and not with

any other; therefore,

declared that the correctness of the afore-

it is

measurement of the earth

(directly

its

by

is

proved, both directly and indirectly

agreeing with the phenomena, and indirectly by no

other estimate agreeing with the phenomena)."

The Siddhantas did not

all

agree regarding the numerical dimen-

diameter and circumference.

sions of the

ON THE METHOD OF FINDING THE LONGITUDE.

In the geometry of the sphere, the small
latitude, of

any place on the

astronomy as the

rectified

gives the ordinary

The

rectified

circumference

circumference (the Sphuta), and Kule (60)

Kadius

serve for a place that

the ro-called middle-line, or

This correction

determined, thus

is called

Sin

Colatitude

of

X
(

place.

mean

to be applied to the

a planet, calculated for

midnight

make it

is

it is

Earth's Circumference

}
J

The same rule gives a correction

of

or parallel of

earth's surface, is referred to in Indian

method by which

circle,

may be

place

on meridian of Lanca, to

East or West of that Meridian,

Madhya-Rekha.

the Desantara Correction, and

its

amount

found from

Desantara

Distance in Yojanas from mid-line

Rectified Circumference

This correction
of a planet

is

applied also

computed

Planets

daily

motion in minutes

by some astronomers

to the place

for sunrise.

Rule (61) directs the Desantara to be subtracted from the mean

place of the planet at

midnight on the

first

Meridian,

if

the given

202

Hindu Astronomy.

place of the observer be East of the mid-line

is

added

to be

Eule (62)

to the

but

if it

on

to pass

be West,

it

planet.

states that the cities of Ujjayni, Eohitaka,

shetra are all

assumed

computed place of the

and the

this mid-line of the earth;

and Kurukline is also

through the hypothetical place Lanca, a place

supposed to be on the Equator, but which would necessarily be a

point of the Indian Ocean about 6
(63, 64, 65)

South of Ceylon.

These rules give the method of finding the longitude

of a given place

on the earth, from observations of the beginning or

ending of the total darkness in a lunar

eclipse.

If in the eclipse, seen at the place of the observer, the total darkness begins or ends after the instant for

begin or end at the middle

to

East of the middle line

but

line,
if

is to

it

has been computed

then the place of the observer

is

West

of the middle line.

be found between the observed time at

the place and the computed time on the middle line.

ence

is

This

differ-

called the Desantara Ghatikas.

distance of the place of the observer from the middle

Then the
line in

is

the beginning or ending Be before

the computed time, the observer's place

Next, the difference

which

Yojanas

the Desantara Ghatikas

_,,

the Rectified Circumference

60

From
to be

Yojanas the minutes of the Desantara are

to the places of the sun and moon (by means

this distance in

found and applied

of Rules (60) (61).

The mean

places of the planets, determined

are for the midnight of a given day.

mean

places

may

Rule

by preceding

rules,

the
(67) supposes that

be required for a time in Ghatikas, before or after

and
midnight, on the day for which the places have been computed,
then the corrected place would be

Time in Ghatikas
Computed
place
1

at

midnight

4-

60

(Planets daily
j
(

motion

Description of the Surya Siddhanta.

The inclination

of the

moon's path

to be a deflection caused
deflection

stated to be 4

is

This, however,

is

203

to the Ecliptic

by the node.

And

was supposed

in (68), the
greatest

30'.

under the modern estimate of 5

9',

but the

inclination is variable, the greatest

inequality being 8' 47".

(69-70) In like manner, the orbits of the planets were considered

to be deflected respectively

by

their nodes, the inclinations, or

greatest latitudes, being put as

The Moon
Mars

Mercury
Jupiter

under

mean

270' or 4

30'

90' or 1

120' or 2

30'
C

60' or 1

Venus

120' or 2

Saturn

120' or 2

In the subjoined table, the mean sidereal periodic times of the planets

have been computed in mean solar days, by dividing the number of

Savan days in a Maha-Yuga, or 1,577,917,828, by the number of

devolutions of each of the celestial bodies given in Table

1.

and

they are compared with the corresponding periodic times taken

from Herschel's Astronomy, the latter being arranged in the third

column of the

Mean

table.

sidereal periods

Astronomy

compared with those given in Herschel's

Hindu Astronomy.

204

For a similar purpose another

table has also been

computed from

Table L, showing the synodic periods of the planets, as compared

with corresponding periods taken from "Woodhouse's Astronomy.

These have been obtained from the form

Synodic period

Solar days in a Great

Eevolutions of Planet

Thus, in the case of the

moon

Yuga

revolutions of

Sun

The Moon's Synodic period

1,577,917,828

5,753,336-4,320,000

29530586 mean solar days

In the same way the other synodic periods in the table have been
=

found.

Description of the Surya Siddhanta.

ut,

taking into consideration that the effects of refraction were

known

not

in India, nor even in

Kepler (the latter of

may

205

whom

till

Europe

gave the

the time of Tycho and

on refraction)

first treatise

moon

be conceded that the Indian horizontal parallax of the

was a

fair

it

approximation.

Supposing, then, that an

equally

close

approximation

of the

diameter of the earth had been obtained, the moon's distance would

have been

fairly

represented by 51,566 Yojanas, on the supposition

was 1,610 Yojanas;

that the diameter of the earth

make the circumference

As the

would

this

of the moon's orbit 324,000 Yojanas.

number assumed

This was the

and

in all relative calculations.

parallax of the sun could not be obtained by direct obser-

vations, the Indian astronomers

to

under verse (27) Part

all

the planets

moved

By

linear velocity.

slowness of

II,

had recourse

Chap.

I.,

in the respective

this hypothesis

some of them by

to the theory referred

by which they supposed that

orbits with the

same actual

they accounted for the apparent

their having to travel over orbits of

and the circumferences were supposed to vary

greater diameter,

directly as the periodic times.

Taking, then, the circumference of the moon's orbit, or 324,000

Yojanas, and

its

periodic time, 27,176 days, as constants, they

puted the circumferences of the orbits of the sun and planets,

by simple proportion, from a form

Circumference of

orbit in

Yojanas

=s

324,000
'

'
<

X.

X P,

cometc.,

equivalent to

where

P= periodic

time of planet.

In this way, the supposed circumferences of the orbits were found

and given, as under, in Chapter XII. of the Surya Siddhanta

The Moon's Orbit

Sighrocheha (Apogee) of

Orbits of Sun,

Mars

324,000 Yojanas.

Mercury

1,042,000

Venus...

2,664,637

Mercury and Venus

4,331,500
8,146,909

Hindu Astronomy.

206

Orbits of Moon's

Apogee

38,328,484 Yojanas.

Jupiter

51,375,764

Saturn

127,668,255

Fixed Stars

259,890,012

The circumference

of the Brahmandee, the egg of Brahma,

in which the sun's rays are

spread

>

oh1f) AOA oaA nr n ~ A/

.

CHAPTER

II.

ON THE METHOD EMPLOYED BY THE HINDUS FOR FINDING THE TRUE

PLACE OF A PLANET FROM ITS MEAN PLACE.
It

was well known

to the

Hindus that a supposed uniform motion

in a circle about the earth did not really

represent the true motion
of a planet in its orbit, although the hypothesis served sufficiently
to

determine the

mean motions and

the

mean

place of a planet

when

deduced from observations carried on for lengthened periods.

knew that every planet

larities,

in

its

They

course was subject to great irregu-

the motion undergoing- continual changes.

At one time

it

would be direct towards the East, until the planet reached a

stationary point, where

it

would seem to be at

rest

motion would begin, and continue for a time,

position
It

till

then a retrograde

another stationary

was reached, and the Eastward motion would be

was

repeated.

to account for these irregularities that the Epicycle

was

invented.

By

the Greeks this contrivance was ascribed to Apollonius.

conceived that a planet in

its

course described, with uniform motion,

the circumference of a circle, called the Epicycle,

moved uniformly in the circumference of another

deferent, the centre of which was the centre of the
It

was

also

He

whose centre

circle, called

the

earth.

was
supposed that, whilst the centre of the Epicycle

moving Eastward in the direction

of the signs, the planet itself

was

By this
moving in a direction contrary to that of the signs.
in the motions of
hypothesis it was easy to show the various changes
was generally adopted by Western
the
This
planets.

theory

nations, with the addition of other Epicycles, introduced

by Ptolemy,

apparent motions with accuracy.

"
"
The Hindus had two methods for calculating the true place of

as necessary for expressing the

Hindu Astronomy.

208

a planet from

its

mean

place, as determined

by the

rules of the

Surya Siddhanta.

One

of these

methods resembled that of Apollonius, with

this

difference
that, whilst the planet moved uniformly in its Epicycle,
whose centre moved in the deferent concentric with the earth, the
:

Epicycle
greatest

itself

when

was conceived

to

be variable, the circumference being

the planet was in an apsis (at

"true" and mean places being then

planet was at a distance of 90

The other method supposes

is

a point

Apogee or Perigee, the

coincident),

and

least

when

the

from those points.

mean

that, while the

place of a planet

moving uniformly Eastward, round the circumference

a circle whose centre

is

of

the earth, the planet also moves uniformly

Eastward, in the same time, round the circumference of an equal,

but eccentric,

circle,

whose centre

Apogee with the centre

is

situated in the line joining the

of the earth, the distance

from

it

being the

eccentricity.

These two methods of calculation, whether

by assuming the

motions as being in an eccentric or in an Epicycle, give exactly the

same

results

but

it

will be observed that, whereas the planet

the former hypothesis

signs,

on the

is

conceived to

latter hypothesis the

move

on

in the direction of the

apparent motion of the planet in

the Epicycle would be in a contrary direction.

It is

on

this

seeming inconsistency that Bhascara, in the

>Siio-

mani, makes the following sensible remarks:

"As

the actual motion in both cases

is

appearances are thus diametrically opposed,

therefore, that these expedients are the

astronomers, to ascertain the

amount

the same, while the

it

must be admitted,
of wise

mere inventions

of equation."

It is to the greatest equation of the sun's centre that Laplace

was
when, after stating that the epoch of the Kali-Yuga
"
But
determined by calculation and not by observation, he says
it must be owned that some elements of the Indian astronomy seem

refers

to

indicate that they

have been

determined before this epoch

Rules for finding

fix

place of a Planet

209

Thus, the equation of the centre of the sun, which

(3102 B.C.),

they

the true

at 2*4 173, could not

have been of that magnitude but at

the year 4300 before the Christian Era."

"
"
Preparatory to calculating the true places of the planets from
their

mean places, and

of the sines

and versed

These functions
in the works of

upon them

We

was constructed

for general purposes, a table

sines of the arcs of a circle.

differ so

Western

remarkably from those which were in use

nations, that they have, as

it

were, stamped

the genuine character of original productions.

are so accustomed to the use of sines of angles,

arcs to radius unity, that

could be so simple
the

among

sines of

are apt to believe that nothing else

and yet a

Hindus

we

and

still

more simple system was in use

than that of the

at times earlier in their history

compilation of the Surya Siddhanta.

The

peculiarity connected with these sines

of the circle

from which the

called analytical unit, which,

is this,

that the radius

sines are calculated is really the so-

though suggested

for use in

modern

times*, like a strange coin, never, for obvious reasons, obtained

much

currency.

As an angular unit
If,

it

may

thus be defined

in the circumference of any circle,

length to the radius of the same

57

n> 44 48

etc

the angle measured

minutes and seconds which

arc, or the degrees,

f

circle,

an arc be taken equal in

it

by

this

contains, will be

This angle or arc reduced to minutes

3437*746'.

The nearest whole number being 3438.

This

number (3438) the Indian astronomers used

in calculating their table of sines,

and whenever, in the rules given

as solutions to their problems, in Spherical

make

use of the word

By

"

as the radius,

radius," this

number

is

Trigonometry, they
understood.

Dr. Hutton, Phil. Trans., 1783.

Hindu Astronomy.

210

The

table given is not very extensive, being only for arcs, multi-

ples of i of an arc of

When

30,

i.e.,

of 3

45'.

were required, they were found by

sines of other arcs

proportional differences to the nearest minute in whole number?

(the use of decimals being unknown), and the approximation would

correspond to about four places of decimals of our tables.

Two

rules are given in the

Surya Siddhanta

Beginning with an assumed

table of sines.

by progressive equal

arcs,

for calculating a

first sine,

they proceed

computing the succeeding sines, in order,

from those previously found.

These rules are:
"

The eighth part

(15)

sign

(i.e.,

of 30

itself,

"
(16)

the

sor,

is

the

of minutes contained in a

Divide the

first sine.

first

sine

by

substract the quotient from that sine, and add the remainder

to that sine

by

number

of the

or 1800')

sum

the

will be the second sine."

In the same manner, divide successively the

first sine

sines (found)

subtract the (sum of) the quotients from the divi-

and add the remainder

to the sine last found,

and the sum

will

be the next

sine.

Thus, you will get twenty-four sines (in the

quadrant of a

circle

whose radius

is

3438)."

These rules express in words the operations implied in the formula

.-/,

,x

bin (n4-l)
J
v
'

sin

is

n=l and
sin A
A+sm A sin A

For making

A =sin
a

the
sin

A+etc
sm A

sin

nA

'

where

a
bin 2

A+sin

sin

= sm n A+sm A

first sine.

A=225'

1800'
-

or

225

Sin 3

Sm
.

A=sin

A=sm
*

sin

2 A-{-sin A-

n=2.
225+225-^3=449, making
A-j-sin 2 A
sin A

449+225-^^^=671,
sm A+sm 2 A+sm 3 A
A+sin A
sm A
a

making nssM

'

67l+225-^i^=890, making n=i

Rules for finding

Sin 5

A=sin 4 A+sin A

the true

place of a Planet.

_^ A+sin 2 A+sinA 3 A+sin 4 A

sin

1345+890

890+225^
and

so

on

for

n=5,

This formula
Sin

211

6, etc.,

225

1105.

throughout.

have been derived from the ordinary formula

may

(A+B)+sin (A-B)=2

sin

cos B,

which, with
Sin

were

known

(A+B)-sin (A

to the

B)=2

cos

sin B,

Hindus, befqre the date of the Siromani, for

Bhaskara says they were called Jaya-Bhavana, and that they were
prescribed for ascertaining other sines.

Or the rule may have been derived from the formula

Sin

(w+1) A+sin (n

from which

The
to,

it

may be

sines of the

1)

A=2

sin

nA

cos

A=sin n

Ax

sin 2

sin

A
A

easily deduced.

Surya Siddhanta, computed by the rules referred

are given in the

accompanying

table,

and they are compared

with corresponding sines computed from modern tables.

The versed

sines are

computed by simply subtracting the

sines of

the complementary arcs from the radius 3438.

Table of natural sines
Arc.

and

versed sines

from Surya Siddhanta:

Hindu Astronomy.

212

The simple

relations

between the

and versed

sine, cosine,

served all the purposes of the trigonometry of the

maticians, and though

by name,

the sign of an arc to the sine of

from

as a function, distinct

the tangent did not enter into their calculations

its

sine,

Hindu mathesigns,

yet the ratio of

complement, or

-r-r

the

equivalent of tangent A, was of constant occurrence in their com-

For example, in the

putations.
,

shadow, the

its

Gnomon

ratio,

-^

-,

Shadow

Gnomon and

relation between the

Sin altitude
=-^-.

jr-rr

..

=tan

alt.

Sin(90-alt.)

The Hindu astronomers appear

to

have been familiar with most

of the elementary trigonometrical relations, such as

Sin 45

/-,

sml8

W'2
all of

A=R

sin 2 A, versed sine

A=\/R 2

Cos

sin

which are expressed in words,

cos A, sin

36

=V

as also the

30=
x

more general

relations

between the sine and versed sine of an arc and the sine of half the
arc,

such as

=^Vsin 2

Sine

A-}- versed

2 sine

= \/i R versed sine A

A, and sin

and hence as observed by Bhaskara.

"From

the sine of any arc thus found, the sine of half the arc

may be found

(and so on with the half of this

from the complement of any arc

half the

complement (and from

may

last).

In like manner

be ascertained the sine

of

that, again, the sine of half the

last arc).

"

Thus (Bhaskara

determining the other sines (from a given one), but

for

proceed to give a

And he

Sin

45 +

mode

different

which are equivalent

which

A) =

is

now

to the well-

V^+BsinA

&nd

45

gin
(

_A =
)
/

in

from that stated by them."

gives, in words, rules

known forms

mode

says) the former astronomers prescribed a

any arc of a

circle.

R2

sin

Rules for finding

id,

again,

Sin
"

when

~2~

now

I will

A and B

sin

2~K

place of a Planet

are two arcs

A ~ sin

B)

213

A-cos B) 2

-}-(cos

2
)

give (he says) rules for constructing sines without

having recourse
is

the true

And

to the extraction of roots."

the

first

of these

But

this

method,

equivalent to
Sin (2

"In

this

way

A-90)

several sines

'~
= R 2KDsin

is?

be found."

may

called Pratibhagajyaka-Vidhi,

8A

He

limited.

then proceeds to

give rules for rinding the sine of every degree from

The

rule for finding the sines of

own

Bhaskara's
"

five

by eight

36, and

of

18,

as given in

Deduct the square root of

from

"

words, are

90.

to

five

times the fourth power of radius

times the square of the radius, and divide the remainder

the square root of the quotient will be the sine of 36.

Deduct the radius from the square root of the product of the

square of radius and

five,

and divide the remainder by four; the

quotient thus found will give the exact sine of 18."

The
sines is

first

application in the Siddhanta showing the use of the

given in the f orm of a problem, thus

Having given the longitude

of

find

to

planet,

its

mean

declination.

The mean declination

of a planet is the

when both have the same

tion is the

The

same

as that of the sus.

longitude, and the greatest

sine of the longitude

by 1397, the sine

problem
of the

is

is

declina-

equal to the quotient

Multiply the

(mean) greatest de-

and divide the product by the radius, 3438

whose sine

mean

as the sun's greatest declination.

rule given for the solution of the

clination,

same

find the arc

this arc is the planet's (mean)

declination.

The rule given

is

clination of the sun,

that for finding the deevidently the same as

when

the longitude

is

given.

214

Hindu Astronomy,

Thus, in the right-angled spherical triangle S r N, in which S

the place of the sun, r the equinoctial point, S r

and S

is

the obliquity,

the sun's declination, we have

sin S r N
.Sin r S.
r sin S N

But the
.-.

Here

sine

S r

N=

sin sun's greatest declination =' 1397.

1397 sin longitude.

3,438 sin sun's declination

be observed that 1,397 is also given in other places

Siddhanta
as the sine of the sun's greatest declination.
Surya
It is said to be the sine of 24, but by an accurate computation
1397 is the sine of the arc 23 58' 31".
it

may

of the

ON THE RULES FOR FINDING THE TRUE PLACE OF A PLANET.

The mean place of a planet, and that of its apogee, having been
computed by the rules of the first chapter, the difference between
them (called the Kendra, or mean anomaly) is taken, and the sine
of it is found

from the tables

these are used for constructing the

various epicycles.
To explain the method of construction, let it be supposed that
the circle of A B C I) represents the deferent of a planet, in the

Rules for finding the true place of a Planet.

the radius being 3438, the centre
plane of the orbit,
the centre of the earth, and the line

Also let the small circle at

AEC

representing

the line of Apsides.

cutting the line of Apsides in

represent the epicycle of a planet, the point

being at the greatest distance

215

from

will

H of the circumference

be the apogee or higher

apsis.

If

we now conceive

from

that whilst the centre of the epicycle

(starting

and supposed

be moving in the circumference of the

to

deferent in the direction

ABC

D,

i.e.,

in the order of the signs of

the Zodiac) completes one revolution in the deferent; the planet

starting

from

and moving in the epicycle

also completes

one

revolution in the same time, in a contrary direction to that of the

signs.

Then,

it is

assumed

as a first approximation, that the direction in

which the planet would appear

to be seen at

from E, would be the direction of

The conception here formed

its

that of the ordinary epicycle, of

is

But the Indian

an invariable magnitude.

epicycle has its circum-

ference continually varying, being greatest

A or C,

and

least

when the

centre is at

For the formation of the

following rule is given
" There are fourteen

any time, when viewed

true place.

when

the centre

or D.

epicycles of the sun

first

is at

and moon the

(34)

phery of the Manda, or

degrees (of the concentric) in the peri-

first epicycle,

degrees (in the periphery of the

first

these epicycles are described at the

concentric or

on the

of the sun,

and thirty-two

epicycle) of the

moon, when

end of an even quadrant

line of the Apsides).

(of the

But when they

are

the
described at the end of an odd quadrant (of the concentric or on
diameter of the concentric perpendicular to the line of Apsides), the
degrees in both are diminished

The meaning
of an epicycle at

of this rule

or

would extend over an arc

if

of

is

by twenty minutes.
that the length of the circumference

stretched along

14

ABC

of the deferent

or 840' for the epicycle of the sun,

Hindu Astronomy.

216

and
at

for the

moon the length would extend

the points

and

over 32

But

or 1,920'.

the lengths would be 820' and 1,900'

respectively.

For an intermediate point M, the Kendra

which was

mean anomaly)

840' -20

X -1^1"
3438'

and that of the moon

>

In general, supposing
and
C^
epicycle, for

any of the planets

= Ca-( Ca- C b)
method

920'-20X
~3438"

be the circumferences of the

to

M,

A and

B, respectively,

with anomaly h the circum-

would be

ference of the epicycle

such a circumference

at the points

then, for any intermediate point,

is

called the

W- = V
C

(Sphuta or)

rectified periphery.

of constructing the rectified

calculating the

first

mean anomaly,

is

equation of the planet,

of a

periphery

planet's epicycle has been described, the following rule

(39)

when

given, for

is

the Kendra, or

known:

"Multiply the

sines of the

Bhuja and Koti

(of the first

second Kendra of a planet) by the rectified periphery (of the

and second epicycle of the planet)

grees in a circle (or

360)

divide the products

is

equal to the

contained in this arc

is

first

the

Bhuja-Phala

Manda-Phala

the

and
first

by the

(the quotients are called the

second Bhuja-Phala and Koti-Phala, respectively).

whose sine

of

the peripheries of the epicycle of the sun would be

k,

After the

(or

de-

first

and

Find the

arc

number

of minutes

(or the first equation of

the planet)."

To give an
it. it

interpretation of this rule

and the terms employed

will be necessary to have recourse to a figure.

Let H, the intersection of the epicycle, with the

in

A, be the higher Apsis or Apogee.

to start

from H, in the

epicycle,

line of Apsides

Then a planet

is

supposed

with a uniform motion, and

describe the circumference of the epicycle, in the

same time

to

as its

Rules for finding the true place of a Planet.

centre, starting
its

completes

When

from A, and moving uniformly in the concentric,

revolution in that circle.

the centre has

moved over an

in the direction of the signs of

moved over an arc

will he similar arcs

the angle

217

AM

arc

of the concentric,

the Zodiac, the planet

of the epicycle, such that,

therefore, the angle

MEA

will

have

and

HP

will he equal to

H M P, so that P M will always he parallel to A E.

P E

he joined, cutting the concentric in the point V,

then the direction in which the planet would he seen, when viewed
If,

now,

from E, the centre of the earth, would be that of the line

V, and

Con-

the apparent place of the planet in the concentric would be V.

sequently,

the

V is called the true

mean and the true

place,

places,

place,
is

and

M Y, the distance between

the arc required in finding the true

and the object of the several rules

for finding the equations

of the centre.

As a

first

approximation, the passage quoted from the Surya

Siddhanta (Rule 39) takes

line

E M,

Pn

as the sine of the

the perpendicular from

Manda-Phala

P upon

or first equation

the
this

Hindu Astronomy.

218

line

is

M V, when

greater than the sine of

90, and

it is less

M V, when

than sin

the anomaly

the anomaly

is

is less

between 90

and 270.

Pn

In the similar triangles

MN

Vn

M and M N E,
or

but the circumferences are as the

P
'

and

MN

is

PM
ME

Pn

MN,

radii,

M _ circumference of epicycle at M

ME

"

circumference of concentric

the sine of the arc

Vn =

M A = sin

C
sin

k.

21,600'

Also from the same similar triangles,

MP
Mn NE
MP = E' 0rMn=: Mf
,.

in which

N E is
.-.

the cosine of the arc

Mn=

C **
21,600'

A M.
cos k.

NE,

than

'

Rules for finding the true place of a Planet.

If

now, in the figure, we

NE

^ala, also

C
lie ratio

;he

M N the Bhuja, and P n the

call

the Koti, and

219

M n the

Bhuja-

Koti-Phala, and we express

we

in degrees instead of minutes,

have in

shall

words of the rule,

_,,

atM wT)1
= rectified periphery
X Bhuja, and
%fin

Bhuja-Phala
'

rr

,.

Koti-Phala

And the

arc of

at M
^
^
= rectified periphery
X
5bU

which Bhuja-Phala

is

the sine

is

'

__

Koti.

the Mauda-Phala,

the centre.

or first equation of

This last would be correct,

if

P E had been

partly the object of Rules 40, 41, 42 to

make

the radius.

It is

this correction.

FOR THE GREATEST EQUATIONS OF THE SUN AND MOON.

If

we

substitute for

Cm

in the equation
^

n=

C
oi

arm Xsin

we have

the rectified peripheries of the sun and moon, respectively,

for

the sun,

840-20
the sine

first

of the

equation
1

This will have

its

sun

-,

x|^ Xsin

__-

greatest value

when k

= 90,

and

= 3438,

sin k

820

.\

Sin greatest

first

k.

21,600

"
equation of the sun =2r60b X 3438=sin 2 10 32

Or the greatest equation of the centre=2

'

10' 32".

At the beginning of the present century, according to Laplace,

the greatest equation of the sun's centre was 1 55' 2 7' 7", and this
diminished at the rate of 16*9" in a century
these

divided

two

by

values

of

the

greatest

16*9", gives 5,351

the difference between

equation

years as

904*3",

having elapsed up

which,
to the

beginning of A.D. 1800, since the greatest equation of the centre

had the value given to

it

in the.Surya.Siddhanta..

--

....

..

Hindu Astronomy,

220

When
the

sine of the moon's

when k

which,

first

and

90

equation

or the moon's greatest equation

At the beginning of
moon's greatest

this

it

amounts

to

is

1fin

substituted
sin k

1,920-20
3,438,

iOD

i)

becomes

3,438

sine

2'

47",

Laplace, the

But he adds: "The

to diminish the equation of the

augment

it

in the quadratures

at

18' 2-4"."

Thus, since the Hindus were not acquainted with the evection,
a term

distinct

fc,

the
5

sin

sin

2' 47".

17' 54*5".

is

'

century, according to

constant effect of the evection

maximum

,,'

equation was 6

centre in the syzigies, and to

sin

.*.

of the moon's greatest equation

its

the moon's rectified periphery

from the equation

as

which

of the centre, the value

they give to the moon's equation was not inconsistent with that
given by Laplace.

The

rules already referred to, as giving a

the equation, are put in the following order

"
(40)
etc.

To

find the second equation of the

more

correct value of

minor planets

Mars,

Find the second Koti-Phala (from a planet's second Kendra).

It is to be

added to the radius, when the Kendra

signs or greater than nine signs

than three signs and

to be subtracted

"
(41)

less

but when the Kendra

than three
is

greater

than nine, then the second Koti-Phala

is

from the radius.

Add the square of

of the second

is less

the result (just found) to that of the sine

Bhuja-Phala; the square of the sum

is

the Sighra-

Karna, or second hypothenuse.

".Find the second Bhuja-Phala of the planet

Sloka 39)

multiply

it

by the

radius,

(as

mentioned

and divide the product by

in

the

second hypotenuse (found above).

(42)

found)

"Find the
;

the

arc whose sine

number

Sighra-Phala

is

equal to the quotient

of minutes contained in the arc

(or second

equation of the planet)."

(just

is called the

221

be explained in the following manner

These rules

may

The

being the same as that given

figure

rule (39)

we

the

in

first

have, as in that case

Pn

*L_

Sin k

Bhuja-Phala.
J

21600

In which k

before,

may be

the

or second Kendra,

first

and according to

M,
may make M n vary in sign.
E n may be taken = E M + M n, but in the right-angled
2
2
2
or
triangle P n E, P E = P 7i +E ?i
2
2
Sighra-Karna = P E = \/ P n -f(E M+M n)

the position of

sin

.*.

fC sin
sm *\
k\22
/<Ar

n
Cm

/
/

n the similar right-angled triangles

Vo
Pn

VE
PE

-,

or

v
V

Sin

V=
sin

/(J

M
Vi<\ -21600

k\2

2-)

P n E and V o E

= VE-Pti

PE

3438X
.%

cos *\
k

C,

sin &

21600
/

+
~\

CJ

cos /c\

3438 ~
+ -*
210

H) /

1
J

Hindu Astronomy.

222

If

we express

this formula in

words with Indian names, we have

the rule (40-42)

o- v
t>u 1
Sin Sighra-Phala
a-

Where Kama
There

is

no

xvarna

= Vj (Radius + Koti-Phala)

+Bhuja-Phala

2
}.

forming tables from either of the two

difficulty in

rules contained in (39-42),

is

= Radius XBhuia-Phala
^

when

the Kendra of

M,

or

mean anomaly,

taken for each of the 24 sines, that are given in the table of

sines,

For the sun and the moon,

or even for every degree of a quadrant.

which have each only one system of epicycles, one set of tables

deemed

sufficient for

is

each of these bodies, to determine their true

places.

But

this is not] the case with

the planets, which have each two

distinct systems of epicycles, given in the following

form

" There are

75, 30, 33, 12 and 49 degrees of the concentric
(35)
in the peripheries of the first epicycles of Mars,

Venus and Saturn,

respectively, at the

Mercury, Jupiter,

end of an even quadrant of the

concentric, but at the end of an odd quadrant there are 72, 28, 32,
11,

48 degrees of the concentric.

(36)

" There are

235, 133, 70, 262 and 39 degrees of the concentric

in the peripheries of the Sighra, or second epicycles, of Mars,

etc., at

the end of an even quadrant (of the concentric).

" At the end of an odd
(37)
quadrant (of the concentric) there
are 232,

32, 72, 260,

40 degrees of the concentric in the peripheries

of the second epicycles of Mars, etc."

The

rectified peripheries of the planets are

same way

formed exactly

in the

as that of the sun.

Taking Mars as an example,

be, for a point

its

first

M, whose Kendra was

epicycle, or

k,

using the same notation

as before,

Cm

~"( C i

sin k
~ C *) 3438

which, expressed in minutes,

= 4500-180'

Manda, would

S1

3438

'

Rules for finding

And

for the second

would be

k,

If,

223

or Sighra, the rectified periphery

epicycle,

Kendra

for a

of a Planet.

the true place

= 14100-180-5^.
3438

now, these values be put successively in the rules (39-42) for

the rectified periphery, they will afford the means of calculating two

Mars

tables for

centre, or

the one being a table for the

Manda-Phala, and the other table

equation of the

first

will give the Sighra-

Phala, corresponding to the Indian estimate of the aunual parallax

of

the planet.

When

these tables have been formed there

is

one more rule

still

by which they are to be applied, so as to find the true place of a

planet.

It is

the following

" Find the

(44)
apply the half of

it

equation
to the

(from the

mean

half of the first equation (found

find the first

place,

mean

and

from that

place of a planet)

(to the result) apply the

result),

from the amount

equation again, and apply the whole of

place of the planet,

and

(to that

rectified

mean

it

to the

mean

place) apply the

mean

whole of the second equation found from the rectified

place

thus you will find the true place of the planet."

This method of approximating to the true place of a planet, by

successive steps,

would appear to resemble our method of approxi-

mating to the length of a small curve, by supposing

the lengths of

to

place

is

between

in advance of the true place the equation

be subtracted, but when the true place

mean

to lie

chord and tangent.

its

When the mean

is

it

place the equation

is

to be added,

is

in advance of the

and at the higher and

lower apsides the two places will be coincident.

The

rule for the first equation in

appear to have formed the

astronomers,

with

reference

subject
to

the

hypotenuse, should have been omitted.

the Surya Siddhanta would

of

a discussion

reason

among the

why the Kama,

or

Hindu Astronomy.

224

Bhaskara says
the

first

"
:

Some

say that the hypotenuse

process, because the difference is

is

not used

in

inconsiderable, but others

maintain that since in this process the periphery of the

first circle,

being multiplied by the hypotenuse and divided by the radiu9

becomes true, and that,

is

same

the

employed.

as

No

it

if

the hypotenuse then be used, the result

was before, therefore the hypotenuse

objection

made why

is

second process, because the

proofs

is

not

this is not the case in

the

of finding the

equation are

different here."

He

gives only a very brief account of the

and he seems to make the

circle

method

of the Epicycle,

invariable in magnitude, which

would be consistent with the method of the eccentric, to which he

appears to have given the preference.

ON THE METHOD OF THE ECCENTRIC.

Let

AB C

and

equal to 3438', the

sines,

to the

H P L be
number

and their centres

number

planet's orbit.

two

circles

having their

radii each

of minutes in the radius of the table of

E and

at a dislance

frcm each other

equal

of minutes in the greatest equation of the centre of a

Rules for finding the true place of a Planet.

If
is

represent the centre of the earth, then the circle

called the

concentric and

The

eccentric.

line joining

The point H, where

it

H P L whose

centre

and produced,

meets the eccentric

is

is

is

is

ABCD

called the

the line of apsides.

the higher apsis, and

the lower.

Let

now be conceived that the

it

describes the arc

moving
arc

and

H P,

M, then the arcs

arallel to

Now
planet,

EP

in the eccentric

same time that an imaginary planet

and
lines

same mean motion, describes the

HP

being equal, the

M P and E

and imaginary planet

radii,

ME

joining equal and

is

the

always equal and

0.

which joins the centre of the earth with the

the point in which

is

moving

the direction in which the planet will be seen from E,

place of the planet

places

planet,

themselves equal and parallel, therefore

the eccentricity

the line
is

and the

are parallel,

line joining the true

and

in the

in the concentric with the

parallel lines are

225

it

meets the concentric

the distance

is

M V between the

the equation of the centre.

called the true

mean and

true

Hindu Astronomy.

226

The

MA

arc

mean anomaly

the Kendra or

is

M perpendicular to H E=sin M A =

from

M A = cos

and

k,

NE

sin k,

is

M N drawn

the cosine

of

k.

In the similar triangles

P Gr
Mn = =-r=
M P n and PEG-, --*
or

sin k
Af n = MP'PG =
M
Also P E = VP& + EG = V {sin
e

, e

Sin equation of the centre

The terms used

=Mn

.,

being the eccentricity

&

sin 2 &

A;

sin

A;

(cos

same

in the rules to designate the

(cos

A;

not

lines, are

always the same, thus in the formula for the equation of the centre
just given
is

Sin k

the line

is

M N or

its

sometimes called "the sine of the

other times

equal

the figure.

It

Bhuja of the Kendra,"

at

called " the Bhuja of the Kendra," and again more

it is

" the
briefly
Bhuja."
is

Gr of

Cos k which is the line

E or its equal G
"
"
sometimes called
the Koti at other times " the sine of the

Koti," and

more

at length " the sine of the

of the Kendra."
it is called

Again, cos k

is

the Sphuta Koti, the line

and we have

The term

Kama 2
sine

Bhuja

Bhuja which

2
-f-

is

Bhuja of the complement

E Gr, or E N + N G.
the Kama or hypotenuse,

the line

PE

is

Sphuta Koti 2

properly, to an arc of the concentric, or deferent.

easily understood as
sin

90

-f-

applied here so frequently, belongs,

This term

will

be

being the numerical valuer of such quantities

as

A), sin (180

A), etc., the

Bhuja being the equivalent

arc for the table of sines.

The
circle

sines

and cosines designated with such names, are

whose radius

in the circle

is

3438.

whose radius

When

is
,

or invariable, the sine

similar sines

which

is

lines in the

and cosines are taken

that of the Epicycle, variable

becomes Bhuja Phala and the cosine

is

Koti

Phala.

That the two methods of calculating the equation of the

whether by the epicycle or the eccentric, lead to the same
thus indicated by Bhaskara.

centre,

result, is

Rules for finding

the true

place of a Planet.

227

" If the
diagrams (of the eccentric and epicycle) be drawn unitedly,
and the place of the planet be marked off, in the manner before
explained, then the planet will necessarily be in the point of intersection of the eccentric

we draw

by the

epicycle."

the figure for the eccentric and concentric,

using
the same letters for the several lines as before, then the
planet
the higher apsis, is
moving in the eccentric, and starting from
P in the direction of the signs,
supposed to have described the arc
If

first

and the line

the point

M drawn parallel

M, the

E, will meet the concentric in

place of the imaginary

in that circle,

moving

to

and P

M has been

mean

planet supposed to be

shewn

to be equal to

0?

the eccentricity.
If

now

at

M,

as a centre,

with a radius equal to the eccentricity,

be described, this circle will be the epicycle, in

a circle

which a

planet moves through the arc H P from the higher apsis H, in the
same time that its centre will have described the arc A
of the

concentric, and the radius being equal to the eccentricity it is equal

to H P, or the
epicycle and the eccentric intersect in the same point,

and

all

the other lines and angles of the figures, according to one

method are
It is also

arc

HP

identical with those of the other

method.

obvious that in the eccentric the planet will

move on the

of the eccentric, in the direction of the signs of the Zodiac

but in the epicycle, the arc

HP

of that circle

is

in a direction

opposite to the signs.

Eccentricities of the orbits of

some of the planets given in the

Sidhantas as compared with corresponding values of the eccentricities

in

modern

tables, are as

under:

Hindu Astronomy.

228

Rule (45) has reference to the application of the 1st and 2nd
whether they are additive or subtractive, and (46) relates
,

equations

named Bhujantara.

to a correction to the places

Rules from (47) to (51), give methods of finding the true diurnal

motions of the Sun,

Moon and

Planets.

Rule (52), explains the Indian theory of the retrogression of the

planets, supposed to be caused

by

loose reins of attraction.

Rules (53) to (55), detail the conditions on which the motion of

the planets Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn begin to be
retrograde, as
respectively

when

occurring

Kendras or

their

Anomalies

are

164, 144, 130, 163 and 115, and that the retrograde

motion ceases at 196, 216, 230, 197 and 245.

Rules (56) and

latitude of a planet,
difference

an Indian method of calculating the

(57), give

by a species of proportion, supposing the

between the

rectified places of the planet,

and the greatest latitude of the planet to be

all

and

its

node

known.

Rule (58), makes a distinction in computing the declination of the

Sun, and that of a planet, the former being the true declination of
the place of the Sun in the

ecliptic,

declination of the planet,

computed from the planet's place, referred

is

and the

to the ecliptic, increased or diminished

by

its

latter, called

the mean

latitude north or south.

Rule (59), derives the length of a planet's day and night, by

proportion, from

its

diurnal motion, reduced to an arc of right

ascension in time.

Rule

(60),

makes

planet =3438

Rule

(61),

the

radius

of

the

diurnal

circle

of

versed sine declination.

determines the ascensional difference of a planet, by a

somewhat operose method, by means of the radius of the

diurnal circle,

its declination,

planet's

and the equinoctial shadow (described

in the third chapter).

Rule (62)
of a

planet's

(63), give

again a loose method of finding the lengths

day and night, by a reference to the ascensional

difference found

by the preceding

rule.

Rules for finding the true place of a Planet.

From Rule

(64)

is

229

found the Nacshatra in which a planet

is

at a

given time, together with the computation of the days and parts of
a day from

Rule

sum

its

entrance into that Nacshatra.

(6 5) , to find the

of the places of the

Yoga

(an astrological period in which the

Sua and Moon,

given time, together with the

number

increases

of elapsed

by 13"20')

at a

Yogas (counting

from the one named Vishkarubha).

Rule

(66), gives a

method of finding the lunar day

at a given

time.

The remainder of the chapter from

(67) to (69) relates to certain

called the 4 invariable

portions of time,

and the 7 variable Karanas

which are said to answer successively to the half of a lunar day.

CHAPTER

III.

RULES FOR RESOLVING QUESTIONS OF TIME, ETC.

The Hindu astronomer has various simple means

more

if

we

name, was homely, but adapted

for

or less effective in regard to accuracy.

might give
furnishing

it

so

dignified a

him with

of observation,

His observatory,

the data on which his calculations were made.

It consisted principally of a levelled horizontal plane, a floor or

chunam, which

terrace of
dry,

is

is

made from

a lime

shells,

and which, when

hard and capable of receiving a polish equal to that of marble*

At a point of the

and a

floor as a centre, a circle is described,

fine

vertical rod of given length is erected at this point, as a stile

Grnomoo, and by means of the length and direction of

on the plane by the Sun,

its

shadow

or

cast

variety of astronomical problems are

'a

solved.

Such problems appear in Chapter

III. of

the Surya Siddhanta

treating of questions relating to time, position of the heavenly bodies

and their

directions.

Rules (1-4) give the method of drawing a meridian

east

and west

On

line

circle is described,

points,

is

and the

on a horizontal plane.

the surface of the stone or

whose length

line,

chunam

and at the centre a

in the

(12) digits:

where the shadows of the

floor, levelled

vertical

with water, a

Gnomon

is

placed

morning and afternoon, the two

Gnomon meet

the circumference,

are marked, from these two points as centres, intersecting arcs are

described; the point of intersection

from

its

form).

line is

centre of the circle, this

meridian
the

line,

line

is

and the

is

called the

Timi (the

fish,

named

then drawn from the Timi through the

is

line

called the north

and south

line,

or

through the centre at right angles to

the east and west

line.

Rules for resolving questions of

Time, &c.

Our works on

231

and astronomy give the same method

of

dialling

drawing a meridian line on a horizontal plane.

Rule

be described on the horizontal

plane,

(5) directs a circle to

with a radius equal to the shadow of the

be described about the

the sides

circle,

Gnomon, and
touching

it

a square to
at

the four

cardinal points.
If the figure represent the circle, with the circumscribed
square,

H the

and

drawn to the

shadow of the Grnomon, a perpendicular

line, in this case before

HB

is

then

noon, and the sun having

a north declination.

shadow and

K, or

Then
its

HB

equal

is

0,

called the
is

Bhuja

(or sine) of the

called the Koti.

According to the position of the end of the shadow, the Bhuja

is

distinguished as being north or south, and the Koti as being east or

west.

The direction of the sun being in the

and

its

vertical plane of the

Grnomon

shadow, the shadow produced backwards, will be the line of

intersection of this vertical plane with the plane of the horizon,

the angle

M,

or

its

measure the arc

of the sun at the

given time,

azimuth.

and

MN

E M,
will

will

and

be the amplitude

be the measure of

its

Hindu Astronomy.

232

Kule
prime

merely states that the three

(6)

vertical,

circles

of the sphere, the

the equinoctial, and the six o'clock circle pass through

the east and west points of the horizon.

(7) This rule directs, that in the circle before described a line is

drawn

to be

parallel to the

line, at a distance

the length of the equinoctial shadow

it

from

it

equal to

then stated, that the

is

distance between the end of the given shadow and the latter line,

is

equal to the sine of amplitude (reduced to the hypotenuse of the

given shadow).

In this rule two important points need explanation,

first,

with

regard to the equinoctial shadow, and the line drawn at a distance

equal to

The

length on the plane, parallel to the east and west

its

definition of the equinoctial

rule (12), as the

at noon,

shadow

when the sun

It is called

cast

is

shadow

is

given afterwards in

upon the meridian

line of a given place

in an equinox.

the Palabha, and

it is

Sun

at

noon makes, with a

angle equal to the latitude.

The length
But

may

for a ray of light

vertical line of

any

= Gnomon X tan

Hindus made use only of

The Palabha
The

from the
place,

an

Hence we have

of the equinoctial shadow

since the

a primary constant, in problems

which involve the latitude of the place

equinoctial

line.

sines

sin
= Gnomon x cos

and

latitude.

cosines,

latitude
latitude

properties of the line drawn parallel to the

E W line in

rule (7),

be thus explained.

Let

NP

horizon,

Z S

represent the meridian of any place,

EQWa

portion of the celestial equator, and

NESW the
Z

the zenith

of the place.

Conceive a plane

through the end

horizon,
line e

the

Aw.

e<\w

parallel to the plane of the equator to pass

of a vertical

intersection

of

Gnomon

G, and to meet the

the two planes will be a straight

Suppose now when the sun

is

in either equinox,

all

Rules for resolving questions of Time, dec

rays

from

it,

in its daily course passing

in the surface of
will

q w, and

Aw,

by

Gr,

and

Gr, will lie

a be any one such ray

will

it

be the shadow

and, throughout the day of the equinox, the ends of

when the equinoctial sun

name

sun

for this position of the

the shadows will be points of

the

through the point

if ^ Gr

meet the horizontal plane in the line of intersection of the two

planes e
cast

the plane

233

is

the line

in the meridian

but

iv,

is

all

A, the shadow

the one which obtains

of the equinoctial shadow.

Secondly.

The

other point of rule (7) needing explanation,

is

the

proposition that the distance between the end of a given shadow

and the line of the equinoctial shadows,

is

equal to the sine of the

amplitude (reduced to the hypotenuse of the given shadow).

In the following figure let the circle as before described on the hori-

beNESW, and MOHE the intersection on the horizon

of a vertical circle
the shadow of the
through the sun at any time, H
Gnomon, and e w the line drawn parallel to the E W line, at a

zontal plane

distance equal to

A, the equinoctial shadow

end of the given shadow, the line

the line

HLT

w, the proposition states that

then,

if

from

H the

be drawn perpendicular to

is

equal to the sine of

he amplitude reduced to the

hypotenuse.

Rule (7) only enunciates

Hindu Astronomy.

234

Rules for resolving questions of Time, &c,

(11) has reference to the

Eule

found in the second chapter, as

computed true place

235

of the sun,

compared with the place found by

observation.

Kule (12) has been before referred to (Kule

as

7)

giving the

definition of the equinoctial shadow, called the Palabha.

In rule (13) the converse problems are proposed

to find from the

equinoctial shadow, the latitude and the co-latitude.

The hypotenuse
Cos

of the

shadow being known, then

equinoctial

and

sin

Where K = 3438, the number of minutes

length
it is

is

x Palabha.

-=

in the arc of a circle

whose

equal to the radius of the circle, as mentioned before (p. 209),

the length of an arc of 57

18',

and

used in modern analysis,

is

and styled the analytical unit.

The

reverse operation gives

.

sin- 1

_
xR

Palabha
r

12R

= cos

= sin.

= WD
~
cos-

The Indian trigonometrical functions

SxR

12-R
8

-r-12

are circular functions, radius

being 3438.

Suppose the shadow at noon to be given at

Rules (14) and (15).

any other time than at the equinox and the sun's declination to be

known ;

to find the latitude it

obvious that the vertical angle of

is

the right-angled triangle of which the

the sides,

is

Gnomon and

its

shadow are

always the angular zenith distance of the direction of

the hypotenuse, and sin z

r?

where S

is

any shadow and

the hypotenuse.

Then, z

The

rule,

moreover,

states, that

zenith distance at noon,

place, or,

= z+d.

= sin

1
.

xi

the sum, or difference of the sun's

and the declination

is

the latitude of the

Hindu Astronomy.

236

Rule (16) deduces the equinoctial shadow, or Palabha, from a

given latitude, and the

Palabha

By

12 sin

VK

and

rules (17-18) the sun's declination

found,

when

sin 2

his longitude are to be

and the latitude of the

his meridian zenith distance

place are given.

From

(15)

= z-

or

lz.

Let S be the place of the sun on the

and the arcs

S, S BandB

T of the

\ ^cb at

ecliptic

any time,

right angled spherical triangle

SB

be the sun's longitude, declination and right ascension respectively.

sin * S
sin S T B.
Then in this triangle we have R sin S B

.*.

Sm

.,

-,

longitude

=R

sin declination
:

sm

obliquity

But the ancient Hindu Astronomers made the obliquity 24, the
sine of

which from their table

Therefore, sin sun's longitude

is

1,397 to radius 3,438 minutes.

3438
1397

(3438

sin

sin sun's declination or

in

the

first

J,

quadrant

of his orbit

180

/3438
sin-

sin

Jin

the second and

third quadrants,

360

sin-

(^ X
V1397

quadrant

sin

) in
/

and
the

fourth

Eule (19) corrects the sun's longitude to his place, as referred to

the

Mesha

of

1st point

or

by substracting the elapsed

Aswini,

precession, from about 570

when the equinox was

A.D.,

at the

mean annual

beginning of that sign or Nacshatra, calculated at a

rate of 54."

The corrected place thus found

called the true place of the sun,

is

from which by a process inverse to that described in the second

chapter, the

mean

place

be found.

to

is

This

is

accomplished by a

an approximate mean place by subtracting

series of steps, first finding

or adding the 1st equation, as in the table of equations

the true place.

or subtracting the

nearer approximation

from or to

then found, by adding

is

equation to or from the approximate

found before, and so on repeatedly

the exact

till

mean

mean

place

is

place

found.

Rule (20). Supposes the latitude of a place and the sun's declination
to be given, to find

the zenith distance at noon, thus

zFrom which

Sin z

Cos z
Rule (21).

Assuming the

given, to find the

triangle,
,

d) and

sin (I

V (e 2

zenith distance at noon to be

sun's

shadow of the Gnomon, and the hypotenuse of the

at

12 sin (/
.\
/7W92
sin 2

noon

V(R
Hypotenuse
Jtf

find his

d) \

(I

having these lines as sides at noon

Shadow

Rule

sin 2

(22).

at

noon

The shadow and the

sin 2

VJR 2

d)

,.

>

,o
12

(I

,,

d)

sin z

cos z

d)\

(t

12

cosz

sun's declination being given, to

amplitude, and the sine of the amplitude reduced.

Sin amplitude

The amplitude here

V%
is

when h

is

the equinoctial hypotenuse.

evidently that of the sun

when

rising.

TT

Sin reduced amplitude

sin sun's

hypotenuse at noon on the given day

amplitude -^-,

being the

Hindu Astronomy.

238

.-.

sin reduced

hK
h

Rule

]2K
cos

,
but at noon
sm d:

-tttt*

amplitude

12
H=
R cos
,,

-fj-

(6

sin

d
-,

(I

d)

Assuming the equinoctial shadow, and the sine of the

(23).

reduced amplitude to be given, to find the Bhuja, the rule gives for
purpose the following cases

=
=

reduced sine of amplitude

North Bhuja when d

is

south

North Bhuja when d

is

north.

Rule (24)

when d

is

states reduced sin

Palabha

south, and every day at noon the

Bhuja

is

Palabha
Palabha

reduced sin amplitude

amplitude

-+-

this

South Bhuja
equal to the

(xnomonic shadow at that time.

The truth of the property enunciated in rule

may

(7),

already referred

to,

be proved by modern trigonometrical methods, the radius being

assumed unity.

Taking the figure before given and described under rule

which

(7),

in

the
represents the intersection 'of the horizon with

vertical circle
passing

then the shadow of a

through the sun at any time, and

Gnomon

of 12 digits, cast on the plane

H to be
:

Rules for resolving questions of Time, &c.

239

HL = ED = SmROI)
1>ATI
HO KO
.

,\

HL=

s sin sun's

Where d = the

easily

nno
cos

tan

cin
v
sin z

\j
I

...

(1)

shown that

sin

the sine of the sun's amplitude

is

it

Again by spherical trigonometry

amplitude

cos z

(2)

= his zenith distance and = the

sun's declination, z

latitude of the place.

But from the right angled triangle of which the Grnomon and
shadow are represented by 12 digits and S, and the hypotenuse
by H.
T,

rule (12)
K
'

J r
trom
and

/ ftA \

!Sin

Now,

if

sun

sin

cos

Palabha
12

COS Z
S
=H
^ and sin =
,

'

,.,

amplitude
1

= H^rS

cos

represent the amplitude,

amplitude

-}-

=z cos z

it

becomes

Palabha
?;

=H

Palabha

or,

*sin

sin
'

= tan

12

of these in equation (2)

we have

sin z
(20),
K
y

substitution

By

/i n\

trom

(3)

when the sun

is

just rising or

on the same day

setting

sin

d
= sin
cos
I

By

substitution in (3)

we have

S X sine amp. at given time

But

in (1)

-sin

amp.

Palabha

= H sin A.

= H L, and Palabha = L T, and their sum

H T = H sin A.

Rule (25) assumes the latitude and sun's declination to be given

then,

when the Sun

shadow

is

is

on the prime

vertical, the

hypotenuse of the

found from

H=
==

12 sin

.----,

sin

sin

d
r-

or

equinoctial shadow

Hindu Astronomy.

240

The

figure being supposed to represent a projection of circles of

the sphere on the meridian,

his place

on the prime

Then

pole.

Z P

or,

PZ

in the spherical triangle

sin

= cos Z

sin

cos

his distance from the

the angle

S,

SP =

where S

cos

PZS

is

S Z cos Z P.

= 90

d,\

SZ

=Z

and

= 90-Z.

But

in the triangle formed

hypotenuse H, cos Z

(1)

H = 12sinsind

(2), also

by the Gnomon,

= 12-tT

I
,

but 12 sin

H = Palabha
sin

cos

less

(3)

its

shadow and the

substituting in (1) and reducing

>

= Palabha

cos

I.

d.

In rule (27), the value of H,

and

the diurnal path of the sun and

Z, and

vertical

right angle, and by Napier's rule

(1)

than

I,

is

found otherwise, when d

is

north

from

H = reduced

Palabha
sin

h.

amplitude at noon

,h x being the hypotenuse

at noon.

But

in rule (22)

it is

sq -5 sin A,

shewn that the reduced amplitude

where

A is

the rising amplitude.

at noon

Rules for resolving questions of Time, &c.

And

sin

H=

Kales (28), (29)

object of

which

is

substituting these in (3)

Palabha
:

a5

sin

w
X

cos

I,

,,
aS
the same as v(2).
J

and (30) are preparatory

to (31)

to find the sun's altitude

when

whose azimuth

circle

sin

cos

is

and
in

(32), the

the vertical

45.

In (28) and (29) the term Karani

is

assumed
sin

144^In (30) the term Phala

is

12

is

a)

72+Palabha 2
assumed

sin

-72+Palabha
In which Palabha

241

the equinoctial shadow and

is

the rising

amplitude of the sun.

In rules (31) and (32), the Kona-Sanku or sine of the sun's altitude

when

his

azimuth

is

45

= V Karani 4- Phala + Phala.

To prove the truth of

this solution, in the figure, let the circle

represent the meridian

HRO the

horizon

and

ZSR

a vertical or azimuthal circle passing through the sun

the angle S

H = 45,

declination circle

= 90

therefore
d.

and

S Z

Z P

--

135, P S the

90-4,

of which
arc of a

being the latitude.

Hindu Astronomy.

242

Then

in the spherical triangle

PZ

S we have, in circular functions,

EcosZ P cosZ S.

CosSZP-sinZS-sinZP=:R 2 cosSP

(1)

[The Indian astronomy has two systems of trigonometry, one

referring their problems to the trigonometry of the sphere, the other

them

referring

are the

which the two

to the right-angled triangle, of

Gnomon and its

sides

shadow, the third side being the corresponding

hypotenuse.]
for these their initials g,

Assuming

transformed so that the sines and cosines

of

r/,

s,

h and R,

equation (1) has to be

h,

s,

may

be expressed in terms

being the assumed radius of the sphere.

In equation (1)

Sin

ZP = cos

I,

cos

Z P

I,

-ij

being the equinoctial shadow.

S Z

Also, cos

=
A

sin

R
=P 'T>

=g R
P

135, cos S

cos

= sin d

R
~V~2

=7T sinA

>

being the sun's rising amplitude.

Substituting these values respectively in equation

(I), it

becomes,

when reduced,

--|LIn which

sin

sin 2

2
Or, since sin

E
(

(lT
-

Or,

2),

=g

=R

A)

-sin2

>

^ sin

2
<7

= g sin A-P

the zenith distance

Squaring equation

is

(2).

required.

we have

sin 2
2

Z S

cos

A+P

cos 2

Z-2 g P

cos 2

sin

cos Z.

= ^- + P

cos 2
)

A)
-1
=cos 2 Z-

2g

'

g*

Z-2 g P
P

sin

p2

sin

A
cos Z.

cos Z.

Rides for resolving questions of Time, &c.

.,_

(?\2

Now let Karani =

.

sin

.
/R
1/M
144
-sin 2
\ 2

a)/

J -DV.
A
AndPhala
1

sin

#!,p

12 t>
P S1Ii
79 + P2
t

Then Karani

cos

Sanku

cos

A
a

2 PhalaXcos Z, a quadratic for cos Z,

+ Phala = (cos Z
Z = V Karani + Phala +
2

consequently Karani

b e i no

/;

+P2

72

^-+P

AA

243

Phala)

Phala=

solution identical with that given in rules

and the Kona-

sin sun's altitude, a

from 28 to 32.

As a corollary the sine of the zenith distance, or

=y R

Drig-jya

Kona-Sanku 2

Gnomon

Eule (33) then states that at the time the shadow of the

and the hypotenuse

=k

the latitude

from

'

j?

= 12

sm a

Proceed to find the sun's altitude at any time

H in

degrees, the declination d, and

are given.

the ascensional difference to be known, which

and d can be easily computed.

And

R + sin D

called the Antya.

is

It is the sine of

the arc measuring the hour from sunrise

Then (Antya-Vers

=K

Kona-Sanku

when the hour angle

Assumes

(34.)

'jy**

=12

Rules (34 to 36).

from noon,

P^

Kona-Sanku

sinZ
sin a

cos

H)-^

and Chheda x

D- VersH)

cos

di

os

is

called

= Sanku

Chheda

=(R + sin

may

be verified and

In the adjoined
figure let

place at

(K + sinD -VersH)

or sin sun's altitude

This result for

finding the sun's altitude

HESN

noon.

K2

explained as follows

till

HQZ

PN

represent the meridian,

the horizon, s the place of the sun

when

any time from noon on the small diurnal

r 2

rising

circle s

S, his

the

Hindu Astronomy,

244

PZ

corresponding degrees in the hour angle S

distance S
latitude

the sun's zenith

Z; d the declination the complement of S P, and

= 90

the

P.

Hence

in the spherical triangle

R
= cos

CosH

cos
I

Also in the right

M = D, the
S E M = 90

cos

d -f-

angled

ascensional
I,

SZP,

tan

tan d

D=

tan

(2)

by addition

r
it
H
Cos

sin

which

is

since cos

tan

cos

Z
r
a

S, in

d and

which

the angle,

tv*

D)J

R2
= cos

cos

cos

= sin of-.,the sun

(2)

....

altitude

a result identical with that derived from Rules (34 to 36).

H=R

By way
sin

H + sin txnCOS^COScZ
D)
^ =
tt

difference

Therefore from (1) and

spherical triangle

and by Napier's rules

sin

or (cos

0)

of corollary the Drig-jya or sin zenith distance

= \/R

Now by

H.

vers

sin

a,

a being the

altitude.

a reverse algebraic operation on the formula

cos

(Antya

vers

H)

cos

R>

= sin a

is

found

Rules for resolving questions of

Time, &c.
as derived in

declination

245

rules (34), (36),

supposing the sun's altitude, with his

and the latitude of the place to be known,

any of the

terms Antya, ascensional difference, the amplitude at

rising, or the

hour angle

may be found

such a method

and (39) by reversing the calculation

(37), (38)

adopted in Kules

is

the purpose of

for

finding H, thus

R sin a
=
CQ1

__

R2
.*.

Vers

,%

.'.

is

= (Antya ,

TT
=
H

H = arc whose

cos

versed sine

is

H)

vers

Antya
J

R 2 Sm

Antya

is

3438,

it is

cos

Antya

cos

cos

II., in

expressed in minutes of arc which are

For the

equivalent to pranas of time.

sidereal

day contains 21,600

and 360 degrees consists of the same number of minutes.

pranas,

calculation

liability of error

is

made by

when

successive steps, because there

a formula

names, than as a whole

distinct
is

versed sin

found from the table of versed sines given in Chapter

which the radius

The

cos d
^lr

Chheda
= R cos
=
j
a

cos

TT

or

sin

at

cos

Chheda

is

is less

taken arithmetically in parts, with

which the relation of the parts

in

not kept distinctly in view.

In

our methods, complex formula) are rendered

solution

by being in the

putation,

when

first

is

then made

sometimes

for calculating the

and his longitude at a given time

sun's declination, d,

lost sight of.

sun's declination

the latitude of the place,

rule (40)

we have
.

Sm

= cos L sin A', =

h,

Also

I,

the

the reduced amplitude A', or the rising ampli-

tude A, being also given.

From

of

instance adapted to logarithmic com-

traces of their origin are

preparation

more easy

Sin sun's longitude

-;

cos

I,

sin

R
^jo

Hindu Astronomy.

246

These are results derived from right angled spherical

easily

shown to be true by means of Napier's

triangles,

rules.

Kule (41) supposes that the end of (he shadow of a

gnomon moves on the

circle.

This

Goladhyhya.
Rules (42

is

an

In

fact,

to

vertical

horizontal plane in the circumference of a

error,

which was refuted by Bhascara in the

the locus of this point

44) would

appear

to

is

a hyperbola.

some

need

preliminary

explanation.

At any place on the equator the sphere of the heavens,

appears to a spectator,
If a projection of

E P Q p, in
E Q, and all

on the meridian be represented by the

is

the parallel diurnal

circles, in

will

The

it

termed a right sphere.

which the horizon

appear to move,
the horizon.

it

is

as

indicated by

P p, the

figure

equator by

which the heavenly bodies

be projected in straight lines at right angles to

first

point of Aries will rise in the East, as

at

supposed in the figure, and the position of the ecliptic will then

appear as a straight line T ,

The

8,

n
,

etc.

diurnal motion of the sphere will be round

poles P, and p, being then in the horizon, and the

P p as
first

an

axis, the

point of each

Rules for resolving questions of Time,

sign will

great

come

when

to the horizon

247

<&c.

rising, at points

n \,
through each of the points 8
meeting the equator
points

M,

equator

P
in

and Q, then the times taken by the three points of the

ecliptic to rise at 0,

If

S.

the sphere be supposed to be drawn from the pole

circles of

M,

and

N and t Q

S, will

be measured by the arcs of the

which are equivalent to the right ascensions

of the three points, expressed in

time

and

M,

M N and N Q will

be the times taken successively for the rising of each sign and they
are

called

the rising periods of the signs

The

at the equator.

ascensions in a right sphere.

Rule (42) has

for its object the

of the extremities

determination of the right ascensions

of the first three

expressed in words, equivalent to the

D
2n
Sin 2R
.

To apply

signs

Cos 24. sin

~
^
Cos d

corresponding to longitudes of 30, 60

it is

L
of the right

and 90

three signs from the vernal equinox, the

by rule

ecliptic

formula

this rule to the calculation

declination of each point

the

at

first

(40).

ascensions,

of the ends of the

step

to calculate the

is

In Hindu commentaries

these are given respectively as

11

43',

20

38'

and 24.

For these arcs the cosines are then found to radius 3438' and are
3217' and 3141', which, with sines

3366',

of the

corresponding

in the rule,
longitudes found from the table of sines, are substituted
or the

above formula, by means of which the required right ascensions

of the three ends are

found to be

1670',

27

The

3465' and 5400' or

50', 57

45' and

90

differences of the three right ascensions, namely,

1670', 1795', and 1935', in arc

are equivalents of the

same number of pranas reckoned in

sidereal

time.

They

are the rising periods, or ascensions, of the

successively, in a right sphere.

first

three signs,

Hindu Astronomy,

248

The same numbers

in a reverse order 1935,

1795 and 1670, are

the rising periods of the next three signs, and the periods of the

remaining
of the

six signs

have the same values

same order

in the

as those

first six.

For

all

places on the earth, the right ascensions of the extremities

of the signs have the

same value

as

on the equator

but the rising

periods of the signs, for places in north or south latitude, are the

times of oblique ascension, in an oblique sphere

whose polar

axis

that

is,

in a sphere

makes an angle with the horizon, equal

to the

latitude of the place.

The

differences between the lengths of days

and nights at places

not on the equator, are, owing to the sun's apparent diural motions
in the small circles of

an oblique sphere.

the equator the days and nights are

equal,

although the arcs of 30 of each sign take different times in

rising.

At

all

places

on

For places between the equator and the

the sun
set

is

is in

is

only when

either equinox, that the day between sun rise and sun

between sun

equal to the night

days, at places in north latitude,

ation, the days are longer
is

arctic circle it

set

and sun

when the sun has

rise.

For other

a northern declin-

than the nights, but when the declination

south, the days are shorter than the nights; and in these cases,

the difference in time between sun rise and six hours from noon

is

called the ascensional difference.

This difference in Hindu Astronomy

is

The

called Chara-Kala.

difference between the period of the rising of a sign in a given

latitude

and that of the same sign

Chara-Khanda of that sign

for

at the equator,

of their ends are to be

by stating

computed

assumed respectively to be D,,

D3

D2

called the

the place.

For finding the rising periods of the

place, rule (43) continues

is

three signs at a given

that, the ascensional differences

for

D2

first

the given place.

and

D3

then

If these be

D n D2 - D p

and

are the Chara-Khandas at the place of the first three signs.

These Chara-Khandas are then to be subtracted from the

rising

Rules for resolving questions of Time,

periods
vill

of the

same three signs

at the equator,

249

Sec.

and the remainders

be the rising periods in Pranas at the given place.

For the next three signs, their Chara-Khandas are added in a

verse order to the corresponding rising periods at the equator,

the sums

The
order,

and

will be the rising periods of these signs at the place.

rising periods of the six signs thus found, taken in an inverse

answer

for

the remaining

To make the subject more

latitude of
differences

six.

easily understood, let us

the place to bo 22

Dn D2

and

The Chara-Khandas

D3

assume the

30" north, then the ascensional

are 297', 541' and 642'.

are,

therefore, 297', 244'

minutes of arc or pranas of time

and

101', either

and the accompanying table

shows the rising periods of the twelve signs at the equator, and at
places

whose latitude

differences, respectively

is

22

30',

together with the ascensional

Hindu Astronomy.

250

Lagna, or Horoscope; the point just setting

is

the Asta-Lagna; and

the point on the meridian, the culminating point of the

called the

ecliptic, is

Madhyama-Lagna.

The Udaya-Lagna

the point on which depends the casting of

is

a nativity, or the construction of a scheme of the heavens, at the

time of a birth.
It is of

much importance

for finding the

Hindu method

other purposes in the

The operations on which

Nonagesima

point,

and

for

of calculating eclipses.

rules (45), (46)

and (47) of

this,

Third

Chapter of the Surya Siddhanta, depend, are founded upon the

fore-

going rules relating to the rising periods of the signs, at a given place.

From

Rule (45).
time, find

the

longitude ascertained at a given

sun's

the Bhukta and Bhogya times in Pranas.

the numbers of the Bhukta and

which the sun

is

at the time)

divide the product

From

in Pranas,

long as possible,

till

by the rising period of that

sign,

and

the given time in Pranas subtract the

and the rising periods of the next signs

a sign

longer be subtracted

(of the sign in

30.

by

Rules (46), (47).

Bhogya time

Bhogya degrees

Multiply

is

(as

arrived at whose rising period can no

this sign

sign incapable of subtraction).

is

called the

Asuddha sign

or the

Multiply the remainder, that

is

found, by 30, and divide the product by the Asuddha rising period

add the quotient, in degrees, to the preceding signs reckoned from

Aries.

The

result will be the place of the horoscope at the eastern

horizon.
If the time at the

end of which the horoscope

is

to be found be

time and the

given before sunrise, then take the Bhukta
periods of the signs preceding that which
in a contrary order

is

rising,

occupied by the sun,

from the given time.

the
Multiply the remainder by 30, and divide the product by

Asuddha

rising

period.

Subtract the quotient in degrees fromj

the signs; the remainder will be the place of the horoscope at the
eastern horizon.

Rules for resolving questions of Time, dc.

'he following is

251

an example of the method of calculating the

horoscope in accordance with these rules

Suppose the latitude of the place to be 22

30',

which

about

is

5'

south of the ancient city of Dhar, in Malwa, and 41' south of Ojein,
for

one of which places the table of the risings of the signs given

may have been

above

intended

and

the sun's place at a given

let

time, say 5 hours 15 minutes reckoned from sunrise, be eight signs

20, supposed to be calculated from

for

Chapter

tables, or rules of the

Second

the given day and hour.

Then, his place would be 20 in the sign Sagittarius, and would

two to one.

divide that sign in the proportion of

named

in the rules the

Bhukta and Bhogya degrees, and the

period of Sagittarius, from the table

in the proportion of

two

These parts are

is

rising

2038 Pranas, which, divided,

to one, gives 1,358-f Pranas

and 679^ Pranas

the Bhukta and Bhogya times.

Now

the given time from sunrise being 5 hours 15 minutes, or

18,900 seconds, and expressed in Indian form,

we have
Pranas.

The given time from sunrise

Subtracting from this the

Bhogya time

The remainder becomes the time when the

first

=
=

. .

Capricorn

Again, subtracting from this remainder the rising period

of Capricorn
.
.
.

We

have time since the rising of

first

Then subtracting the rising period of Aquarius.

Or the time since the

But the

of Pisces rose

1,836

Pisces, therefore, in this case has the

2,109f
1,549

560f

from the

name

of the

sign.

To determine the proportional part of the sign

Kising period of Pisces
,'.

4,045|

rising period of Pisces cannot be subtracted

above remainder

Asuddha

first

679-j

=
=

..

Aquarius

4,725

560f

*.

30

itself,

we have

proportional part.

proportional part of Pisces above the horizon

560-

TofiXZ

Hindu Astronomy.

252

Or the Lagna

is

12

15'

from the beginning of Pisces, or

1"

45' from the Equinox.

17

The

from the Lagna, or Horoscope, was of great

calculation

importance

in

the

Hindu theory

of a solar eclipse;

it

was used

also in

the rules of computing the conjunctions of planets, and in those of

their heliacal risings

and

It is also obvious that the

settings.

agesimal point of the ecliptic, which

on that
is

from the point of

circle

at once found

it

is

at a distance of

which

when the Lagna

nonagesimal point,

is

is

The Azimuth

horizon,

of the

likewise found at once from the amplitude of the

Lagna, by the addition or subtraction of 90

all

90, measured

the momentary horoscope,

known.

is

non-

measured on the

involving less labour than the more complex rules given

in our works

on Astronomy of about 150 years ago.

The time being

given, as assumed in the preceding rules, and the

place of the sun being found for that time, rule (48) indicates the

method

of finding the

then on the meridian,

Madhya-Lagna, or the point of the

i.e.,

ecliptic

the point commonly called the culminating

point of the ecliptic.

First, the

in

hour angle from noon

is

to be found

and

its

equivalent

Pranas of equatorial time; and the rising periods of the signs,

with their Bhukta and Bhogya time, corresponding to this horary

angle, are to be estimated

the horoscope.

Then the

by a method

indicated by this estimated time,

sun, or subtracted from

after noon.

The

object

is

is

employed

for

is

to be

as the case

added to the place of the

may

be, for times before or

result of this process gives the place of the cul-

minating point of the

Rule (49)

it,

similar to that

arc of the ecliptic in signs, degrees, etc.,

ecliptic.

a converse rule to that for finding the Lagna.

to find the

The

time from sunrise, when the place of the horo-

scope and that of the sun are assumed to be known.

The text of the rule is " Find the Bhogya time in Pranas of the
:

less

(longitude), and the

Bhukta times of the

greater,

add together

these times and the rising periods of the intermediate signs

(i.e.,

Rules for resohing questions of Time, &c.

between the two given longitudes, or places

of the

253

sun and the

horoscope) and you will find the time."

Rule

(50) states the various cases that

may

occur in the foregoing

rule.

"

When

the given place of the horoscope

sun, the time will be before sunrise

will

be after sunrise.

And when

is

but when

less

than that of the

it is

greater, the time

the given place of the horoscope

is

of the sun, increased by six signs, the time found

greater than that

from the place of the horoscope and that of the sun added to

six

signs, will be after suuset."

Rule (50) which determines the time

of the sun,

and that of any point of the

for sunrise

(when the place

ecliptic just

rising on the

eastern horizon, are both given), reckoned from either equinox,

is

in

a great measure applicable to the risings of the five planets, whose

latitudes are generally small,

degree of longitude.

and which may have their places

at

any

CHAPTER

IV.

ON THE HINDU METHOD OF CALCULATING THE OCCURRENCE OF

THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON.

The day on which a Lunar

Eclipse will happen

comparing the places (or longitudes) of the

moon and

day of the moon's opposition with the sun, when

and

eclipse will take place,

the

if at

moment

moon and

difference of the longitudes of the

to be found

is

by

her node on the

presumed the

it is

of the opposition the

her node be within about

!\ degrees, there will be an eclipse.

In Chapter IV. the sun's mean diameter is assumed

and the moon's mean diameter

On

is

assumed

6,500 Yojanas,

480 Yojanas.

account of the variable distances of the sun and the moon, their

apparent diameters are greater when near than when more remote,

and a correction

is

applied on the hypothesis that the

magnitudes vary with the daily motions, which

apparent

also are in the inverse

ratio of the distances.

The mean

daily motions of the sun

dividing the revolutions

number

of days in the

and the moon are found by

made by each

in a

Maha-Yuga by

same Yuga, taken from Table

I.

the

of Chapter

I.

of the Siddhanta.

Thus, the mean daily motion of the sun

reduced to minutes
,

The

he mean

59* 136 16',

i-i
daily

i.-

motion

daily motions of the sun

and
n

r
ot

the

moon

'

"

'
,

this

1,57 /,y 17,o2o

57,753,336
^
1,0/ i,/l /joJo

and moon on the day of the

eclipse

are called their true daily motions

Rule

(2) is

that "

The diameters

their true diurnal motions,

become the Sphuta

of the sun

and moon multiplied by

and divided by the mean diurnal motions,

or rectified diameters."

Lunar

Calculation of

and

If

md moon

be taken to denote the true diurnal motions of the sun

a*

in minutes on the day of the

eclipse, then

The

sun's rectified diameter

The moon's

rectified

**

J*

otrloolo

diameter ==

(3).

"The

revolutions (in a
in that

Yuga,

divided

by that

rectified

and

n
f

Rule

255

Eclipses.

90-56

diameter of the sun multiplied by his

Maha-Yuga; and divided by the moon's

revolutions

by the periphery of the moon's orbit and

or multiplied

of the sun, becomes the diameter of the sun at the

moon's orbit."

Hence, after reduction of the large numbers here employed,

The diameter of the sun

at the moon's orbit

=
number

Yojanas

8-222X"

he circumference of the moon's orbit

Yojanas, and the

is

reckoned to be 324,000

of minutes of arc in the

same circum-

Therefore, 15 Yojanas correspond with one

ference being 21,600.

minute of arc, and the above diameter of the sun, divided by

The apparent diameter of the

/.

sun's disc in

The mean apparent diameter of the sun's disc

= -548X3x59-13616
The

rectified

15, gives

-54813X

minutes

disc in

480 X

J"

--04048X/790-56X15 "early

And the mean apparent diameter

of the disc
of the moon

..

For the diameter of a section of the earth's shadow at the moon

"

found by rules (4) and

(5).

ff

32*3943' nearly.

diameter of the moon, divided by 15, gives

The apparent diameter of the moon's

minutes of arc

is

Multiply the true diurnal motion of

moon by the earth's diameter, and divide the product by her

mean diurnal motion the quantity obtained is called the Suchi."

the

The
/.

earth's

diameter

The Suchi

is

estimated to be 1600 Yojanas.

^qq

Yojanas

2-024

M nearly.

256

Hindu Astronomy.

The calculation then

proceeds, in rule (4): "Multiply the difference

between the earth's diameter and the

rectified

diameter of the sun,

by the mean diameter of the moon, and divide the product by that
of the sun.''

The operation

indicated by

is

6500 x

This amount

remainder

)6500

v
lo J anaS
.

then to be subtracted from the Suchi, and

is

moon

the earth's shadow at the

is

1600

480

1fiAn
160

i-5M36^-

"

6500 X a
1^136161

-790^56-

"

in

irnA
16

Yojanas

480 v
Y
6500

the

^^
.

and dividing by 15 to convert the Yojanas to minutes:

The diameter

of the earth's

becomes

we make

If

shadow at the moon

u

106*

=5^
790-56
=

790*56' and

in

minutes of Arc,

32

A
X

+ 7f
v^,
59-136

59*136', the

mean motions

of

the sun and moon.

The mean diameter

Rule

When

of the earth's

shadow reduces to

82 minutes nearly.

106 T%

"

earth's

(6).

The

7-S-

32

shadow

the place of the moon's node

there will

be an

always six signs from the sun.

is

is

when the node

eclipse, or,

puted

(7), (8).

for the

The longitudes

is

of the sun

midnight preceding, or

some degrees within,

same thing

or beyond, the place of the shadow, the

Rules

equal to that of the shadow,

will

take place."

and moon being com-

after conjuncton or opposition,

proportional parts are to be applied for the changes of their places

in the interval between.

Rule

'*

(9).

The moon being

the sun in a solar eclipse

like a cloud in a lower sphere, covers

but in a lunar eclipse the

moon moving

eastward enters the earth's shadow, and the shadow obscures her
disc."

To

find the

coverer,

moon

magnitude of an

d the diameter

at the

eclipse

Let

be the diameter of the

of the body eclipsed, * the latitude of the

time of Syzygy.

Lunar

Calculation of

The quantity

Kales (10), (11).

will

be

J (D

body undergoing

of the eclipsed part of the di

X-

d)

If this quantity

27

Eclipses.

be greater than the diameter of the disc of the

eclipse,

the eclipse will be total

otherwise,

it wil)

only be partial.

But there

will

be no eclipse

if X is

D +

greater than

Kule (12.) " Find the halves, separately, of the

of the diameters of that

which

is

sum and

difference

and that which

to be covered

the

is

coverer.

" Subtract the

square of the moon's latitude from the squares of
the half

sum and the

half difference

and take the square roots of the

results."

Rule (13.) " These roots, multiplied by 60 and divided by the

moon from

diurnal motion of the

half duration of the eclipse

of the total darkness, in
If these be

and the Mard-ardha, the half duration

Ghatikas (respectively)."

denoted by S and

moon from the sun by

mu
a
Then S

the sun, give the Sthity-ardha, the

and the daily separation of the

I,

A //D + cft
T x V [-J-J - X

60

M= TXV(^j
To

illustrate

Let the line

MN

~x

.
2

and

the method of calculation by a figure

H^ E

represent a portion of the ecliptic, and

a part of the moon's path interesting the ecliptic

ascending node N.

in

M,
the

Hindu Astronomy.

278

If

and

be supposed to be the centres of the earth's shadow,

and of the moon, at the instant of opposition, that

is,

at the time of

M will represent the latitude of the moon, at

that time (which may be denoted by T), and E M will be = x
Again, let H and M be the places respectively of the centres of

the

moon, then

full

the shadow, and of the moon, at the beginning of the eclipse, or the

moment

of the

first

H is the difference of
first

Hj His found

arc

latitude,

triangle

to

remain

Hj

moon.

approximately by assuming the moon's

for a short

time unchanged and that

in the

M ME
1

M
But

the shadow, then

the moon's longitude from her place at the

contact, and her place at full

The

moon with

contact of the

orHH, =

E^EM^MM,

I>

M= x

4A E

Y//D + d\
(

and

3
,

M M=H H nearly,
1

2
,

but

being the assumed daily relative

motion of the sun and the moon and

eclipse

S t __
60

HH

S, the half duration of the

orS=-xVmFrom

the daily motions of the sun, the

moon and

the node,

proportional parts of their longitudes are to be computed for changes

in them, during the time

from the places found

opposition, but

these are to be applied by subtraction

for the

by addition

Then by means

sun and moon at the time of the

to the place of the

the moon's latitude

is

to be computed,

and

the above formula a nearer approximation

The

process

same in each

is

node

of the corrected places of the

this

is

at that time.

moon and

her node,

being substituted in

obtained for S.

to be repeated until the value obtained for

repetition.

This value of S

is

called the exact first

Sthityardha.

is

the

Calculation of

To

Lunar

279

Eclipses.

find the second Sthity-ardha, or that for the

end of the

the proportional changes in the places of the sun and

moon

eclipse,

now

are

to be added to their place at the opposition, but the

change in the

moon's node

place of the

is

to be

added to the place

the

at

opposition.

From

these corrected places, the moon's latitude

for * in the

computed and substituted

is

again to be

above formula, for a nearer

value of S, at the last contact.

The same
Sthity-ardha

process

Rule

first

The middle

(16).

2nd S

is

(17).

is

of the lunar eclipse

is

leckoned to occur

moon.

If this time be denoted

1st

and second Mard-ardhas are determined

calculations.

at the time of the full

the exact second

until

found.

is

In like manner, the

by repeated

be repeated

to

is

by T, then

the time of the

first

contact with the shadow and

T+

the time of the end of the eclipse, also

1st

and end of the

M and T +

2nd

of the beginning

total darkness.

To determine the amount

of obscuration at a given time during

the continuance of an eclipse

The quantity
of the eclipse,

M are the times

of the eclipsed part gradually increases to the middle

aud

it is

determined at any moment, by the time

elapsed from the beginning, or

first

contact,

which may here be

denoted by m.

A proportional part of the variation in

in minutes of arc for the time

longitude

m, S

as

is

to be

computed

before being the

1st

Sthity-ardha, or half the duration.

If the relative daily

motion in longitude be denoted by

difference in longitude at the

moment, from that

the eclipse would be in minutes of arc

=
s

4(S-m)

at the

I,

the

middle of

Hindu Astronomy.

280
This difference

is

called the Koti

angled triangle of which the base

hypothenuse

is

the perpendicular of a right

is

the moon's latitude, and the

the distance in arc between the centres of the

and the earths shadow in the lunar

of the

moon and
The

Rule

the sun in the case of a solar eclipse.

eclipsed part in minutes

(21).

eclipse,

moon

and between the centres

similar

method

= D +- d

2
\/ Koti

is

*2

for calculating the

employed

eclipsed part at a given time between the middle of the eclipse an;l

the end, in which case the second Sthity-ardha is used for finding the

Koti or perpendicular of the right angled triangle.

Rules (22
tion

is

In these rules the converse of the above proposi-

23).

propounded.

The quantity
minutes of

of the eclipsed part

arc, for

supposed to be given in

is

which the corresponding time in Grhatikas

found by a method similar to that in rule (13)

repeated when a nearer approximation
If

is

is

to be

the process being

desired.

denotes the minutes of arc of the eclipsed part of a lunar

then

eclipse,

Koti

and in a

The Koti=

From

=V(^* -)'-

solar eclipse

rent Sthity

Pf
Mean

the Koti the time

Sthity
is

v //D+j
\ 2

__

V_

x,

found in Grhaticas, as in the method of

finding the Sthity-ardha.

ON THE VALANAS.
It is

remarked in the Surya Siddhanta that the phases of an

eclipse

cannot be exactly understood without their projection, and the Hindu

method

of projection

is

explained in Chapter VI.

Here, however, two rules (24 and 25) are given for finding what
are termed the Valanas, two angles whose

sum

or difference consti-

tutes the so-called rectified Valana, or " variation of the ecliptic."

Calculation of

As an entire

variation, it

is

Lunar

equal to the angle between a circle of

latitude through the place of a

body on the

of position through the same place

denned

281

Eclipses.

as the great circle, passing

ecliptic,

and the

circle

the circle of position being

through a planet, and through

the north and south points of the horizon.

To

find the Valanas

by

" Rules
(24 and 25).

Find the zenith distance of the

position passing through the body, multiply its sine

circle of

by the

the latitude of the place, and divide the product by the radius.
the arc whose sine

equal to the quotient

is

this arc are called the degrees of the

sine of

Find

the degrees contained in

Aksha, or latitudinal Valana

they are north or south, according as the body

is

in the eastern or

western hemisphere of the place.

" From the
(25.)
place of the body, increased by three signs, find
the variation (which

sum

is

called

Ayana

or solstitial Valana).

or difference of the degrees of this variation

latitudinal Valana,

when those

names

is

the result

are of the

called the

Sphuta

Find the

and those of the

same name or of contrary

or true Valana.

" The sine of

the true Valana, divided by 70, gives the Valana
in digits."

In order to explain the above two

rules, let

RZPN represent the

Hi Mh

--.

-".--"--.

:'

r.

-:- z-:-i. F :7t

::

:'

:::'-

r-

_-i:r.

:::-.:. >"

EX. Z H E the pome TertkaL

the north point of the horizon

-

tto_t

**

7.

-_r

':

:: *:e

"

-:

Lr.i-n.

-f

;";:.

--

.v::: :7r:zi^b.

X aod fi of the bornon.

-

of

dure

tike ecliptic

Va&na

is

to determine the position of a

^oald appear to an ohneti ei at

'

Now

K br

if

.:

:wa\ of the pole of the eeJiptie at the

:_

time of

small are

Sc
:

he
the angle

will

be at right angles to

and the
eirele

rectified

of latitude

S K,

the circle of latitude

Yakna would he the angle

S K and the circle of

position

KSK
S X,

or

K^\.

In the text we hare the Sin

In which

here

is

diurnal path, on the

Secondly.
-"

:'::-

to he

day of the

For the Ayana Tafaona the rale only directs it to be

::
:ir~
-'.is
..__
.:
:j_s
::.:':;;

iii^

Calculation of

[n

the spherical triangle

K the measure

np

We

have in the

Solstitial

In which cos

PSK.

of the obliquity

is

cl,

Valana

sin (90

is

L)
d

called the

Ayana,

is

is

the

sine of the angle

24

is

by R, the radius

the arc d.

obviously the same as that which

by astronomers the angle of

Thus,

it will

position.

be seen that the rules (24) and (25) deal only with the

ascertaining of the angles

known

as the Valana,

of projecting the line of the ecliptic

eclipsed.

sin

as before, is represented in the text

called

means

PS

cos

of the diurnal circle, whose declination

The angle

reckoned to be 24,

K P = L + 90.
spherical triangle K S P, the

Sine Ayana or
'

283

Eclipses.

and the angle S

co-declination,
.*.

Lunar

which angles give

upon the disc of the body

CHAPTER

V.

ON THE CALCULATION OF A SOLAR ECLIPSE.

been seen already

It has

third

Chapter),

the end of the description of the

(at

how the Hindus by means

of the

rising

signs,

determined the place of the horoscope or the point of the Ecliptic

just rising, at

any time, in the Eastern horizon

the point called by

and how, by similar means, they

the Hindus the Udaya Lagna

found the culminating point of the Ecliptic.

To reckon 90 along the Ecliptic, from the point of it just rising,

became also an easy method of finding the point which among
modern astronomers goes by the name of the nonagesimal.
This point on the occasion of a solar eclipse was of importance in
its

connection with parallax.

Verse

I.,

longitude,

Chapter V., begins by stating that there

when the

mal, and that

is

latitude of the place

the nonagesimal

of

nonagesimal point

no parallax in

sun's place is equal to the place of the nonagesi-

when the north

north declination

is

point (that

is

equal to the
is

when the

in the zenith of the place) there will be

no

parallax in latitude.

Rules are then laid down, as a preparation for calculating the

parallaxes both of the latitude

and the longitude when the place of

a planet has different positions,

i.e.,

when the sun

is

to the east or

west of the nonagesimal.

By

rule (3) the amplitude of the horoscope

The

sine of

determined.

place of the horoscope, at the instant of the conjunction

reckoned from sunrise,

The

is

is

to be found by

means of the

24, the

rising periods.

is

then multiplied by the

sun's greatest declination,

and the product divided

sine of the longitude of this point

by the cosine of the

latitude of the place.

Calculation of Solar Eclipses.

The

result is the

285

Udaya, or the sine of the amplitude of the

loroscope, thus

Udaya

sine

L
cos

24

sin
I

being the longitude of the Lagna or horoscope, and

>f

the place.

The

(4).

to

the latitude

place of the culminating point of the ecliptic

is

then

be found by means of the rising periods of the signs, and from the

longitude of that point

denoted by

d,

its

declination

be calculated

to

is

and the latitude of the place by

Then

I.

let it

is

be

the

meridian zenith distance of the culminating or middle point.

(5)

and the sine of the zenith distance

Madhyajaya, the sine of the middle point

To

illustrate

KMZP
horizon,

and

sin

QEC that

of the equator,

REO

called the

is

d)

some of the terms here used

represent the meridian,

(I

in the

rules

Let

the projection of the

the east point,

the zenith

the pole of the

equinoctial.

Z
P

Also let t

MNL

middle point,

its

=fZ}r

represent the ecliptic,

lagna or rising point,

zenith or the nonagesimal,

its

culminating or

the point nearest the

the pole of the ecliptic, and

the vertical circle passing through N.

HNZK

Hindu Astronomy.

286

Hence

being assumed as the vernal equinox,

the longitude of the culminating point, t

and

quadrant, and

if

that

the angle

LH

LN

Z,

equal to

is

R H and E L

and therefore

ER

which

common

is

arc

also

also a

H E be

are equal.

represents the amplitude of the rising point, the sine of

which, or the

Now

will represent

that of the nonasgesimal

from each of these equals the

taken, the remaining arcs

EL

from the figure since

H represent quadrants

But

of the horoscope or rising point.

It is obvious

Udaya

RZ

H, or

is

found by rule

(3),

and the arc

RH

measures

M Z N.
MZN,

in the right angled spherical

triangle

Sin

MN=

SM^
K

S in

MZN

or substituting from rules (3) and

(5)

Sin

M N = M adhyajaya X
_

sin

(ld) X

R
Rule

(o).

Udaya

The zenith

distance

1ST

sin

cos

24.

sin

Z and

the altitude

NH

of the

nonagesimal point, are found approximately from their sines, that

of the zenith distance of

being called the Drikshepa, that of the

altitude Driggati.

To

find the Drikshepa, " Multiply the

divide the product by the radius

Madhyajya by the Udaya,

and square the quotient.

Subtract

the square from the square of the Madhyajya ; the square root of
the remainder

is

(nearly equal to) the Drikshepa, or the sine of the

zenith distance of the nonagesimal, or the sine of the latitude of

the zenith."

For the Driggati, " The square root of the difference between the
squares of the Drikshepa and the radius

is

the sine of the altitude

of the nonagesimal.

"

The

sine

and cosine of the zenith distance of the culminating

point are reckoned the rough Drikshepa and Driggati respectively."

Calculation of Solar Eclipses.

The

287

rule for the zenith distance of the

nonagesimal is obviously

derived from the right angled spherical triangle

by considering the sines of

its sides as if

M Z N of the figure,

they were sides of a plane

right angled triangle, thus

N = V sin Z M-sin M ff
of Z M and M N have been detailed
Sin

In which sines

above.

PARALLAX.

The moon's
involves a

parallax in longitude, on the occasion of a Solar Eclipse,

of complex

series

calculations,

which

for convenience,

are divided into steps.

The

true time of conjunction of the sun and

moon

differs

from the

apparent time by the relative parallax of the sun and the

moon

expressed as time.

Hindu astronomers estimate the moon's

^ of the mean daily motion in her

But the moon's

daily motion

is

horizontal parallax to be

orbit.

13

10' 46'7,

which divided by

15 gives 52' 42" as her horizontal parallax.

On

the

same hypothesis they reckoned the

parallax to be 3' 56"

The equivalent

and the

sun's

horizontal

relative horizontal parallax to be 48' 46".

of this in time was estimated to be 4 Ofhatikas, the

fifteenth part of a day.

Kule

(7).

The

first

step

_ (sin 30)2

Driggati

is

to

compute a

Chheda

R2
4 sine altitude of nonagesimal

If the difference of longitudes of the

be denoted by D, then rule

divisor called the

(8),

the sun, expressed in Grhatikas,

nonagesimal and of the sun

the moon's parallax in longitude from

D
Chheda'

This will be a

first

approximation to the relative parallax in time,

and the continuation of the process

Rule

(9).

will

be understood from the text.

" Subtract the

from the
parallax in time (just found)

Hindu Astronomy.

288

end of the true time of conjunction,

that of the nonagesimal

but

if

the place of the sun be beyond

be within add the parallax.

if it

" At the
applied time of conjunction, find again the parallax in
time, and with

it

apply the end of the true time of conjunction, and

repeat the same process of calculation until you have the same
parallax,

The

and the applied time of conjunction in every repetition.

parallax lastly found

of the conjunction

The

is

is

the exact parallax in time and the time

the middle of the solar eclipse."

relative parallax in latitude of the

from rule

moon from the sun

is

found

Multiply the Drikshepa (sine of zenith distance of

(10).

nonagesimal) by the relative daily motion of the sun and moon, and
divide the product

Eelative

parallax

nonagesimal, or
,.

t,

by 15 times the

"
(12).

latitude

Thus,

^
484-

zenith distance of

sin

(1 1),
..

Parallax in latitude

Kule

in

radius.

r = sin zenith distance of nonagesimal

s
= Drikshepa
==

The amount

according as the nonagesimal

of the parallax found

is

is

north or south,

north or south of the zenith.

the amount to the moon's latitude,

but, if of contrary names, subtract

if
it.

(The

result

is

Add

same name

they are of the

the apparent

latitude of the moon.)"

The apparent time

of conjunction having been found,

by applying

the parallax in longitude, expressed as time, to the computed true

time of conjunction, as indicated in rule

(9)

and

for this

apparent

time the moon's apparent latitude having been calculated, according

to rule (10),

by applying the

parallax in latitude to the true latitude,

the method of procedure afterwards differs

in Chapter IV.

Rule

moon,

(13).

on lunar

little

from that employed

eclipses.

" In the solar

eclipse, with the apparent latitude of the

find the Sthity-ardha (or half

duration) the

the total darkness),

Valana

etc.,

(or deviation of

at assigned times, etc."

Mard-ardha

(or half

of the eclipse, as before mentioned; also the

the

ecliptic),

the eclipsed portions of the disc

Calculation of /Solar Eclipses.

'he first

289

approximations to the times of beginning and ending,

etc.,

been computed, the process of finding the effects of

parallax
renewed where necessary for each of such times, as detailed in

laving
is

rules (14, 15, 16

into time)

by

and 17). " Find the parallaxes

in longitude
(converted

repeated calculation at the b3ginning of the eclipse,

found by subtracting the

first

Sthity-ardha (just found) from the

time of conjunction, and at the end, found by adding the second

Sthity-ardha.
" If the sun be east of the
nonagesimal,

and the parallax

beginning be greater, and that at the end be

middle
less,

or if the sun be west,

less

and the parallax

at the

than that at the

at the

beginning be
and that at the end be greater than the parallax at the middle,
;

add the difference between the parallaxes at the beginning and middle,
or at the

end and the middle

to the first or the second

Sthity-ardha

(above found); otherwise, subtract the difference.

" It is then when the sun is east or west of the
nonagesimal at the

times both of the beginning and the middle, or of the middle and
the end, otherwise add the

beginning and

sum

middle, or of the

of the parallaxes (at the time of the

end and the middle) to the

first

or

the second Sthity-ardha.

"

(Thus you have the apparent Sthity-ardhas, and from these the

times of the beginning and the end of the eclipses of the sun.)
" In the

same manner find the apparent Mard-ardha (and the times

of the beginning
of the sun)."

and end

of the total darkness in the total eclipses

CHAPTER

VI.

ON TOE PROJECTION OF SOLAR AND LUNAR

The

object of a projection

disc of the

is

to shew,

by a

ECLIPSES.

figure, the points

on the

body to be eclipsed at which the obscuration begins or

ends, &c.

In the beginning of the VI. Chapter of the Surya Siddhanta,

it is

stated that the phases of an eclipse cannot be exactly understood

without a knowledge of their projection.

In a lunar

eclipse, the

In a

moon's eastern side becomes

and the western

in the shadow,

solar eclipse, the

and the eastern

first

immersed

side is the part that emerges.

western side of the sun's disc

side is the part last relieved

is first

obscured,

from the body of the

moon.
It

of importance in a projection to

is

know the

position of the line

which would represent on the disc of the body to be eclipsed, the

apparent direction of the ecliptic, or the direction in which the sun
is

moving.
This direction

is

by means of the

fixed with reference to the place of

rectified

or true

an observer,

Valana deduced in rule (25),

Chapter IV.

The

circle in

Eule

"
(2).

floor, levelled

which the Valana is to be marked

Having marked

at first a point

is

thus described

on the (chunam)

with water, describe on the point as centre, a circle

with radius equal to 49 digits."

The

scale of projection is

thus the same as that of the Gnomon, of

12 angulas or digits, in which the shadows cast by rays from the sun

and moon, and the fainter rays from the other

estimated.

celestial bodies

were

On

the projection of

The radius assumed

ordinary

Hindu
equal

Gnomon,

in the first circle

of 12 digits.

is

Eclipses.

little

291

over four times the

It is connected with the hypothetical

radius 3,438 minutes of arc, by

supposing the two radii to be

consequently, the digit adopted would be equal to nearly

minutes of

70^-

and Lunar

Solar

arc, of

the same

It

circle.

was assumed to be 70

integral minutes.

The elements

of an eclipse such as the moon's latitude, diameter,

the Valana, eclipsed parts,

arc,

&c, which were expressed

were reduced and converted into

digits,

when

in minutes of

desirable,

by simply

dividing the minutes by 70.

But angulas

or digits are of uncertain

magnitude, they are of

various dimensions in different books.

If

we assume the ordinary

digit to

of an inch, the radius of the

first

have been about three quarters

circle

would have been about 37

inches.

Kule (3) directs a second

circle to

with a radius equal to half the

and

sum

of the coverer

and the covered

also a third circle with a radius equal to the semi-diameter of

that which

is

to be covered.

In a lunar eclipse, the coverer

at a

be described on the same centre

mean

distance of the

is

the earth's shadow, tne diameter

moon subtending an

angle estimated at

about 82 minutes, and the body to be covered, the moon, the

diameter of whose disc at

the

mean

distance

was estimated to

subtend an angle of about 32 minutes, or

+d=
_
9

and
Thus,
of the
6 of

if

57'

16'

the radii were taken on the same scale with the radius

first circle,

the radius of the second

circle,

an inch and that of the third about

It is therefore obvious that for practical

would have been only

of a digit or

-J-

of an inch.

purposes the radii of the

second and third circles must have been drawn on a different scale

Hindu Astronomy.

292

from that of the

laying

down

first,

and that the

the angle of the

direction of the ecliptic

first

Valana,

made with the

circle

was merely used

the angle

or

east

and west

for

which the
line of the

projection.

The
must

description of the

method

necessarily be defective

of projection in general

terms,

for projection cannot dispense with

computations and these imply numerical data for the day on which

an eclipse

is

expected to take place.

For example, the longitudes of the sun, the moon and moon's
nodes, and their true daily motions have to be ascertained for the
time, the latitudes of the

moon

for the

computed times of the

beginning, middle and end of the eclipse, quantities which change in

value and position by the progress of the

moon

in

which

it

may

cross the ecliptic during the obscuration.

If the three dark lined circles in the adjoined figure be supposed

On

Solar and Lunar Eclipses.

having

common

as a

S and

centre, which

moon, whose

;entre of the

E W are

drawn

is

here assumed to be the

disc is represented

by the third

circle.

and south and east and west

as north

lines,

mentioned in beginning of the third chapter.

Then, two

equal to the

These

Valana.

M V and M V are drawn, making

lines

WMV

and

The moon's

latitude

the eclipse, or

first

If

rectified

Here they

is

intersect the second

to be found for the

computed beginning

contact of the moon's disc with the

LV

is

to be

drawn from

in the second

equal to the minutes of arc in the sine of the moon's latitude.

now from L

as a centre with a radius equal to the minutes in

touch the third circle on the moon's disc in some point

the point of

iiid

first

contact.

If in like

second

minutes in

circle,

its sine, as

for the

which

will

computed

mch the

circle

L'.V from

a perpendicular

in

then from L' as a centre with a radius equal to the

jmi-diameter of the earth's shadow,

rill

manner

it will

of the eclipse, the moon's latitude again be found, and laid by

Leans of the
ie

of

earth's

semi-diameter of the earth's shadow a circle be described,

:he

MV

and V.

shadow, and a perpendicular

circle

represent the position of the ecliptic at the

lines

the two points

circle in

angles

computed angle named the

>eginning and end of the eclipse.

)e

293

represent those projected in accordance with rules (2) and (3)

to

is

the projection of

if

a circle be described

it

will

representing the moon's disc in some point C, which

be the point of last contact, at the end of the eclipse.

For the middle of the eclipse at the time of the opposition, the
Valana

is

to be

south line

marked from near one of the ends of the north and

there

is

considerable obscurity in the

drawing the line making an angle with

This line

by

HM

when its

and

laid

to be at

the instant of the

upon

ecliptic, will

is

here represented

right angles to the position of the

full

this line (as I

for

S equal to the Valana.

position has been correctly drawn,

and supposed

ecliptic at

directions

moon.

The moon's

suppose), then

I,

latitude

is

found

a point on the

be the place of the earth's shadow at the time

and

if

Hindu Astronomy.

294
from
to

this point as a centre a circle

be described with a radius equal

the semi-diameter of the earth's shadow, the part of the moon's

disc covered

by

it will

may be

be the eclipsed part which

partial or

total.

moon's disc be conceived to be fixed in the projection,

If the

the relative path of the earth's shadow

on

points

the

found by describing the arc

LIL'

of a circle through the three points

projected

is

and

ecliptic,

here understood to be

by

assuming

any other

intermediate point of this arc as a centre, and the semi-diameter of

the shadow as a radius, the circle that would be described would cover
a portion of the moon's disc, which would represent the magnitude of

the eclipsed part corresponding to that point in the progress of

the eclipse.

In a total lunar eclipse, the point of the moon's disc at which the
total darkness

common

begins

centre

M,

is

to be found

by drawing a

shall

fall

some point

upon the path

g,

from the

of a length equal to half the difference of the

diameter of the earth's shadow and of the

end

line

moon

so that its

or

I L' of the centre of the

when produced backwards

this line

will

shadow at

meet the

moon's disc at a point d, at which total darkness begins.

similar line equal to

of the shadow's centre at

some point

when produced backwards

at

which

drawn from

will find

M to

fall

upon the path

towards the end of the eclipse

on the moon's

disc

some point /

total darkness ends.

The method

of projecting a lunar eclipse

is

variations, in the projections of a solar eclipse

adopted, with some

;

the computations

being for the apparent places of the sun and the moon, with the
parallax applied to them, at times near the conjunction, on the day

when a

solar eclipse is

In this case the arc

expected to take place.

I 1/ in the figure, with necessary changes

in position, etc., would represent the relative path of the moon'e

centre, the sun's

disc being then

considered to be fixed, at the

On

the projection of

centre of projection, with

rule (3).

The

its

Solar

and Lunar

radius, that

Eclipses.

of the third

295

circle

of

radius of the second circle would also be changed, the

moon's disc taking the place of the earth's shadow, as the coverer,
the radius of the second circle of the projection would be half the

sum

of the diameter of the discs of the sun and the moon.

t 2

CHAPTER

VII.

ON CONJUNCTIONS GF THE PLANETS CALLED GUAHA-YUTI.

Chapter VII. deals with conjunctions of the planets, which are
called their fight, or association with each other, according to the

degree of light which they emit.

Kule

which the times of conjunction

(2) refers to cases in

may

past or future, in which the planet having the greater velocity

be in advance or behind the other

eastward with a direct motion, or

when the

when one

planets are

or both are

be

may

moving

moving with

a retrograde motion.

Rules (3 and

4).

time

is

assumed, sufficiently near the con-

which each of two planets,

junction,

for short intervals

may

be

considered to be moving uniformly.

Let

/j

and

be the longitudes of two planets

than

m, and

time are

which

respectively, of

is

greater

the case in which the motions of both are direct,

in

C B A

and the interval required

is

in days, or fractions of

a day, the required longitude of conjunction being

Rule

and B, whose

same at a given time, and whose daily motions

latitudes are nearly the

at that

I.

Then

(5).

(**--*i)

m,

and

(h-lj)

ra 2

m,

are called the changes of the planets which are to be added to the

given longitudes

Rule

(6)

if

the conjunction

m,

(L -l^) or

7?i,

m..

is

"

future, in which case

(I

-1$

m,m

=m

l2

-m,

l
}

m,m.

and the interval between the given time and the time of conjunction

m.

On
Rule
planets

conjunctions of the Planets called Graha-Yuti.

Next, when the difference in latitude between the two

(7).
is

297

too great to be neglected.

The lengths

of day and night of the places of the planets are to be

found at the time of conjunction, their latitudes also in minutes, and

their times from noon, and that for the
rising

and setting of each

planet with the horoscope are to be computed.

correction, called Drikkarma,

is

also requisite to be applied to the

longitude of a planet for finding the point of the ecliptic (the

Lagna) which

rises

Udaya

simultaneously with a planet.

This correction consists of two parts, one called the Ayana and the
other the Aksha Drikkarma.

These parts are differently estimated in different books.

Surya Siddhanta to find the Aksha-Drikkarma we are told

Rule

"

In the

to

Multiply the latitude of the planet by the equinoctial

(8).

shadow and divide the product by 12; the quantity obtained being
multiplied by the time in Grhatikas from noon of the planet's place

and divided by half the length of the day of the planets place gives
the correction called the Aksha."

Rule
place

when

north

To

but

This correction

(9).

is

east of the meridian,

it is

"
(10).

subtracted from the planet's

and the latitude of the planet

to be added to the place

find the correction called

Rule

to be

Add

Ayana we are

3 signs to

declination from the sum.

when the

latitude

is

is

south.

told to

the planet's place and find the

Then the number of minutes contained

in the planet's latitude multiplied

by the number of degrees con-

tained in the declination gives in seconds the correction (called the

Ayana-Drikkarma)."

Rule

(11).

The Ayana

correction

is

to be

added to or subtracted

from the planet's place, according as the declination and the planet's
latitude are of the

The
to

rules

same

or different names.

by which these two corrections were made would seem

have undergone considerable change from the original form in

which they were constructed, Bhaskara,

in

the Siddhanta Siromani

Hindu Astronomy,

298

following Brahmegupta, gives rules for finding the difference in the

times of rising of a planet and of the corresponding point of the

ecliptic

which determines the longitude of the planet.

This difference, as an entire correction in time,

horary angles

If these angles be

denoted by

and the latitude of the planet by

the Spashta Sara (the rectified latitude) by

observer's place be

I,

d being put

Sin

cos

K
cos

-,

1>

re-

the latitude called

for declination of the planet

then

Drikkarma correction

X sine Ayana Valana

x
sin *

*,

and

\ and the latitude of the

Bhaskara's rules give for the computation of the

Sin

found from two

which the names Ayana and Aksha Drikkarma

to

corrections are given.

spectively;

is

cos

sine

Aksha Valana.

In which are to be substituted the sines of the two Yalanas which

h ave been already given in the description of them

MZ

in Chapter IV.

On

conjunctions of the Planets called Graha-Yuti.

299

EXPLANATION.
'he nature of these corrections

be explained as follows

may

Let the above figure represent a projection of

the Eastern

circles of

HEN

Hemisphere on the Meridian of the place, Z the zenith,

horizon,

and

COC

its pole,

star,

D E F

north point,

its

the ecliptic, and

will

its east

S and meeting the

point,

S a planet or

the circle

ecliptic in the point 0.

be the point of the ecliptic, which determines the

longitude of the planet at S, and

As represented

its pole.

the diurnal circle through S,

of latitude passing through

Therefore,

the equinoctial,

the

in the figure,

is

will

be

its

latitude (X).

supposed to be in the horizon at

a time after the rising of the planet through the arc

Q S

of the

diurnal circle.

moment

At this
pole

great circles be supposed to be drawn from the

if

of the equinoctial, to pass through the three

PON

and Q, then the angle

P becomes the Ayana

points S,

becomes the Aksha Valana

Valana, and the

sum

and

or difference of these

angles according to the position of the planet S (here taken as a

sum),

the true Yalana.

is

Now

diurnal circle

the horary angle

is

and

have been here denoted by

.

spherical triangle

But

is

P n we

t>

sin

cos

Also in the triangle S

sin
sin

R ft

OR =

QR

is

have

sin

<P

s in

sin

R Q
EQ

is

and

And

respectively.

sin

\S P

Q, which

the

in

is its

co-dec.

Valana.

(1)

we, have, approximately

in which

nearly equal to the angle

the Aksha Valana, hence

its

the Ayana Valana,

sm Ayana

^gQp = ^gp

the latitude of the planet

d and the angle S

90

QPS

S of

to

expressed in time.

two parts, S

This angle consists of the

the time taken by the planet from the point

is

x1
called the rectified latitude

H E D or = 90

Und R

Q is

Hindu Astronomy,

300

Sin

The

QR =

sm
cos

yI x

Aksha Valana

sin

PQ

diurnal circle, and which measures the angle

a
Sin arc
.

=E

sin

cos

Q E from

Sin

(2) in (3)

cost cos

The angles

and

or arcs

QE

which corresponds to the arc

arc of the equinoctial

Substituting sin

(2)

or

0, is

of the

found from

QE

/oX
(3)

-^

we have

sin

Aksha Valana

computed from (1) and

(4)

(4)

and expressed

in time, by Asus reckoned each at one sixth of a sidereal minute, are

the same as those given by the rules of Bhascara for finding the
difference in time between the rising of a planet

and the rising of

the corresponding point of the ecliptic.

Eule(ll)

The Drikkarma

correction

is

applied to tne time of

conjunction also of a planet with a star, of which the difference in

latitude

is

too great to be neglected, also

#hen finding the phases

of the moon.
It is

(12)

common
by rule

likewise applied to the case of two planets, whose

longitude and apparent time of conjunction are determined

(6) of this chapter.

Eule (13) states the apparent diameters of the

five planets

Mars,

Saturn, Mercury, Jupiter and Venus, to be respectively in Yojanas

30,

37,

(14)

45, 52^

and

60.

These magnitudes when reduced

apparent diameters in arc of a great

Eule

(15)

shadow which

circle, 2', 2^', 3', 3J'

Gives directions by which an observation

on a bright planet, or

We are told

by rule 14, give their

to fix a
it

casts

star, as

shown by

gnomon on
on the

floor,

marked extremity of the shadow

(in the mirror)

its reflection in

a levelled
a mirror
"

floor,

is

may

be

4'.

made

a mirror.

and to mark the

to be placed at the

Then the planet

in the direction
passing through the

shadow and the reflected end of the gnomon."

and

will

be seen

end of the

On

conjunctions of the Planets called Graha-Yuti.

301

Rules (16), (17) give an imperfect description of the method of

observing the two planets as seen at a conjunction.

Two

styles are to be erected in a line in the north

direction, each of
ki

ground
digits

a distance equal to that of the two planets reduced to

at

the shadows are to b3 drawn from the bottoms of the styles,

and lines drawn from the ends of the shadows

then the astronomer
planets will

be seen

The remaining
names given
fights,
etc.,

and south

cubits in length with a cubit buried in the

five

may show
in

good and

lines,

thus the

verses from the 18th have reference to the various

distinguishing which

the
fights of

the planets in the

the styles

the heavens at the end of the styles."

to the associations

and in the

to those of

last verse

is

and

fights of the planets, the kinds of

the conqueror and which

it is

is

conquered,

remarked that the associations and

planets "are only imaginary, intended to foretell the

evil fortune of people, since

each other move

in their

own

the planets being distant from

separate orbit."

CHAPTER

VIII.

ON THE CONJUNCTION OF PLANETS WITH STARS.

Tlio chief object in

Chapter VIII.

is to find

the apparent longi-

tudes and latitudes of the principal stars of the 27 Asterisms or

Nacshatras, into which the

the planets

may pass

etc.,

is

Ecliptic

is

divided, near which

in their course through their respective orbits.

The apparent longitude

Asterism

Hindu

of the principal star, or Yogatara, of

an

not determined at once by the signs, degrees, minutes,

reckoned from the origin of the Ecliptic, but by the number of

minutes of arc between the beginning, or

and the point

passing

first

point of the Asterism,

of intersection of the Ecliptic, with a declination circle

through the star; this

arc

is

called

the Bhoga of the

Asterism, and the apparent longitude of the principal star

found by adding the number of minutes in

is

then

this arc to the longitude

of the beginning of the Asterism.

The Bhoga

is,

The Bhogas

therefore, only

of all the

an apparent difference of longitude.

27 Asterisms are given with some

ences in different Siddhantas; they are

expressed

differ-

by the number

of minutes contained in them.

The apparent

latitude of a star in

Hindu astronomy

is

the arc

of a declination circle measured from the star to the

point of intersection of this circle with tjhe
Ecliptic.

As the apparent longitudes and

of the
as also

latitudes of all the principal stars

27 Asterisms have been already fully given in the first part,

of four other stars mentioned in this
chapter, it is unnecessary

to repeat

them

here.

ON THE HELIACAL RISING AND SETTING OF THE PLANETS AND STARS.

The Chapter begins by distinguishing between the

setting of

and

rising

Mercury and Venus (which are never very distant from

the sun), from the rising and setting of the three planets, Mars,

Jupiter and Saturn, whose longitudes

sun by as

Rule
a

much

(4).

may

from that of the

differ

as a semi-circle.

To find the time

at

day near the required time

which a planet

is

chosen,

rises or sets heliacally

and the true longitudes

of

the sun and the planet are to be found for this day.

The Drikkarma
to be

computed and applied

It has

mentioned in Chapter

correction, as

VII., is

then

to the place of the planet.

been before remarked that the difference in time between

the rising of a planet and the rising of the corresponding point of

the Ecliptic,
the

which determines the longitude of the

Drikkarma when expressed in

time.

The time in pranas between the

(5)

rising of the point of the

Ecliptic corresponding to the planet's place

is

planet, is called

and the place of the sun

then to be found by rule 49, Chapter III.

This time in

pranas,

divided by 60,

what

gives

is

called the

Kalansas, or time turned into degrees, at which, before sunrise, a

body

rises heliacally.

(6)

The Kalansas

and 17 degrees of time

11, 15
(7-8)
is

for Mars, Jupiter,

When the

But when

by 8 degrees

the motion

heliacally with 10 degrees (of time)

(9)

When

the Kalansas

of

to

be

respectively.

motion of Venus or Mercury

stated to rise or set heliacally

by 12 degrees.

and Saturn are stated

is

(of

is direct,

retrograde,

Venus

and Mercury by

planet found

Venus

time) and Mercury

rises or sets

14.

by the

rule

5 are

Hindu Astronomy.

304

greater than the numerical Kalansas mentioned above, the planet

becomes

visible,

but

it is

invisible

when

the computed Kalansas are

less.

u
(10)

Find

the difference, in minutes,

between the Kalansas

[i.e.,

Kalansas found from the place of the planet at the given time, and
those which are the planet's

own above mentioned)

and divide

it

by the difference of the daily motions of the sun and the planet;
the quantity obtained

is

the interval in days (Grhatikas,

etc.)

between

the given time and that of the heliacal rising or setting.

holds

when

the planet

but when

is direct,

A\\m of ih> daily motions of the sun

it is

retrograde, take the

and the planet

This

for the difference

of the diurnal motions.

"
(11)

the

The daily motions

number

of the sun

and the planet, multiplied by

of pranas contained in the rising periods of the signs

occupied by the sun and the planet; and divided by 1,800, become
the motions in time.

"From

these motions (turned into time) find the past or future

days, ghaticas,

etc.,

from the given time

to the

time of the heliacal

rising or setting of the planet."

In verses (12) to (15) the Numerical Kalansas of the principal

stars of the 27 Asterisms are specified.

By

rule (17) the

Drikkarma

is

applied to their longitudes and

through them the days past or future from the given time to the
time of heliacal rising

is

found by means of the daily motion of the

sun.

(18) Gives the

a

names of a few

Lyra, Capella, Arcturus,

stars

Aquilse,

which never
Andromedse,

set heliacally, as

Delphini.

CHAPTER

X.

ON THE PHASES OF THE MOON AND THE POSITION OF THE MOON'S

CUSPS.

The moon when

rising or setting heliacally

becomes

western horizon according to the rules before mentioned

become

to

visible

visible in
;

she

is

the

stated

by 12 of time, and by the same number of degrees

she becomes invisible in the eastern horizon.

On

a day

(2)

or set heliacally, the rule

rise

on a given day in the light half of the Lunar month is-

for setting

"

when the moon does not

Find

(for sunset of that

day) the true places of the sun and

moon, and apply the two portions of the Drikkarma

to the moon's

place.
w'

From

those places 'with 180

directed in rale 5, Chapter

IX.).

moon

'

added find the time in pranas

At

(as

these pranas after sunset the

will set."

The

daily rising of the

moon

after the full requires a different

rule.

(3)

" Find the true

places of the sun and

moon

at sunset

and add

180 to the sun's place (and apply the two portions of the Drikkarma
to the moon's place)
six

signs added

find the

from these places

{i.e.,

and the moon's place with the Drikkarma

time in pranas

(as before directed rule

At this time in pranas after sunset the moon

The next

the sun's place with

applied),

Chapter IX.)

(5),

will rise."

four rules of the Chapter have reference to calculations

necessary for the purpose of laying

in the
projection of

down

lines, &<?.,

which are used

the moon's phase on the given day, as set forth

in rule (8).
; '

(4)

Find the difference of the

sine

of declinations of the sun

and the moon when they are of the same name

(i.e.

on the same side

of the equinoctial), otherwise find the sum, to this result give the

Hindu Astronomy.

306

name

same

of the

direction south or north at which the

moon

is

from the sun.

"

Multiply the result by the hypotenuse of the gnomonic

(5)

moon

shadow of the

(as

found in Chapter

I1T.), find

the difference

between the product and twelve times the equinoctial shadow

result be north, if it be south find the

sum

the place gives the

this is of the

And

or the base (of a right angled triangle)

the sine of the moon's altitude

Bahu and Koti

The square

is.

the Koti (or perpendicular

is

sum

root of the

modern form
and moon

declinations of the sun

by rays of the moon

the moon's shadow

= Vs +12
2

Then Bahu
Koti

=
=

<

2
;

sin

let
s

of the squares of the

and d respectively be the

the shadow of a style of 12

h the corresponding hypotenuse of

a the

moon's altitude at the time.

sin d)

12

cosin latitude
sin

(A)

Hypotenuse = V Bahu

-f-

Koti 2

" Subtract the sun's

place from that of the moon.

(7)

the hypotenuse (of the triangle).

is

give these rules a

digits cast

sine of co-latitude of

same name of which the amount

of the triangle).

To

Bahu

the

of them."

The amount thus found divided by the

(6)

if

The minutes

in the remainder divided by 900 give the illuminated part of the

moon.

This part multiplied by the moon's disc (in minutes) and

divided by 12 becomes the Sphuta, or rectified illuminated part."

If

and

sun and the

moon

The Sphuta
F
(8)
floor),

To

be taken to denote the longitudes respectively of the

/l

Ti

lO^OO

moon's disc

project the phase of the

moon

L
-

180
"

X
^

moon's disc (B)

v '

(on a board or levelled

having marked a point representing the sun, draw from that

point a line equal to the Bahu, in the same direction in which the

Bahu

is,

and from the end of the Bahu a

line (perpendicular to it

equal to the Koti to the west, and draw the hypotenuse between the

end of the Koti and the point (denoting the sun).

The Phases of the

Moon and

the 'position of the

Moon's Cusps.

307

" About the

point where the Koti and the hypotenuse meet

(9)

describe the disc of the moon,"

In this disc suppose the directions (east and west) through the line
of the hypotenuse.

projection thus described, assume a point S and a

To represent the

SN = computed value of Bahu

and N M perpendicular to NS = Koti, sine of moon's altitude
M S. At M a circle is described representing the moon's
horizontal line S N, in which

meeting the hypotenuse

line at right angles to

n and

s,

The

Mn

M S in

and w, the

which

is

turned towards the sun, and

nose will be

if e o

be the part of

o s be the arc of a circle

s,

direction of the horns of the crescent

then the crescent or

is

marked by the

line

line to

the

of this
through their extremities, and the inclination

M N,

points, a

the illuminated part seen from the earth.

horizontal direction

disc

M will illuminate the hemisphere

o and
passing through the three points n,

The

and west

the north and south points.

the hypotenuse called the Sphuta, and

line

east

join

M S through M will cut the disc in the points

solar rays in the direction

e s,

(A),

is

the angle

which the hypotenuse S

Mr

it

is

equal to the angle

makes with the perpendicular

NM.
It

may

be observed that in the projection of solar and lunar

lines

are

referred to, such as sines, cosines, diameters of discs of the sun

and

eclipses,

and of the phases of the moon when straight

Hindu Astronomy.

308

the moon,

which

is

etc.,

they are estimated in minutes of arc of any

assumed

as the foundation of the scale of projection

circumference always consisting of 21,600 minutes of

the radius

is

3,438 minutes, and the digit

is

circle,
;

the

arc, of which

70 minutes.

CHAPTEE XL
ASTROLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS.

Treats of rules for finding the times at which the declinations of the

sun and moon are equal, and the purposes of the Chapter are purely
astrological in character.

called

fire

solar

Pata

and lunar rays

is

supposed to be produced by a mixture of the

in equal quantities,

and burnt by the

air called

Pravahu.

The Pata

personified as a horrible monster, black in colour, hard

is

bodied, red eyed, and gorbellied, of a malignant nature, producing

evil to

mankind, and destroying the people.

It occurs frequently

when the

declinations of the sun and

moon

become equal.
First

the

sum

When

of their longitudes

Secondly
the

sum

both bodies are on the same side of the equator, and

When

is

equal to 12 signs or 360.

they are on opposite sides of the equator and

of their longitudes

is

6 signs or

180.

Kules are given for the times when these occurrences take place,
indicating

when they

are in the past or in the future

happen before or after midnight

to the

end

rites are

is

whether they

their duration from the beginning

a horrible interval, during the continuance of which

prohibited

and

it is

of advantage to

know

all

these times, for

virtuous acts, for purposes of bathing, almsgiving, prayers, funeral

ceremonies, religious obligations, burnt offerings,

etc.

In addition to the above, there are other frightful periods, when

joyful acts are prohibited
If,

the Vyatipas, Bhasandhis and Grandantas.

when the minutes contained

sun and the

moon

all

are divided

in the

by 800

sum

(i.e.,

of the longitudes of the

the minutes in 13 20', the

Hindu Astronomy.

310

extent of a Nacshatra), the quotient should be between the numbers

1

and

7,

the Pat a occurs called Vyati-Pata.

Again, the last quarters of the three Nacshatras, Asleska, Jyestha

and Aswini, are

And

the

first

called the Bhasandhis.

quarters of each of the three Nacshatras following,

namely, Magna, Mula and Aswini, are called the Grandantas.

CHAPTER

XII.

ON COSMOGRAPHICAL THEORIES OF THE HINDUS.

From

verses (1) to (9) a series of

questions are proposed about

the earth,

its

its

magnitude,

form and

divisions.

The

situation of

the seven Patala Bhumis or imaginary lower regions of the earth.

Questions also regarding the sun's revolutions, the causes of day

and night of the

the

stars,

Grods,

Demons and the

and planets, the position of their

other in the Universe,

The

the

etc.,

Pitris.

orbits

On

the order of

with respect to each

which are answered in subsequent

verses.

verses from (10) to (32) relate to imperceptible agencies of

creation, but it

physical

is

not in the plan of this work to describe the Meta-

theories

of the Hindus, regarding the creation of the

Universe which

Nor

works.

may be found

will it

in the

Vedas the Puranas and other

be necessary to dwell on the peculiar Geographical

theories detailed in verses

from (33) to

(54),

some of which are

purely figments of the imagination, and of the remainder the more

important parts have been already sufficiently discussed in foregoing

Chapters.

Verses from {55) to (74) have reference principally to day and night
at different places on the earth easily deducible from a knowledge of

the circles of the sphere, and the apparent motions of the sun and

moon.

Such

tropics,

and at the

The

as the

day and night

at places

on the equator, at the

poles.

increase or decrease to day or night caused

by the varying

positions of the sun in an oblique sphere at places within the tropics.

Places on the earth at which some signs are always visible and
others always invisible.

At the poles the sun

invisible for the

is

above the horizon for half the year, and

remaining

half,

and at a pole the direction of the

Grnomonic shadow points always from the pole,

v 2

Hindu Astronomy.

312

To

a person proceeding northward the altitude of the pole increases

with the latitude of the place.

The

starry sphere

is

said to revolve constantly

through the influence

of the Pravaha winds, as also do the planets confined within their

respective orbits.

The

Pitris, situated in

the upper part of the moon, behold the sun

throughout a fortnight.

ON THE BKAHM-ANDA.

The Brahm-Anda

or the golden

egg of Brahma

sphere of the universe at the centre of which

within

it all

is

the vast hollow

is

the earth.

the stars are supposed to revolve daily

And

beneath them

are the orbits of the planets Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus,

Mercury, and the Moon, in the order of their distances from the
centre.

The

orbit of the

Moon which

is

the smallest,

is

estimated to have

a circumference equal to 324,000 yojanas, which as a

good approximation to the true circumference.

from

its

mean

daily motion of 790

minutes of

mean

It

is

a fairly

was deduced

arc, thus, in

the figure

On Cosmographical

Theories of the Hindus,

313

the moon's orbit.

Also let

AD

and

EC

represent the sensible and rational horizons

of an observer at A.

Then C
earth,

which

will
is

be approximately equal to

A, the radius of the

reckoned in the Surya Siddhanta to be 800 yojanas.

Again, the moon's horizontal parallax

AD

D E C, is estimated

E, or

by the Hindus to be 52 42" of arc, and

f

The moon's daily motion in Yojanas

C D in Yojanas
Dajjy motion in Yojanas
~

800

Daily motion in minutes

_
=

in minutes

790-5'
52-7'

Therefore, the moon's daily motion in her orbit

But reckoning the

15

'

=12,000 Yojanas.

moon, or the time of her

sidereal period of the

revolution round the earth to be 27 days, the circumference of the

circle of

And

the moon's orbit would be 27X12,000

this

formed the foundation

324,000 Yojanas.

for finding the circumferences of

the other planets by the false hypothesis, which was accepted by

astronomers before the time of Kepler, by which

the planets

moved each

in its

own

orbit with the

it

all

was assumed that

same velocity of

all

the others, the differences in their sidereal periods being accounted

for

by the greater circumferences to be traversed by the more distant

planets than

by those which were

nearer.

In the Hindu astronomy, as in the case of the moon, every planet

was supposed to traverse nearly 12,000 Yojanas of

its

orbit daily,

one-fifteenth of this being the semi-diameter of the earth, and onefifteenth of the daily

motion

in

arc being the planet's horizontal

parallax.

The circumference
sphere, which

is

of a circle, called the middle circle of the starry

supposed to revolve about

by multiplying the

sun's orbit in Yojanas

all

the planets,

by 60

= 4,331,500x60
= 259,890,000.

is

found

Hindu Astronomy.

314

The circumference

of the sphere of the

solar rays extend, is declared to

Brahm-Anda

to

which the

he equal to the product of the moon's

revolutions in a Kalpa (57,753,336,000)

by the circumference of the

moon's orbit (324,000).

The dimensions

of

the

of the planets,

orbits

etc.,

have been

arranged as given in this chapter in the following order

The Moon

324,000 Yojanas.

The Sighrochcha (apogee) of Mercury

Sighrochcha

of

Venus

Sun, Mercury and Venus

Mars

,043,209

2,664,637

4,331,500

8,146,909

51,375,764

Jupiter

Saturn

127,668,255

Sphere of the stars (circumference)

259,890,012

Sphere of the Brah Mandee (circ).

The Moon's Apogee

The Moon's ascending Node
.

18,712,080,864,000,000

38,328,484

80,572,864

CHAPTER

XIII.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARMILLARY SPHERE AND OTHER

INSTRUMENTS.

At the beginning of this Chapter from

verses (3) to (12), directions

are given for the construction of a Grolayantra or Armillary Sphere.

A wooden

terrestrial globe is

axis projecting to

and

two supporting

prepared for
circles,

its

centre, having

an

representing the equinoctial

solstitial colures.

To the supporting
equinoctial,

and

circles

is

fixed

circle

parallel to it small circles are

representing

the

arranged through the

ends of Aries, Taurus and Gemini in the northern hemisphere and

through the ends of Libra,

circles of

etc.,

of the southern, serving as diurnal

the 12 signs.

Similar small diurnal circles are fixed to the supporting circles for

some of the
seven

principal stars, as for Abhijit

saints

(stars

of Ursa

Lyra), the Rishis or

Major), Agastya (Canopus),

Brahma

(Auriga), etc.

The

position of the two solstices are to be

marked on one

of the

northern and
supporting circles at the distance of the sun's greatest
southern declinations.

On

the other supporting circle the positions of the two equinoxes

are to be

marked

at the intersecton of it with the equinoctial.

the equinox with each of the

Strings are to be stretched joining
signs at every arc of

30,

as if it were intended to

show the plane

of the ecliptic.

And the

ecliptic itself is to

be formed by a

circle

passing from

solstice to solstice.

These hints, are nearly

all

that can be gathered regarding the

construction of the armillary sphere,

Siddhanta.

as

described

in

the

Surya

Hindu Astronomy

316

In the Surya Siddhanta several instruments are mentioned

for

measuring time.

self-revolving sphere

poles.

to be

The lower

made

part of

to be

is

it is

made with

to be covered

its

axis directed to the

by wax

cloth,

and

it

is

by the force of a current of water for the know-

to rotate

ledge of the passage of time.

Other self-acting instruments are to be made, but the method of

construction

methods

is

to be kept secret.

said to

is

be

difficult of

The hour

oil

is

application of

some of the

attainment.

wheel with hollow spokes half

a mixture of

The

rilled

with mercury, or water, or

and water.

to be

known

also

by means of the Gnomon, the

from the instruction of the teacher

staff

and

and by

circle in various ways,

mercury and sand.

is to be known by the Kapala Yantra or
Clepsydra.
"a
copper vessel, shaped as the lower half of a water jar it has

Or the hour
It is

a hole in

its

bottom, and being placed upon

sinks exactly 60 times in a Nycthemeron."

clean water in a basin

CHAPTER

XIV.

VARIOUS KINDS OF TIME.

In this Chapter are described the nine kinds of time called Manas,

which are named the Brahma, the Divya, the Pitrya, the Prajapati,

and those that

relate to this world, the

Solar, the

Surya or

Lunar,

the Sidereal, the Terrestrial, and that of Jupiter for knowing the
Samvatsaras.

The

Solar

Mana

is

that by which are determined the lengths of

day and night, the Shadasiti-Mukhas, the

solstitial

and equinoctial

times and the holy days of Sankranti on which good actions bring

good desert to the performer.

Verses from (4) to (6) relate to a peculiar division of time consisting
of successive periods of 86 solar days beginning from the time

when

the sun enters the sign of Libra; the 86th day of each period
called Shadasiti-Mukha,

the

first

and there are four such days in the

happens when the sun

is

at 26

Virgo.

the Saura month,

at 18

Gemini, and

The remaining 16 Saura days

or degrees of

when the sun

is

is

in Virgo are sacred,

good actions

performed in those days confer great merit, equal to that of a

a gift then in honour of deceased ancestors

Verse

(7) refers to

is

sacrifice,

imperishable.

the equinoxes as being diametrically opposite in

the middle of the starry sphere

The beginnings

(8.)

year,

of Sagittarius, the second

when he reaches 22 Pisces, the third when he

the fourth at 14

is

so are the

two

solstices.

of the four signs Taurus, Leo, Scorpio and

Aquarius, are called Vishnu-padi or feet of Vishnu.

The

sun's progress northward

through

six signs is called the

from his entrance into Capricorn

Uttar-Ayana or northing, and from

the entrance into Cancer the progress

the southing of the sun.

is

called

Dak shin- Ayana,

or

Hindu Astronomy.

318

From

10.

remains

the winter solstice, the periods during which the sun

two signs are the seasons named successively-

in

1.

Sisira (very cold).

2.

Vasanta (spring).

3.

Grishma

4.

Varsha

5.

Sarat (autumn).

6.

Hemanta

The holy time

sign,

(hot).

called Sankranti or the

(rainy).
(cold).

time of the sun's entering a

determines the (Saura) Solar or Sidereal month, during which

from the beginning of one

the sun passes through each arc of 30

sign to that of the next.

Therefore, Saura or solar months, each consisting of 30 Saura days

or degrees, are of unequal length reckoned in

mean

account of the unequal motion of the sun in the

aggregate
is

is

solar

days on

ecliptic,

but the

equal to the sidereal year, which in the Surya Siddhanta

reckoned to be 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes 36*56 seconds, and

the

mean

Saura, or solar month, would therefore be 30 days

hours

31 minutes 3*5 seconds.

The Saura month

of greatest length

31 days 14 hours 39 minutes 7 seconds

which

is

Ashadha, consisting of

and the

least is

The lunar months

are

named from

the Nacshatras, in which the

moon happens to be on the 15th day of such months.

The first lunar month is Chaitra from the Nacshatra
second

is

Vaisakha from Visakha the

;

third,

the fourth, Ashadha, from Purvashadha

Sravana

Pausha,

29 days 8 hours 21 minutes 7 seconds.

is

the

the

fifth,

Sravana, from

the sixth, Bhadrapada, from Purva Bhadrapada

Aswina, from Aswini

Chitra

Jyeshtha, from Jyeshtha

the seventh,

the eighth, Kartika, from Krittika; the ninth,

Margasirsha, from Mrigasirsha

the eleventh, Magha, from

the tenth, Pausha, from Pushya

Magha

and the twelfth, Phalguna, from

Purva-Phalguni.

As time in the abstract

it,

is

in duration the

same

for all

measures of

the term Mana, or kind of time, can only have reference to the

origin from

which each

specific unit is derived.

Various kinds of Time.

The only

319

invariable astronomical unit, as far as

sidereal day, or the

we know,

time of one rotation of the earth about

is

the

its axis,

or the time of one appaient revolution of the sphere of the stars

about the earth.

The

month

solar

day from sunrise to sunrise, the lunar day, the

in its different forms, the lunar

another, etc., are

all

month from one

full

variable magnitudes, which in their

solar

moon

mean

to

values

are referred for comparison to the invariable sidereal time.

The Manas named

at the beginning of this Chapter have in other

Here

ways been mentioned in former parts of the work.

appear they have more

it

would

particular reference to their uses in religious

observances, holy times of sacrifice, etc.

The Mana
The Mana
71

of

Brahma

is

of Prajapati (the father of

Maha Yugas.
The Mana of the Gods
The Mana

the Kalpa.

of the Pitris

is

their day

is

Maim)

is

the duration of

and night, or a year of mortals.

the lunar month, the duration of their

day and night.

The lunar month

is

Mana

again the lunar Mana.

The

sidereal

The

years of Jupiter are

when Jupiter

is

the sidereal day.

named by analogy from

rises or sets heliacally.

lunar months

CHAPTER

XV.

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.

The purpose

of the writer has

place before the reader

peculiarities of

No

to

some simple account of the nature and

Hindu Astronomy.

much

doubt

now been accomplished, namely,

has

been

which might have been

omitted

advantageously inserted for a complete appreciation of the subject,

but

it is

hoped that

sketch which

may

principal features.

been stated to present a general

enable those interested to retain a grasp of

It

subject, to offer a few

The

sufficient has

may, however, be desirable before leaving the

remarks even at the risk of repetition.

author's object has been, in the

measure

to,

its

place, to point in

first

some

and emphasize, the extreme antiquity of the science of

Astronomy, as found in India

secondly, to give such a

description

as to enable the general reader to note not only the similarities to,

but also the differences from, the astronomical science of the West,
with a view, by such comparison, to form his
origin of the one system, or of the other
in the

own estimate

thirdly, to

Paganism and mythology of the Hindus there

of worth

so far

as

these

are

connected

of the

show that even

is

a substratum

with their system of

Astronomy.

Upon

the

first

point (the antiquity of that system),

it

may

be

remarked, that no one can carefully study the information collected

by various investigators and

translators of

Hindu works

relating to

Astronomy, without coming to the conclusion that, long before

when Grecian learning founded the

and civilization in the West, India had its own
the period

basis of

knowledge

store of erudition.

Master minds, in those primitive ages, thought out the problems

presented by the ever recurring phenomena of the heavens, and gave

321

Concluding Observations.

birth to the ideas which were afterwards formed into a settled system
for the use

and benefit of succeeding Astronomers, Mathematicians,

and Scholiasts,

No

as well as for the

guidance of votaries of religion.

system, no theory, no formula, concerning those phenomena

could possibly have sprung suddenly into existence at the

upon the
that

dictation of a single genius.

little

minds, and
isolated

by

little,

and

after

many consequent

Far rather

many arduous

is it

call,

or

to be supposed

numerous

labours of

periods passed in the investigation of

phenomena, a system could be expected

to be formed into a

general science concerning them.

Further, as Bailly has

numbered among those

manner belong

to the

cannot be

truly remarked, Astronomy

arts

and sciences which in a more peculiar

which by the

sphere of imagination, and

wonderful energy of vigorous and splendid genius are often brought

rapidly to perfection.

that

a science

It

is,

on the contrary, by very slow advances

founded upon the basis of continued observations,

and profound mathematical researches, approaches to any degree of

Many

maturity.

ages, therefore,

must have elapsed before the

motion of the sun, moon and planets could be

exactness

ascertained

with

before instruments were invented to take the height of

the pole and elevation of the stars

and before the several positions

in the heavens could be accurately noted on descriptive tables or a

celestial globe.

It

is

in

the light of such considerations

investigator of the facts relating to

As

far

unknown number

is

compelled

back as any

even any astronomical deduction, can carry the

mind, the conception of the ecliptic and the zodiac

view in a system.

that the

these,

Hindu Astronomy

to admit the extreme antiquity of the science.

historical data, or

as

It is very reasonable

of centuries

is

presented to

therefore to infer that an

must have elapsed

which the primitive philosophers established

previously, during

their

ideas in

connected manner indicated in the conception referred

same observation and inference may be applied

to.

the

The

to the reasoning

Hindu Astronomy.

322

powers brought into play in the science of mathematics and kindred

which even in their most abstruse aspects, the Hindus,

subjects, in

at

any rate amongst the higher and more educated

shown a deeply

reflective capacity.

castes,

have

In some quarters, an attempt

has been made to minimise these faculties upon grounds which, in

the opinion of the present writer, are not only inadequate, but which

show in the
merits of

themselves a want of appreciation of the true

critics

An

Hindu Astronomy.

crcumstances

to

relating

Astronomy (which

the

impartial investigation of the

whether

question

the

Grecian

the parent of our system), was original in

is

nature, and was copied by the Hindus, places

it

its

beyond doubt that

the Hindu system was essentially different from and independent of

the Greek.

Some

of the dissimilarities, as well as

some of the

similarities in

the two systems have been shown in the preceding chapters.

As to

may be

truthfully asserted that nothing like the fixed

ecliptic with its fixed

concomitant arrangement of lunar Asterisms

the former,

is

it

to be found in the Ptolemaic

and

later

Neither do we

systems.

anything like the method employed by the

find in

these

Hindus

in estimating long periods of time, nor that of determining

latter,

longitudes of the sun, moon, and planets from their position in a

Nacshatra.

Moreover,

it is

only necessary to refer to the method

adopted by Hindu Astronomers for determination of longitudes by

the calculated rising of the signs, and used also in finding the
horoscope, and the nonagesimal point, and the culminating point on

the ecliptic

there

is

no such method in our system.

Even the

employed

in regard to everything stated in

Siddhantas, appears to exhibit a

fundamental difference in the Hindu

process of calculations

system, from processes employed in the science of the "West.

it

may

be asked, where

is

equinoctial shadow of the

gnomon, used

in that

equivalent for the latitude of a place, and where

like the

Again,

there anything similar to the Palabha, or

is

system, as an
there anything

formula entitled the Valana, in the projection of an eclipse

Concluding Observations.

Further,

is

there anything with us corresponding to the

radius, estimated in 3,438 minutes of arc ?

go

323

the contention that, whatever be the origin of the

far to establish

Hindu system,

it

Hindu

These are unique, and

certainly was not, in these

and other

particulars,

copied from the Grecian or any European system.

it

Lastly,

been

has

explanations, to dispel

Western

critics

the

author's

by

desire,

some of the supercilious

the

preceding

ridicule cast

by some

upon Hindu methods of dealing with astronomical

Such

time, and upon their mythology.

unmerited, since the subject of

ridicule

would appear to be

has been misunderstood.

it

So

far

from the extraordinary numbers of years employed in computation

by Hindu Astronomers being absurd,

it

has been shown that they

were absolutely necessary to their peculiar system and methods,

for

The astronomical mythology, likewise, of the

Hindus, grotesque and barbarous as some of their stories may appear,

ensuring accuracy.

had within

it

much

that was valuable in point of instruction.

nation in existence can afford to compare

its

latter

No

day tenets of

science with its earliest theories and cosmography, without a smile

at the expense of ancestors

not a

little justifiable pride,

but the Hindus, in this view, may, with

point to their sciences of Astronomy, of

Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry

containing within

and

them evidences

even

of

Trigonometry,

as

of traditioned civilization com-

paring favourably with that of any other nation in the world.

APPENDIX

With regard to the supposed actual observations of the planets by the

Hindu Astonomers at the epoch of the Kali Yuga, Laplace, after
speaking of the Chinese and their scrupulous attachment to ancient
customs which extended even to their astronomical rules, and has contributed among them to keep this science in a perpetual state of infancy,
"
"
proceeds thus in his Exposition du Systeme du Monde
"The Indian tables indicate a much more refined astronomy, but
:

everything shows that

it is

not of an extremely remote antiquity. And

opinion from a learned and illustrious

here, with regret, I differ in

astronomer (M. Bailly) who, after having honoured his career by labours
useful both to science and humanity, fell a victim to the most sanguinary
tyranny, opposing the calmness and dignity of virtue to the revilings of
an infatuated people, who wantonly prolonged the last agonies of his
existence.

" The Indian tables have two

principal epochs, which go back, one to
the year 3102 the other to the year 1491 before the Christian Era.

These epochs are connected with the mean motions of the sun, moon, and
planets, in such a manner that one is evidently fictitious the celebrated
;

astronomer above alluded

prove that the
withstanding
well

first

all

knew how

endeavours in his Indian astronomy to

of these epochs is grounded on observation.
Notto,

the arguments brought forward with the interest he so

on subjects the most difficult, I am still of

to bestow

opinion that this period was invented for the purpose of giving a

common

origin to all the motions of the heavenly bodies in the zodiac.

" In
fact, computing, according to the Indian tables from the year 1491
to 3102,

we

find a general conjunction of the sun

and

all

these tables suppose, but their conjunction differs tco

result of our best tables to

epoch to
" But

seem

to

have ever taken

place,

the planets, as
the

much from

which shows that the

which they refer was not established on observation.

it must be owned that some elements of the Hindu astronomy
indicate that they have been determined even before the first
Thus the equation of the sun's centre, which they fix at 2-4173,

epoch.
could not have been of that magnitude, but at tho year 4300 before the
Christian era.
11
the impossibility of the conThe whole of these tables,
particularly

that they have

junction at the epoah they suppose, prove on the contrary
been constructed, or at least rectified, in modern times.

Hindu Astronomy.

326

"Nevertheless, the ancient reputation of the Indians does not permit

us to doubt that they have always cultivated astronomy, and the remarkable exactness of the mean motions which they assign to the sun and

moon

necessarily required very ancient observations."

would appear from a paper on the "Trigonometry of the Brahmins,"

"
published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh," Yol.
IV. (1798), eight years after his first paper on "The Astronomy of the
It

Brahmins," that Playfair was induced

to

modify his opinion with regard

Yuga, to which he had

to Bailly's belief as to the origin of the Kali

referred in the construction of the Indian astronomical tables.

He

"I cannot help observing, in justice to an author of whose

and genius the world has been so unseasonably and so cruelly
deprived, that his opinions, with respect to this era, appear to have been
says,

talents

often misunderstood.
" It
certainly was not his intention to assert that the Kali Yuga was a
real era, considered with respect to the mythology of India, or even that
at so remote a period the religion of

Brahma had an

existence.

" All I think

Bailly meant to affirm, and certainly all that is necessary
to his system is that the Kali Yuga, or the year 3102 before our Era,
;

marks a point

in the duration of the world before

which the tables of

which the foundations

and those observations made from

the Brahmins have been composed."

of astronomy were laid in the east,

APPENDIX
There are innumerable

II.

we know, never change

whieh they are said to be fixed.

stars which, as far as

their relative situations, in consequence of

Thus, three stars always form the same triangle, and with a fourth the
same trapezium, and the manifold figures, which they may be conceived

when they are supposed to be joined by spherical arcs, have

ever retained the same form and situation, or nearly so, since creation,
and may continue so through endless time.

to represent

This fixity of character of the stars was recognised in the most remote
and with the Hindus it was the foundation upon which their system
of astronomy was built.
With them the path of the sun (the ecliptic)
ages,

has

its

position also sensibly fixed with reference to the stars, although

with the great circle called the equinoctial, which has

this is not the case

not that immoveable character.

The

celestial

equator

is

continually

changing in position, and the co-ordinates of the stars which are referred
to it, that is, their Eight Ascensions and Declinations,
undergo changes
yearly of a complex nature, whereas their changes in longitude are all

The apparent slow motion

of a character appreciably simple.

equinoctial and

solstitial points

along the

precession, is really a retrogression,

to

move backwards

at a

ecliptic,

by means

mean annual

of

of the

technically called the

which

all

stars

appear

rate of 50-1 seconds, causing an

annual augmentation to their Longitudes of the same amount, so that if

we have a table of Longitudes of stars for any one year (as for the
beginning of the century 1800) then the mean Longitude for any other
time may be found by simply adding or subtracting 50 l seconds to each,
-

for each succeeding or preceding year.

Again, the changes in the Latitudes of stars are so minute that some
writers have supposed the Latitudes to be invariable
this, however, is
not quite true, for from an examination of many of the principal stars,
;

and by a comparison of their Latitudes after long intervals of time, it is

found that some almost insensible changes do take place. Thus, out of
a number of stars whose Latitudes were examined in 1815 and compared
with those of the same stars as given for the year 1756, it was ascertained
that in no case had the Latitudes altered annually by so much as -32 of
a second, and in some the changes were almost inappreciable. So that
in a table of Latitudes and Longitudes, rectified for the beginning of a

Hindu Astronomy.

328

century, the Latitudes

may in

general be depended upon within less than

half a minute during the century, and the Longitudes at any time
applying the correction for precession.

The following

eclipsed

from Dr. Gregory's

a table of the moon's

table of zodiacal stars is taken

By means of this table and

he says, we may ascertain how often a

Astronomy, 1802.
Longitude,

by

by the moon

in a given year.

for projecting the position of

It will

given fixed star may be

even be found useful now

the ecliptic on photographic charts of

For if two prominent stars of the

zodiacal stars at the present day.

photograph be recognised whose latitudes are known, then circles may

be conceived drawn about each star at distances equal to their Latitudes,
estimated according to the scale of the photograph, and they will have a
the points of the contact
portion of the ecliptic as a common tangent
;

having the game Longitudes as the stars. Thus,

they serve for determining the Longitudes and Latitudes of the other stars
being points of the

ecliptic

of the photograph.

The ordinary phenomena

of the solar system, such as eclipses of the

sun and moon, the numerous occultations of planets and fixed stars, their
conjunctions and oppositions, all occur either on the ecliptic or within a

few degrees of it, and in a clear sky they may in general be observed
with the unaided eye. To a diligent student of astronomy the order of
their occurrence soon becomes familiar, and by aid of the table a
simple
calculation will give the time

and position

of each in succession.

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22

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