Chapter 1

From Ancient Times to 1492

INTRODUCTION

T
1492.

he prehistory of the Americas (North, South, and Central America, and the Caribbean) begins with
people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an Ice Age. These groups are
generally believed to have been isolated from peoples of the "Old World" until the coming of
Europeans in the 10th century from Norway and with the Voyages of Christopher Columbus in

The ancestors of today's American Indigenous peoples were the Paleo-Indians; they were huntergatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the
Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, Beringia, the land mass now covered by the cold ocean waters in
the Bering Strait. Small lithic stage peoples followed megafauna like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and
caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname "big-game hunters." Groups of people may also have traveled
into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.
Cultural traits brought by the first immigrants later evolved and spawned such cultures as Iroquois
on North America and Pirah of South America. These cultures later developed into civilizations. In many
cases, these cultures expanded at a later date than their Old World counterparts. Cultures that may be
considered advanced or civilized include: Norte Chico, Cahokia, Zapotec, Toltec, Olmec, Maya, Aztec,
Purepecha, Chimor, Mixtec, Moche, Mississippian, Puebloan, Totonac, Teotihuacan, Huastec people,
Purpecha, Izapa, Mazatec, Muisca, and the Inca.
After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spanish, Portuguese and later English,
French and Dutch colonial expeditions arrived in the New World, conquering and settling the discovered
lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas. Spain
colonized most of the American continent from present-day Southwestern United States, Florida and the
Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Portugal settled in what is mostly present-day Brazil while
England established colonies in the Eastern coast of the United States, as well as the North Pacific coast
and most of Canada. France settled in Quebec and other parts of Eastern Canada and claimed an area in
what is today Central United States. The Netherlands settled some Caribbean islands and parts of
Northern South America.
European colonization of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, civilizations and eventually
states, which resulted from the fusion of Native American and European traditions, peoples and
institutions. The transformation of American cultures through colonization is evident in architecture,
religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread being Spanish (376 million
speakers), English (348 million) and Portuguese (201 million). The colonial period lasted approximately
three centuries, from the early 16th to the early 19th centuries, when Brazil and the larger Hispanic
American nations declared independence. The United States obtained independence from England much
earlier, in 1776, while Canada formed a federal dominion in 1867. Others remained attached to their
European parent state until the end of the 19th century, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico which were linked
to Spain until 1898. Smaller territories such as Guyana obtained independence in the mid-20th century,
while certain Caribbean islands remain part of a European power to this day.

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492

[11]

Pre-colonization
Migration into the continents
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates
and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that
these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska
around 40,000 17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary
glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along
ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route
proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to
South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of a hundred
meters following the last ice age.
Archaeologists contend that the Paleo-Indian migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges
from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago. This time range is a hot source of debate. The few agreements
achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the
end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around
16,000 13,000 years before present.
The American Journal of Human Genetics released an article in 2007 stating "Here we show, by
using 86 complete mitochondrial genomes, that all Indigenous American haplogroups, including
Haplogroup X (mtDNA), were part of a single founding population." Amerindian groups in the Bering Strait
region exhibit perhaps the strongest DNA or mitochondrial DNA relations to Siberian peoples. The genetic
diversity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the assumed entry point into the
Americas. Certain genetic diversity patterns from West to East suggest, particularly in South America, that
migration proceeded first down the west coast, and then proceeded eastward. Geneticists have variously
estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from 42,000 to 21,000
years ago.
New studies shed light on the founding population of indigenous Americans, suggesting that their
ancestry traced to both east Asian and western Eurasians who migrated to North America directly from
Siberia. A 2013 study in the journal Nature reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a
young Boy in Malta Siberia suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry
that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have "had a more north-easterly distribution
24,000 years ago than commonly thought" Professor Kelly Graf said that "Our findings are significant at
two levels. First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early
modern humans that spread out of Africa to Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian
skeletons with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day Native Americans can be explained as having a
direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia." A route through Beringia is seen as more likely
than the Solutrean hypothesis.
On October 3, 2014, the Oregon cave, where the oldest DNA evidence of human habitation in
North America was found, was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The DNA, radiocarbon
dated to 14,300 years ago, was found in fossilized human coprolites uncovered in the Paisley Five Mile
Point Caves in south-central Oregon.

Lithic stage (before 8000 BCE)

The Lithic stage or Paleo-Indian period, is the earliest classification term referring to the first
stage of human habitation in the Americas, covering the Late Pleistocene epoch. The time period derives
its name from the appearance of "Lithic flaked" stone tools. Stone tools, particularly projectile points and
scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest well known human activity in the Americas. Lithic
reduction stone tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods.

Archaic stage (8000 BCE 1000 BCE)

Several thousand years after the first migrations, the first complex civilizations arose as huntergatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities. Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge
in the so-called Middle Archaic period around 6000 BCE. Particular archaeological cultures can be
identified and easily classified throughout the Archaic period.
In the late Archaic, on the north-central coastal region of Peru, a complex civilization arose which

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [12]

has been termed the Norte Chico civilization, also known as Caral-Supe. It is the oldest known civilization
in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization originated independently and indigenously in the
ancient world, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC. It pre-dated the Mesoamerican Olmec
civilization by nearly two millennia. It was contemporaneous with the Egypt following the unification of its
kingdom under Menes and the emergence of the first Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Monumental architecture, including earthwork platform mounds and sunken plazas have been
identified as part of the civilization. Archaeological evidence points to the use of textile technology and the
worship of common god symbols. Government, possibly in the form of theocracy, is assumed to have been
required to manage the region. However, numerous questions remain about its organization. In
archaeological nomenclature, the culture was pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic
period. It appears to have lacked ceramics and art.
Ongoing scholarly debate persists over the extent to which the flourishing of Norte Chico resulted
from its abundant maritime food resources, and the relationship that these resources would suggest
between coastal and inland sites.
The role of seafood in the Norte Chico diet has been a subject of scholarly debate. In 1973,
examining the Aspero region of Norte Chico, Michael E. Moseley contended that a maritime subsistence
(seafood) economy had been the basis of society and its early flourishing. This theory, later termed
"maritime foundation of Andean Civilization" was at odds with the general scholarly consensus that
civilization arose as a result of intensive grain-based agriculture, as had been the case in the emergence
of civilizations in northeast Africa (Egypt) and southwest Asia (Mesopotamia).
While earlier research pointed to edible domestic plants such as squash, beans, lucuma, guava,
pacay, and camote at Caral, publications by Haas and colleagues have added avocado, achira, and corn
(Zea Mays) to the list of foods consumed in the region. In 2013, Haas and colleagues reported that maize
was a primary component of the diet throughout the period of 3000 to 1800 BC.
Cotton was another widespread crop in Norte Chico, essential to the production of fishing nets
and textiles. Jonathan Haas noted a mutual dependency, whereby "The prehistoric residents of the Norte
Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to make the nets to
catch the fish."
In the 2005 book 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, journalist Jonathan
Mann surveyed the literature at the time, reporting a date "sometime before 3200 BC, and possibly before
3500 BC" as the beginning date for the formation of Norte Chico. He notes that the earliest date securely
associated with a city is 3500 BC, at Huaricanga in the (inland) Fortaleza area.
The Norte Chico civilization began to decline around 1800 BC as more powerful centers
appeared to the south and north along its coast, and to the east within the Andes Mountains.

Mesoamerica, the Woodland Period, and Mississippian Culture (2000 BCE 500
CE)
After the decline of the Norte Chico civilization, several large, centralized civilizations developed
in the Western Hemisphere: Chavin, Nazca, Moche, Huari, Quitus, Caaris, Chimu, Pachacamac,
Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Central Andes (Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia); Muisca in Colombia ;
Tanos in Dominican Republic (Hispaniola, Espaola) and part of Caribbean; and the Olmecs, Maya,
Toltecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Aztecs and Purepecha in southern North America (Mexico, Guatemala).
The Olmec civilization was the first Mesoamerican civilization, beginning around 1600-1400 BC
and ending around 400 BC. Mesoamerica is considered one of the six sites around the globe in which
civilization developed independently and indigenously. This civilization is considered the mother culture of
the Mesoamerican civilizations. The Mesoamerican calendar, numeral system, writing, and much of the
Mesoamerican pantheon seem to have begun with the Olmec.
Some elements of agriculture seem to have been practiced in Mesoamerica quite early. The
domestication of maize is thought to have begun around 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. The earliest record of
lowland maize cultivation dates to around 5100 BC. Agriculture continued to be mixed with a huntinggathering-fishing lifestyle until quite late compared to other regions, but by 2700 BC, Mesoamericans were
relying on maize, and living mostly in villages. Temple mounds and classes started to appear. By 1300/

[13] Advanced History of USA

1200 BC, small centres coalesced into the Olmec civilization, which seems to have been a set of citystates, united in religious and commercial concerns. The Olmec cities had ceremonial complexes with
earth/clay pyramids, palaces, stone monuments, aqueducts and walled plazas. The first of these centers
was at San Lorenzo (until 900 bc). La Venta was the last great Olmec centre. Olmec artisans sculpted jade
and clay figurines of Jaguars and humans. Their iconic giant heads - believed to be of Olmec rulers - stood
in every major city.
The Olmec civilization ended in 400 BC, with the defacing and destruction of San Lorenzo and La
Venta, two of the major cities. It nevertheless spawned many other states, most notably the Mayan
civilization, whose first cities began appearing around 700/ 600 BC. Olmec influences continued to appear
in many later Mesoamerican civilizations.
Cities of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas were as large and organized as the largest in the Old
World, with an estimated population of 200,000 to 350,000 in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire.
The market established in the city was said to have been the largest ever seen by the conquistadors when
they arrived. The capital of the Cahokians, Cahokia - located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois may have
reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia may have
been the most populous city in North America. Monk's Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia,
remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World.
These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding maize (corn) from having ears 25 cm
in length to perhaps 1015 cm in length. Potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins, beans, avocados, and chocolate
are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products. The civilizations did not develop
extensive livestock as there were few suitable species, although alpacas and llamas were domesticated
for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in the Andes. By the 15th century, maize was
being farmed in the Mississippi River Valley after introduction from Mexico. The course of further
agricultural development was greatly altered by the arrival of Europeans.

Classic stage (800 CE 1533 CE)

Oasisamerica
Pueblo people
The Pueblo people of what is now the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico, living
conditions were that of large stone apartment like adobe structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico,
Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.

Chichimeca
Chichimeca was the name that the Mexica (Aztecs) generically applied to a wide range of seminomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried the same sense as the
European term "barbarian". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring
especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico.

Zapotec
The Zapotec emerged around 1500 years BCE. Their writing system influenced the later Olmec.
They left behind the great city Monte Alban.

Olmec
The Olmec civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in Mesoamerica and ended around 400 BCE.
Olmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall. This civilization was thought
to be the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown
reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan arose.

Purepecha
The Purepecha civilization emerged around 1000 CE in Mesoamerica . They flourished from 1100

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [14]

CE to 1530 CE. They continue to live on in the state of Michoacn. Fierce warriors, they were never
conquered and in their glory years, successfully sealed off huge areas from Aztec domination.

Maya
Maya history spans 3,000 years. The Classic Maya may have collapsed due to changing climate
in the end of the 10th century.

Toltec
The Toltec were a nomadic people, dating from the 10th - 12th century, whose language was also
spoken by the Aztecs.

Teotihuacan
Teotihuacan (4th century BCE - 7/8th century CE) was both a city, and an empire of the same
name, which, at its zenith between 150 and the 5th century, covered most of Mesoamerica.

Aztec
The Aztec having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly
ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in Mesoamerica, and surrounding lands. Their capital city
Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time.

South America
Norte Chico
The oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of
modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE.
The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of
Norte Chico's prominence.

Chavn
The Chavn established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late
compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were
found at a site called Chavn in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavn civilization spanned
from 900 BCE to 300 BCE.

Inca
Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region
from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions", in Quechua, the Inca
culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework,
constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There
is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful trepanation of the skull in Inca civilization.

European colonization
Amerigo Vespucci awakens "America" in a Stradanus's engraving (circa 1638)
Non-Native American nations' claims over North America, 17502008.
Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean since 1700.
European nations control over South America, 1700 to present
Around 1000, the Vikings established a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, now known as

[15] Advanced History of USA

L'Anse aux Meadows. Speculations exist about other Old World discoveries of the New World, but none of
these are generally or completely accepted by most scholars.
Spain sponsored a major exploration led by Christopher Columbus in 1492; it quickly led to
extensive European colonization of the Americas. The Europeans brought Old World diseases which are
thought to have caused catastrophic epidemics and a huge decrease of the native population. Columbus
came at a time in which many technical developments in sailing techniques and communication made it
possible to report his voyages easily and to spread word of them throughout western Europe. It was also a
time of growing religious, imperial and economic rivalries that led to a competition for the establishment of
colonies.

Colonial period
15th to 19th century colonies in the New World:

Spanish colonization of the Americas (1492)

Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535 to 1821)

Viceroyalty of Peru (15421824)

Spanish Main

Spanish West Indies

Captaincy General of Guatemala

British North America / Thirteen Colonies (1497/1584/1607 to 1776/20th century)

Danish West Indies

New Netherland

New France

Captaincy General of Venezuela

Portuguese colonization of the Americas (1499 to 1822)

Colonial Brazil (1500 to 1815)

Decolonization
The formation of sovereign states in the New World begins with the United States Declaration of
Independence of 1776. The American Revolutionary War lasted until 1783.
The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the
Spanish American wars of independence. Simn Bolvar and Jos de San Martn, among others, led their
independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent
politically allied, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were
fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific. (See Latin American integration.) In the
Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom Joo VI,
proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully
accepted by the crown in Portugal, upon compensation.

Effects of slavery
Further information: Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies, Slavery in the British and French
Caribbean, History of slavery in Brazil, Slavery in Canada, and History of slavery in the United States
Slavery has had a significant role in the economic development the New World after the
colonization of the Americas by the Europeans. The cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane harvested by slaves
became important exports for the United States and the Caribbean countries.

Native American Society on the Eve of British Colonization

In Renaissance times, Europeans were not the only ones accomplishing great things. No one
can deny the beauty of Michelangelos brushwork or the brilliance of Shakespeare s verse. But societies

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [16]

elsewhere also flourished. As the modern world turned 1600, it seems as though each corner of the globe
had its own renaissance. The Native American societies of North America were no different. They had
diverse cultures and languages, much like Europe.

The Anasazi pottery seen here has been

dated between 1000 and 1300 C.E.

When the British staked their claim to the east coast of the modern United States, they could not
have dreamed of the complexity of the peoples they were soon to encounter.
There are between 140 and 160 differentAMERICAN INDIAN TRIBES. There is no single Native
American language. It would be as difficult for the Mohawk Indians of the East to converse with Zuni
Indians of the West as it would be for Germans to converse with Turks.

Before Europeans arrived in North America, Native peoples inhabited every region. This map
shows Native American tribes, culture areas, and linguistic stocks.
Twenty-seven states derive names from Indian languages. Native Americans turned wild plants
such as corn, potatoes, pumpkin, yams, and lima beans into farm crops for human consumption. More
than half of modern American farm products were grown by Native Americans before British colonization.
Medicine was not an unknown science in the Western Hemisphere. Most natural herbs used for
medicinal purposes in the modern world had also been used by Native Americans before European
contact. Archaeologists have learned that North American Indians made salt by evaporation and mined a
great many minerals including copper, lead, and coal.
Despite myths to the contrary, not all Native Americans were peaceful. Like Europe, the
American continent faced tribal warfare that sometimes led to human and cultural destruction.

The buffalo played an important role in the

survival of Native American tribes. In addition
to providing food, the buffalo provided
clothing and more.

In short, there is no simple way to tell the tale of a continent that had been peopled by diverse
communities for thousands of years. Their tales are as complex as any others, their cultures as rich, their
knowledge as deep. British contact did not mark the replacement of established cultures by a better way
of life, but rather the beginning of a new civilization based on a blend of diverse folkways.
An examination of three groups Anasazi, Iroquois, and Algonkian serves as a beginning
to learning about the American world that once was.

[17]

Advanced History of USA

1(a). Diversity of Native American Groups

The structures Native Americans called home
were extremely varied and often exclusive to
tribe or region. These apartment style
dwellings were the work of Natives of the
Southwest.

Since 1492, European explorers and settlers have tended to ignore the vast diversity of the
people who had previously lived here. It soon became common to lump all such groups under the term
Indian. In the modern American world, we still do. There are certain experiences common to the
survivors of these tribes. They all have had their lands compromised in some way and suffered the
horrors of reservation life.

Language Lessons
Stereotyping Indians in this way denies the vast cultural differences between tribes. First, there
is the issue of language. The Navajo people of the Southwest and the Cherokees of the Southeast have
totally unrelated languages.
There were over 200 North American tribes speaking over 200 different languages. The United
States used the uniqueness of the Navajo language to its advantage in World War II. Rather than
encrypting radio messages, it proved simpler to use Navajos to speak to each other in their everyday
language to convey high-security messages. It worked.

The Natchez chief, known as Great Sun, was a

powerful Indian leader. Unlike some Indian
leaders, Great Sun ruled as an absolute
monarch.

Navajo Code Talkers

Between 1942 and 1945, about 400 Navajos served as code talkers for the U.S. Marines. They
could encode, transmit, and decode a message in a fraction of the time it took a machine to do the same.
And unlike with machine codes, the Japanese were never able to break the Navajo code.

Excerpts from the Navajo Code TalkersDictionary

MEANING

NAVAJO PRONUNCIATION

LITERAL TRANSLATION

ALASKA

BEH-HGA

WITH WINTER

AMERICA

NE-HE-MAH

OUR MOTHER

BOMBER PLANE

JAY-SHO

BUZZARD

BOMB

A-YE-SH

EGGS

BOOBY TRAP

DINEH-BA-WHOA-BLEHI

MAN TRAP

GERMANY

BESH-BE-CHA-HE

IRON HAT

PLATOON

HAS-CLISH-NIH

MUD

FIGHTER PLANE

DA-HE-TIH-HI

HUMMING BIRD

MINUTE

AH-KHAY-EL-KIT-YAZZIE

LITTLE HOUR

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492

BIG JOB

PROBLEM

NA-NISH-TSOH

PYROTECHNIC

COH-NA-CHANH

FANCY FIRE

ROUTE

GAH-BIH-TKEEN

RABBIT TRAIL

SPAIN

DEBA-DE-NIH

SHEEP PAIN

TANK DESTROYER

CHAY-DA-GAHI-NAIL-TSAIDI

TORTOISE KILLER

[18]

excerpted from the Navajo Code Talkers Dictionary (revised as of June 15, 1945), Department of the Navy

Different Strokes for Different Folks

Lifestyles varied greatly. Most tribes were domestic, but the LAKOTA followed the buffalo as
nomads. Most engaged in war, but the Apache were particularly feared, while the Hopis were pacifistic.
Most societies were ruled by men, but the Iroquois women chose the leaders.
Native Americans lived in WIGWAMS,HOGANS, IGLOOS, TEPEES, and longhouses. Some
relied chiefly on hunting and fishing, while others DOMESTICATED crops. The Algonkian chiefs tried to
achieve consensus, but the Natchez Sun was an absolute monarch. The TOTEM POLE was not a
universal Indian symbol. It was used by tribes such as the Chinook in the Pacific Northwest to ward off
evil spirits and represent family history.
In the beginning, this place was only darkness
and water until the time when a woman fell from
the sky world. Thus starts the Oneida creation
story. Every Native American tribe has their own
history, culture, and art.

It is important that students of history explore tribal nuances. Within every continent, there is
tremendous diversity. The tribal differences that caused the Apache and Navajo peoples to fight each
other are not so different from the reasons Germans fought the French. Recognizing tribal diversity is an
important step in understanding the history of America.

1(b). The Anasazi

In the centuries that led to the year 1000, Europe was emerging from chaos. Tribes roamed the
countryside evoking fear from luckless peasants. The grandeur that was Rome had long passed. Across
the Atlantic, the North American continent was also inhabited by tribes. The ANASAZI managed to build
glorious cities in the cliffs of the modern Southwest. Their rise and fall mark one of the greatest stories of
pre-Columbian American history.

According to Anasazi legend, Kokopelli was a little

man who traveled from village to village with a
flute and a sack of corn. At night he would play his
flute among the fields, and the people would
awake to find the crops taller than ever before.

In the centuries that led to the year 1000, Europe was emerging from chaos. Tribes roamed the
countryside evoking fear from luckless peasants. The grandeur that was Rome had long passed. Across
the Atlantic, the North American continent was also inhabited by tribes. The ANASAZI managed to build
glorious cities in the cliffs of the modern Southwest. Their rise and fall mark one of the greatest stories of
pre-Columbian American history.

[19]

Advanced History of USA

The Anasazi built their dwellings under

overhanging cliffs to protect them from the
elements. Using blocks of sandstone and a mud
mortar, the tribe crafted some of the world s
longest standing structures.

Anasazi means ancient outsiders. Like many peoples during the agricultural era, the Anasazi
employed a wide variety of means to grow high-yield crops in areas of low rainfall. Their baskets and
pottery are highly admired by collectors and are still produced by their descendants for trade. It is their
cliff dwellings, however, that captivate the modern archeologist, historian, and tourist.

Cliffs, Canyons, and Kivas

One component of the Anasazi community were

the kivas. These structures were used for
religious celebrations. This kiva is from the Sand
Canyon Pueblo, Crow Canyon, in the Mesa Verde
region and dates back to the 13th century.

The famed CLIFF DWELLINGSwere built into the mountainsides with but one exit for the sake
of defense. With the exception of hunting and growing food, all aspects of living could be performed within
the dwelling. Deep pits were periodically dug within the living quarters. These pits, called KIVAS, served
as religious temples for the ancient Anasazi. Sleeping areas were built into the sides of the cliffs. Even
water could be gathered between the porous cracks in the walls all by clever design, of course.
Historians can only theorize why the Anasazi civilization declined. One explanation is attack by
hostile tribes. Others believe the resources of the area were becoming exhausted.
The durability of their structures has proven remarkable. Think of how our contemporary
structures fall into utter disrepair without constant maintenance. The cliff dwellings have endured over
eight hundred years of exposure to the elements and still stand proud. Modern day visitors can marvel at
Anasazi accomplishments at MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK or CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL
PARK, to name a few.

1(c). The Algonkian Tribes

Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoag tribe

and father of Metacomet, meets with settlers.
The Wampanoag helped the settlers survive
their first winter by providing them with much
needed supplies. But as more and more
colonists arrived in New England, their
relationship began to deteriorate.

When the British set foot on the North American continent at Jamestown, they encountered the
Powhatan Indians. The Pequots and Narragansetts lived in New England as the Pilgrims and Puritans
established a new home. William Penn encountered the Leni Lenape natives while settling Penn s
Woods.

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [20]

Although these tribes have great differences, they are linked linguistically. All of these tribes (or
nations) speak an Algonquin language. These Algonkian (or Algonquian) groups were the first the English
would encounter as these early settlements began to flourish.
Algonkian or Algonquian
Which word is correct? When anthropologists classified Native American languages, they took
all of the languages of the same language family as the Algonkin tribe (also called the Algonquin
tribe) and called it the Algonquian or Algonkianlanguage family.
ALGONQUIAN and ALGONKIAN both refer to the Algonquin language or to the group of tribes
that speak related dialects. Therefore, the Algonquian tribes (including the DELAWARE, the
NARRAGANSETTS, the PEQUOT, and the Wampanoag) are so called because they all speak the
Algonkin or Algonquin language.

The group of Native Americans that lived in

Pennsylvania and the surrounding area
before European settlement referred to
themselves as Lenni-Lenape. It was the
Europeans who called them Delaware.

The Algonkians relied as much on hunting and fishing for food as working the land. These tribes
used canoes to travel the inland waterways. The BOW AND ARROW brought small and large game, and
the SPEAR generated ample supplies of fish for the Algonkian peoples. Corn and SQUASH were a few of
the CROPS that were cultivated all along the eastern seaboard.

Misunderstandings
As the first group to encounter the English, the Algonkians became the first to illustrate the deep
cultural misunderstandings between British settlers and Native Americans. British Americans thought
Algonquian women were oppressed because of their work in the fields. Algonkian men laughed at the
British men who farmed traditionally work reserved for females. Hunting was a sport in England, so
British settlers thought the Algonkian hunters to be unproductive.

This painting, by Tall Oak of the

Narragansett tribe, depicts a scene from
King Philips War which pitted Metacomet
against the British settlers.

The greatest misunderstanding was that of land ownership. In the minds of the Algonkians
selling land was like selling air. Eventually this confusion would lead to armed conflict.

The Powhatan Confederacy

The POWHATAN organized a confederacy. Virginians were met with strong resistance as they
plunged westward. In New England, WAMPANOAGS under the leadership of METACOMET fought with
Puritan farmers over the encroachment west onto Indian land. The pacifist Quakers were notable
exceptions. Pennsylvania refused to raise a militia against the Indians for as long as Quakers dominated
the government.

The Massachusetts Mohawk Trail began as

a Native American footpath used for trade,
hunting, and social calling by five tribes,
including the Pocumtuck and the Mohawk.
Unfortunately, the good times between the groups were few. The marriage of POCAHONTAS to
JOHN ROLFE and the first THANKSGIVING with the Puritans did little to prevent the fighting. In most
cases, each side regarded the other with fear and suspicion.

[21]

Advanced History of USA

1(d). The Iroquois Tribes

The Iroquois people have inhabited the areas of Ontario and upstate New York for well over
4,000 years.
Technically speaking, Iroquois refers to a language rather than a particular tribe. In fact, the
IROQUOIS consisted of five tribes prior to European colonization. Their society serves as an outstanding
example of political and military organization, complex lifestyle, and an elevated role of women.

Mohawk Indian chief Joseph Brant served as

a spokesman for his people, a Christian
missionary of the Anglican church, and a
British
military
officer
during
the
Revolutionary War.

Governance and War

Until the 1500s, the five tribes of the Iroquois devoted much energy toward fighting and killing
each other. According to ORAL TRADITION, it was about this time that they came to their senses and
united into a powerful confederation.
The five tribes designed quite an elaborate political system. This included a bicameral (twohouse) legislature, much like the British Parliament and modern U.S. Congress. The representatives, or
SACHEMS, from the SENECA and MOHAWK tribes met in one house and those of the ONEIDA and
CAYUGA met in the other. The ONONDAGA sachems broke ties and had the power to veto decisions
made by the others. There was an unwritten constitution that described these proceedings at least as
early as 1590. Such a complex political arrangement was unknown in Europe at that time.

Excerpts from the Iroquois Constitution

Roots have spread out from the Tree of the Great
Peace, one to the north, one to the east, one to the
south and one to the west. The name of these roots
is The Great White Roots and their nature is Peace
and Strength...
The soil of the earth from one end of the land to the
other is the property of the people who inhabit it.
By birthright the Ongwehonweh (original beings)
are the owners of the soil which they own and
occupy and none other may hold it. The same law
has been held from the oldest times. The Great
Creator has made us of the one blood and of the
same soil he made us and as only different tongues
constitute different nations he established different
hunting grounds and territories and made boundary
lines between them...
Whenever a foreign nation is conquered or has by
their own will accepted the Great Peace their own
system of internal government may continue, but
they must cease all warfare against other nations...
The women of every clan of the Five Nations shall
have a Council Fire ever burning in readiness for a
council of the clan. When in their opinion it seems

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492

necessary for the interest of the people they shall
hold
a
council
and
their
decisions
and
recommendations shall be introduced before the
Council of the Lords by the War Chief for its
consideration.

[22]

Although the tribes began to work together, they surely did not renounce war. They fought and
captured other native tribes as well as wave after wave of European immigrants who presented
themselves. They fought the early French and British settlers. During the French and Indian War they
remained officially neutral, but would join either side to exploit an advantage. Both sides courted Iroquois
support during the Revolution. As a result, there was a split in the CONFEDERACY for the first time in
over 200 years. Iroquois fought Iroquois once more.

Iroquois Society
The LONGHOUSE was the center of Iroquois life. Archaeologists have unearthed longhouse
remains that extend more than the length of a football field.
Agriculture was the main source of food. In Iroquois society, women held a special role. Believed
to be linked to the earth s power to create life, women determined how the food would be distributed a
considerable power in a farming society.
Women were also responsible for selecting the sachems for the Confederacy. Iroquois society
was MATRILINEAL; when a marriage transpired, the family moved into the longhouse of the mother, and
FAMILY LINEAGE was traced from her.

The Iroquoi Tribes, also known as the

Haudenosuanee, are known for many things.
But they are best known for their
longhouses. Each longhouse was home to
many members of a Haudenosuanee family.

The Iroquois society proved to be the most persistent military threat the European settlers would
face. Although conquest and treaty forced them to cede much of their land, their legacy lingers. Some
historians even attribute some aspects of the structure of our own Constitution to Iroquois ideas. In fact,
one of America s greatest admirers of the Iroquois was none other than Benjamin Franklin.
US History/Pre-Columbian
Human civilization in the Americas probably began in the last ice age, when prehistoric hunters
crossed a land bridge between the Asian and North American continents. Civilizations in North America,
Central America, and South America had different levels of complexity, technology, and cohesiveness.
Some of the most powerful and organized societies occurred in South and Central America.
These cultures developed writing, allowing them to spread and dominate. They created some of the
largest cities in the Ancient world.
North American cultures were more fragmented and less unified. The tribe was often the major
social unit, with exchanges between tribes creating similar societies over vast distances. Tribal dwellings
as large as European towns flourished in the rugged desert of southwestern North America.
European-descended historians have difficulty referring to these cultures as a whole, as the
native people did not have a unified name for themselves. At first, Europeans called natives Indians.
This term came from the belief by Christopher Columbus that he had discovered a new passage to India.
Despite Amerigo Vespucci ascertaining that the Americas were not actually India, Indian continued to be
used as the de facto name for native inhabitants until around 1960. Starting in the 1960s, the term
Native American was used. Yet this term may be too vague: isn t anyone born in America a Native
American? There is also American Indian. This is too general a term for a group having little in common
other than skin tone and non-European language. In Canada, the term First People is used. All these
terms for the native people of America show just how diverse Pre-Columbian America was and the
disagreement continues between scholars today about this period.

Contents
1 Early Inhabitants of the Americas

[23] Advanced History of USA

2 Early Empires of Mesoamerica
3 Early Empires of the Southwest
4 Early Empires of the Mississippi
5 Contact with European Culture

Early Inhabitants of the Americas

American history does not begin with Columbus s 1492 arrival. The Americas were settled long
before the first European arrived. Civilization began during the last ice age, some 15 to 40 thousand
years ago. Huge ice sheets covered the north, so sea levels were much lower, creating a land bridge
between Asia and North America. This was the Bering land bridge, a gap in two large ice sheets creating
a connection from lands near present day Alaska, through Alberta, and into the continental United States.
Nomadic Asians following herds of wild game traveled into the continental United States. A
characteristic arrow point was found and first described near the present day town of Clovis, NM.
Specialized tools and common burial practices are seen in many archaeological sites through North
America and into South America.

The Clovis people are one of North America s earliest civilizations. It is not clear if the finds
represent one unified tribe, or many tribes with a common technology and belief. Their trek across 2000
rugged miles is one of the great feats of pre-history. Their culture disappears dramatically from the
archaeological record 12,900 years ago, with widespread speculation about what caused their
disappearance. Theories range from the extinction of the mammoth, to sudden environmental changes
caused by a comet hitting the earth, to flooding caused by the break of a massive freshwater lake, Lake
Agassiz.
There is controversy about Pre-Clovis settlement of North and South America. Comparisons of
culture and linguistics offer evidence of the influence of early America by several different contemporary
cultures. Some genetic and time-dating studies point to the possibility that ancient Americans came from
other places and arrived earlier than at the Clovis sites in North America. Perhaps some ancient settlers
to the hemisphere traveled by boat along the seashore, or arrived by boats from the Polynesian islands.
As time went on, many of these first settlers settled down into agricultural societies, complete
with domesticated animals. Groups of people formed stable tribes and developed distinct languages of
their own, to the point that more distant relatives could no longer understand them. Comparative
linguistics -- the study of languages of different tribes -- shows fascinating diversity, with similarities
between tribes hundreds of miles apart, yet startling differences with neighboring groups.
At times, tribes would gain regional importance and dominate large areas of America. Empires
rose across the Americas that rivaled the greatest ones in Europe. For their time, some of these empires
were highly advanced.

Early Empires of Mesoamerica

Meso-American civilizations are among some of the most powerful and advanced civilizations of
the ancient world. Reading and writing were widespread throughout Meso-America, and these
civilizations achieved impressive political, artistic, scientific, agricultural, and architectural
accomplishments. Many of these civilizations gathered the political and technological resources to build
some of the largest, most ornate, and highly populated cities in the ancient world.
The aboriginal Americans settled in the Yucatan peninsulas of present-day Mexico around
10,000 BCE. By 2000 BCE, the Mayan culture had evolved into a complex civilization. The Mayans
developed a strong political, artistic and religious identity among the highly populated Yucatan lowlands.
The classic period (250-900 CE) witnessed a rapid growth of the Mayan culture and it gained dominance
within the region and influence throughout present-day Mexico. Large, independent city-states were

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [24]

founded and became the political, religious, and cultural centers for the Mayan people.
Mayan society was unified not by politics, but by their complex and highly-developed religion.
Mayan religion was astrologically based, and supported by careful observations of the sky. The Mayans
had a strong grasp of astronomy that rivaled, and, in many ways, exceeded that of concurrent European
societies. They developed a very sophisticated system for measuring time, and had a great awareness of
the movements in the nighttime sky. Particular significance was attached to the planet Venus, which was
particularly bright and appeared in both the late evening and early morning sky.
Mayan art is also considered one of the most sophisticated and beautiful of the ancient New
World.
The Mayan culture saw a decline during the 8th and 9th century. Although its causes are still the
subject of intense scientific speculation, archaeologists see a definite cessation of inscriptions and
architectural construction. The Mayan culture continued as a regional power until its discovery by Spanish
conquistadores. In fact, an independent, non-centralized government allowed the Mayans to strongly
resist the Spanish conquest of present-day Mexico. Mayan culture is preserved today throughout the
Yucatan, although many of the inscriptions have been lost.
The Aztec culture began with the migration of the Mexica people to present-day central Mexico.
The leaders of this group of people created an alliance with the dominant tribes forming the Aztec triple
alliance, and created an empire that influenced much of present-day Mexico.
The Aztec confederacy began a campaign of conquest and assimilation. Outlying lands were
inducted into the empire and became part of the complex Aztec society. Local leaders could gain prestige
by adopting and adding to the culture of the Aztec civilization. The Aztecs, in turn, adopted cultural,
artistic, and astronomical innovations from its conquered people.
The heart of Aztec power was economic unity. Conquered lands paid tribute to the capital city
Tenochtitlan, the present-day site of Mexico City. Rich in tribute, this capital grew in influence, size, and
population. When the Spanish arrived in 1521, it was the fourth largest city in the world (including the
once independent city Tlatelco, which was by then a residential suburb) with an estimated population of
212,500 people. It contained the massive Temple de Mayo (a twin-towered pyramid 197 feet tall), 45
public buildings, a palace, two zoos, a botanical garden, and many houses. Surrounding the city and
floating on the shallow flats of Lake Texcoco were enormous chinampas -- floating garden beds that fed
the many thousands of residents of Tenochtitlan.
While many Meso-American civilizations practiced human sacrifice, none performed it to the
scale of the Aztecs. To the Aztecs, human sacrifice was a necessary appeasement to the gods. According
to their own records, one of the largest slaughters ever performed happened when the great pyramid of
Tenochtitlan was reconsecrated in 1487. The Aztecs reported that they had sacrificed 84,400 prisoners
over the course of four days.
With their arrival at Tenochtitlan, the Spanish would be the downfall of Aztec culture. Although
shocked and impressed by the scale of Tenochtitlan, the display of massive human sacrifice offended
European sensitivity, and the abundant displays of gold and silver inflamed their greed. The Spanish killed
the reigning ruler, Montezuma in June 1520 and lay siege to the city, destroying it in 1521, aided by their
alliance with a competing tribe, the Tlaxcala.
With the ascension of Manco Capac to emperor of a tribe in the Cuzco area of what is modernday Peru around 1200 BCE, the Incan civilization emerged as the largest Pre-Columbian empire in the
Americas.
Religion was significant in Inca life. The royal family were believed to be descendants of the Inca
Sun God. Thus, the emperor had absolute authority, checked only by tradition. Under the emperors, a
complex political structure was apparent. The Incan emperor, regional and village leaders, and others
were part of an enormous bureaucracy. For every ten people, there was, on average, one official. The
organization of the Empire also included a complex transportation infrastructure. To communicate across
the entire empire, runners ran from village to village, relaying royal messages.
In 1438, the ambitious Pachacuti, likely the greatest of the Incan emperors, came to the throne.
Pachacuti rebuilt much of the capital city, Cuzco, and the Temple of the Sun. The success of Pachacuti
was based upon his brilliant talent for military command (he is sometimes referred as the Napolean of
the Andes) and an amazing political campaign of integration. Leaders of regions that he wanted to
conquer were bribed with luxury goods and enticed by promises of privilege and importance. As well, the
Incans had developed a prestigious educational system which, not incidentally, just happened to extol the
benefits of Incan civilization. Thus, much of the expansion throughout South America was peaceful.
At its height of power in the late 15th century, Incan civilization had conquered a vast patchwork
of languages, people and cultures from present-day Ecuador, along the whole length of South America, to
present-day Argentina.
Cuzco the capital city, was said by the Spanish to be as fine as any city in Spain. Perhaps the
most impressive city of the Incan empire, though, was not its capital, Cuzco, but the city Machu Picchu.

[25]

Advanced History of USA

This mountain retreat was built high in the Andes and is sometimes called the Lost City of the
Incas. It was intended as a mountain retreat for the leaders of the Incan empire and demonstrates great
artistry -- the abundant dry stone walls were entirely built without mortar, and the blocks were cut so
carefully that one can t insert a knife-blade between them.
The Spanish discovered the Inca during a civil war of succession and enjoyed great military
superiority over the slow siege warfare that the Incan empire had employed against its enemies. Fueled
by greed at the opportunity to plunder another rich civilization, they conquered and executed the Incan
emperor. The Incan empire fell quickly in 1533, but a small resistance force fled to the mountains, waging
a guerrilla war of resistance for another 39 years.
The Meso-American Empires were undoubtedly the most powerful and unified civilizations in the
new world. Writings were common in Meso-America and allowed these cultures to spread in power and
influence with far more ease than their counterparts in north America. Each of these civilizations built
impressive urban areas and had a complex culture. They were as civilized as the Spanish who
conquered them in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Early Empires of the Southwest

Native Americans adapted the arid desert southwest. A period of relatively wet conditions saw
many cultures in the area flourish. Extensive irrigation was developed that were among the biggest of the
ancient world. Elaborate adobe and sandstone buildings were constructed. Highly ornamental and artistic
pottery was created. The unusual weather conditions could not continue forever, though, and gave way, in
time, to the more common drought of the area. These dry conditions necessitated a more minimal way of
life and, eventually, the elaborate accomplishments of these cultures were abandoned.
One prominent group were the Anasazi1, who lived in the present day Northeastern Arizona and
surrounding areas. The geography of this area is that of a flat arid, desert plain, surrounded by small
areas of high plateau, called mesas. Softer rock layers within the mesas eroded to form steep canyons
and overhangs along their slopes.
The Anasazi culture used these cave-like overhangs in the side of steep mesas as shelter from the brief,
fierce southwestern storms. They also found natural seeps and diverted small streams of snow melt into
small plots of maize, squash and beans. Small seasonal rivers formed beds of natural clays and dried
mud. The Anasazi used hardened dry mud, called adobe, along with sandstone, to form intricate buildings
that were sometimes found high in the natural overhangs of the mesas. The Anasazi people were also
skilled at forming the natural clays into pottery.
Between 900 - 1130 CE a period of relatively wet conditions allowed the Anasazi people to
flourish. Traditional architecture was perfected, pottery became intricate and artistic, turkeys were
domesticated, and trade over long distances influenced the entire region. Following this golden period
was the 300 year drought called Great Drought. The Anasazi culture was stressed and erupted into
warfare. Scientists once believed the entire people vanished, possibly moving great distances to avoid
the arid desert. New research suggests that the Anasazi dispersed; abandoning the intricate buildings
and moving towards smaller settlements to utilize the limited water that existed.
Bordering the Anasazi culture in the north, a separate civilization emerged in southern Arizona,
called the Hohokam. While many native Americans in the southwest used water irrigation on a limited
scale, it was the Hohokam culture that perfected the technology (all without the benefit of modern
powered excavating tools). The ability to divert water into small agricultural plots meant that the Hohokam
could live in large agricultural communities of relatively high population density. This was particularly true
in the Gila River valley, where the Gila River was diverted in many places to irrigate large fertile plains
and numerous compact towns. The bigger towns had a Great House at their centers, which was a large
Adobe/stone structure. Some of these structures were four stories in size and probably were used by the
managerial or religious elites. Smaller excavation or pits were enclosed by adobe walls and used as
primary residences. Smaller pit rooms and pits were used for many different functions.
The successful use of irrigation is evident in the extensive Casa Grande village. Situated
between two primary canals, the Casa Grande site has been the focus of nearly 9 decades of
archaeological work. The original town was built around a Great House and incorporated open courtyards
and circular plazas. By the 10th century neighboring settlements had been built to accommodate a large,
highly developed region. The scale of this community can be seen in the results of one excavation of part
of it in 1997. The project identified 247 pit houses, 27 pit rooms, 866 pits, 11 small canals, a ball court,
and portions of four adobe walled compounds.
The Hohokam culture disintegrated when they had difficulty maintaining the canals in the dry
conditions of the drought. Small blockages or collapses of the canal would choke the intricate irrigation
networks. Large towns and extensive irrigation canals were abandoned. The people gave up their cultural
way of life and dispersed into neighboring tribes.

Early Empires of the Mississippi

1Detail about Anasazi has already been discussed earlier in current chapter.

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [26]

Native Americans in the Eastern Continental United States developed mound-building cultures
early in North American History. Groups of native Americans became more stratified as time went on and
developed into tribes. These tribes participated in long networks of trade and cultural exchanges. The
importance of trade routes developed urban cities of great influence.
The mound-building people were one of the earliest civilization to emerge in North America.
Beginning around 1000 BCE cultures developed that used mounds for religious and burial purposes.
These mound-building people are categorized by a series of cultures that describe distinctive artwork and
artifacts found in large areas throughout the present-day eastern United States.
The burial mound was the principle characteristic of all of these societies. These large structures
were built by piling baskets of carefully selected earth into a mound. Mounds were pyramid shaped with
truncated tops. Sometimes small buildings were built on top of them. Some of these mounds were quite
large. The Grave Creek Mound, in the panhandle of present day West Virginia, is nearly 70 feet tall and
300 feet in diameter. Other mounds have even been shown to be oriented in a way that allows for
astronomical alignments such as solstices and equinoxes.
Mound building cultures spread out in size and importance. The first culture, the Adena, lived in
present-day Southern Ohio and the surrounding areas. The succeeding cultures united to create an
impressive trade system that allowed each culture to influence the other. The Hopewell exchange
included groups of people throughout the continental Eastern United States. There began to be
considerable social stratification within these people. This organization predates the emergence of the
tribe as a socio-political group of people that would dominate later eastern and western native American
civilization.
The climax of this civilization was the Mississippian culture. The mound-building cultures had
progressed to social complexity comparable to Post-Roman, Pre-Consolidation Tribal England. Mounds
became numerous and some settlements had large complexes of them. Structures were frequently built
on top of the mounds. Institutional social inequalities existed, such as slavery and human sacrifice.
Cahokia, near the important trade routes of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, became an influential and
highly developed community. Extensive trade networks extended from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of
Mexico.
Cahokia was one of the great centers of Mississippian culture and its largest settlement of
Mississippi. The focal point of the settlement was the ceremonial mound called Monk s Mound. Monk s
Mound was the largest mound ever constructed by mound-building people and was nearly 100 feet tall
and 900 feet long. Excavation on the top of Monk s Mound has revealed evidence of a large building perhaps a temple - that could be seen throughout the city. The city was spread out on a large plain south
of Monks mound.
The city proper contained 120 mounds at a varying distances from the city center. The mounds
were divided into several different types, each of which may have had its own meaning and function. A
circle of posts immediate to Monks Mound marked a great variety of astronomical alignments. The city
was surrounded by a series of watchtowers and occupied a diamond shape pattern that was nearly 5
miles across. At its best, the city may have contained as many as 40,000 people making it the largest in
North America.
It is likely the Mississippian culture was dispersed by the onslaught of viral diseases, such as
smallpox, which were brought by European explorers. Urban areas were particularly vulnerable to these
diseases, and Cahokia was abandoned in the 1500s. The dispersal of tribes made it impractical to build
or maintain mounds and many were found abandoned by European explorers.

Contact with European Culture

European contact brought immediate changes in many tribes of North America. One of the most
significant changes to all Indian tribes was the introduction of viral diseases and epidemics. Smallpox was
probably the single biggest scourge to hit North America. Infected contagious Indians spread the plague
far inland almost immediately after early encounters with European settlers. Historians estimate that over
80% of all Native Americans died from diseases soon after first contact. The effects traumatized many
powerful and important cultures. Urban areas were particularly vulnerable and Native American culture
adapted by becoming more isolated, less unified, and with a renewed round of inter-tribal warfare as
tribes seized the opportunity to gain resources once owned by rivals.
On the other hand, Europeans brought invasive plants and animals. The horse was reintroduced to America (as original paleo-American populations of wild horses from the Bering land bridge
were extinct) and quickly adapted to free range on the sprawling great plains. Tribes of nomadic Native
Americans were quick to see the horses value as an increase in their mobility; allowing them to better
adapt to changing conditions and as a valuable asset in inter-tribal warfare. Along with Europeans
bringing plants and animals, the Europeans were able to take several plants such as corn back to their
native countries.

ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS TO BRITISH SUPERMACY

[27]

Advanced History of USA

The Triumph of Christopher Columbus

By the 15th Century European trade for luxuries such as spices and silk had inspired European
explorers to seek new routes to Asia. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 had
closed a crucial trade corridor. Trade throughout the Ottoman Empire was difficult and unreliable. Portugal
was in the lead in exploration, slowly exploring the shores of the African Continent in search of a better
route to the spices and luxuries of the Orient.
Then the Italian Christopher Columbus submitted plans for a voyage to Asia by sailing around
the world. By the late 15th century most educated Europeans knew the world was round. The Greek
mathematician Eratosthenes had accurately deduced that the world was approximately 25,000 miles in
diameter. Many of the experts studying Columbus s plans on behalf of the European monarchies he
approached for funding realized that this was too far for any contemporary sailing ship to go. Columbus
contested the measurements, claiming that the world was much smaller than was widely believed.
After approaching the monarchies of several Italian city-states, and repeated appeals to the
English and Portuguese monarchies, the Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella finally decided to
give Columbus a chance. King Ferdinand thought Columbus might find something to compete with the
neighboring kingdom of Portugal. Columbus set out on August 3rd, 1492. Five weeks later, after almost
being thrown overboard by his own crew, the long voyage ended when land was sighted. This was an
island called Guanahani (now known as San Salvador, in the island chain called the Bahamas). During
this voyage Columbus also explored what is now considered the northeast coast of Cuba and the
northern coast of Hispaniola. On his return to Spain, news of the new lands spread throughout Europe.
Columbus was to make three more voyages to the New World between 1492 and 1503, exploring the
Caribbean and the mainland of Central and South America. He imported sugar cane to the Americas,
beginning an important industry.
Columbus was granted authority by the Spanish Monarchy to claim land for the Spanish, begin a
settlement, trade for valuable goods or gold, and explore. He was also made governor of all the lands
which he found. Columbus become an increasingly savage and brutal governor in the course of his four
voyages. He enslaved and stole from the natives, at one point threatening to cut off the hands of any
native who failed to give him gold. He was retired, and to the end of his life he believed that he had
reached Asia.
It took another Italian explorer for Spain, Amerigo Vespucci, to correct this error. Amerigo
described the lands around his islands and tried to deduce their proximity to Asia. From his voyages,
Amerigo deduced that Columbus had found a new Continent. This new continent would be named
America.

French Empire in North America

Christopher Columbuss voyages inspired other European powers to seek out the new world as
well. Jacques Cartier, a respected mariner in his native France, proposed a trip to the North to investigate
whether Asia could be reached from another route. His trip in 1534 retraced much of the voyages of the
vikings and established contacts with natives in modern-day Canada. He explored some of northern
Canada, established friendly relations with the American Indians, and discovered that the St Lawrence
River region neither had abundant gold nor a northwest passage to Asia.
During the 16th century, the taming of Siberian wilderness by the Russians established a thriving
fur trade which created a great demand for fur throughout Europe. France was quick to realize that the
North held great potential as a provider of fur. Samuel de Champlain settled the first permanent
settlement in present-day Canada and created a thriving trade with the Native Americans for beaver pelts
and other animal hides.
Meanwhile, in the South, Early French Protestants, called Huguenots, had the opportunity to
leave hostile European lands while advancing French claims to the new world. Settlements in present-day
Florida and Georgia would create tension with Spanish conquistadors, who after conquering Caribbean
lands would begin to expand their search for new lands. In contrast to these French Protestant colonies,
in the 17th century French members of the Catholic order of Jesuits organized a settlement in what would
become Maine, and began missionary efforts in what would become lower Canada and upper New York
State.

Spanish Empire in North America

The Spanish conquistador Ponce de Leon was an early visitor to the Americas, traveling to the
new world on Columbuss second voyage. He became the first governor of the present-day area of
Puerto Rico in 1509. However, upon the death of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish did not allow
Christopher s son to succeed. Like his father, he had committed atrocities against the Native Americans
of the Caribbean. The two governors were released and replaced with successors from Spain.
Ponce De Leon, freed of his governorship, decided to explore areas to the north, where there
was rumored to be a fountain of youth that restored the youth of anyone drinking from it. Ponce de Leon
found a peninsula on the coast of North America, called the new land Florida and chartered a
colonizing expedition. His role was brief: attacked by Native American forces, he died in nearby Cuba.
By the early 16th century, Spanish conquistadors had penetrated deep into the Central and

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [28]

South American continents. Native American cultures had collected large troves of gold and valuables
and given them to leaders of these prosperous empires. The conquistadors, believing they held
considerable military and technological superiority over these cultures, attacked and destroyed the Aztecs
in 1521 and the Incas in 1532.
The wealth seized by the Spanish would lead to piracy and a new wave of settlements as the
other colonial powers became increasingly hostile towards Spain. Many areas that had been colonized by
Spain were inundated with French and English pirates.
By 1565, Spanish forces looked to expand their influence to the New World by attacking the
French settlement of Fort Caroline. The Spanish navy overwhelmed 200 French Huguenot settlers,
slaughtering them even as they surrendered to Spain s superior military might. Spain formed the
settlement of St. Augustine as an outpost to ensure that French Huguenots where no longer welcome in
the area. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city in North America.
Catholicism was introduced to the American colonies by the Spanish settlers in what is now
present day Florida (1513) and the South West United States. The first Christian worship service was a
Catholic mass held in modern day Pensacola Florida in 1559. Spain established the first permanent
European Catholic settlement in St. Augustine, Florida in 1565, to help the settlers complete the moral
imperative which was to convert all the Native peoples to Christianity, and to also to help support the
treasure fleets of Spain. During the time period of 1635-1675 Franciscans operated between 40 and 70
mission stations, attempting to convert about 26,000 Hispanicized natives who organized themselves
into 4 provinces, Timucua, in central Florida, Guale, along the coast of Georgia, Apalachee on the
northeastern edge of the Gulf of Mexico, and Apalachicola to the west.

British Empire in North America

England funded an initial exploratory trip shortly after Christopher Columbus s first voyage.
Departing England in 1501, John Cabot explored the North American continent. He correctly supposed
that the spherical shape of the earth made the North, where the longitudes are much shorter, a quicker
route to the New World than a trip to the South islands Columbus was exploring. Encouraged, he asked
the English monarchy for a more substantial expedition to further explore and settle the lands which he
had found. The ships departed and were never seen again. England remained preoccupied with political
affairs for much of the 16th century. This was despite the insistence of the author Richard Haklyt, who
translated some of the accounts of exploration into English. He wrote that England ought to seek colonies
in America, specifically in Virginia.
By the beginning of the 17th century, England, Scotland, and other English possessions had
formed the nation of Great Britain and was becoming a formidable foe on the world s stage. The quickly
expanding British navy was preparing for a massive strike upon the Spanish armada.
Sir Walter Raleigh, who had gained considerable favor from Queen Elizabeth I by suppressing
rebellions in Ireland, sought to establish an empire in the new world. His Roanoke colony would be
relatively isolated from existing settlements in North America. He funded the colony with his own money,
unlike the previous explorers funded and sponsored by monarchies. It is assumed that the colony was
destroyed during a three year period in which English was at war with Spain and did serious damage to
the Spanish navy.
The war left the British monarchy so drained of money and resources that the monarchy sold a
charter containing lands between present-day South Carolina and the US-Canada border to two
competing groups of investors, the Plymouth Company and the London Company. The two companies
were given the North and South portions of this area, respectively. There was an overlapping aria of
development in the middle of the two Companies, a place both could exploit provided one Company s
settlement wasn t within a hundred miles of the other s settlement. The Northern Plymouth settlement in
Maine failed and was abandoned, but the London company established a Jamestown settlement in 1606.

Virginia and Jamestown

The new area was named Virginia, after both the organizing Virginia Company of London and
Queen Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. Founded in 1607 with a charter from the Virginia Company,
Jamestown was the first permanent English colony in the Americas. However, the swampy terrain was a
breeding ground for mosquitoes, which carried dysentery, malaria, and smallpox, diseases that the
English did not know. Many of the settlers fell sick and died shortly after.
In addition, Virginias first government was weak, and its individuals frequently quarreled over
policies. The colonists frantically searched for gold, silver, and gems, ignoring their own sicknesses.
Indian raids further weakened defense and unification, and Jamestown began to die off. By the winter of
1609-1610, also known as the Starving Time, only 60 settlers remained from the original 500 passengers.
Two men helped the colony to survive: John Smith and John Rolfe. Smith, who arrived in Virginia
in 1608, introduced an ultimatum: those who did not work would not receive food or pay. The colonists at
last learned how to raise crops and trade with the nearby Indians, with whom Smith had made peace. In
1612, the English businessman Rolfe discovered that Virginia had ideal conditions for growing tobacco.
This discovery, and the breeding of a new, sweeter strain, led to the plant becoming the colony s major
cash crop. Tobacco was then used as medicine against the plague. With English demand for tobacco
rising, Virginia had found a way to support itself economically.

[29]

Advanced History of USA

In 1619, Virginia set up the House of Burgesses, the first elected legislative assembly in
America. It marked the beginnings of self-government, replacing the martial law that was previously
imposed on the colonists. However, at the same time Virginia was declared a crown colony. Its charter
was transferred from the Virginia Company to the Crown of England, which meant that Jamestown was
now a colony run by the English monarchy. While the House of Burgesses was still allowed to run the
government, the king also appointed a royal governor to settle disputes and enforce certain British
policies.

Advent of Europeans
(15th & 16th Cent.)
Introduction:
In modern times India was invaded by the Europeans. The Portuguese, The Dutch, The English
and The French. The Portuguese are the 1st to come to India. Finally, it was the British who remained in
India.
There were several factors which made the Europeans come to India. The capturing of
Constantinople by the Ottoman Trucks in 1453, the demand for spices of the east in Europe and the
monopoly of the Arabs over trade & commerce in the East.

Portuguese:
When Vasco-da-Gama landed at Calicut on 21st may 1498, the sea route to India was discovered.
Thus came the Portuguese to India. Vasco-da-Gama was well-received by the Zamorin of Calicut Mana
Vikramma. When Vasco-da-Gama went back he carried with him products of the East. He returned to India
two more times.
The Government of Portugal established the Portuguese Trading Company to regulate trade and
commerce. The company was to function under a Viceroy. Francisco De Almeida became the 1 st
Portuguese Viceroy in India. He initiated the Blue Water Policy, which aimed at the Portuguese Mastery of
the Sea. And confined Portuguese relationship with India only for the purpose of trade & commerce.

Alfonzo-De-Albuquerque (1509-1550):
Alfonzo-De-Albuquerque the greatest Portuguese Viceroy in India. The Portuguese trading
centres which were confined to Calicut & Cochin, were now extended to other places under Albuquerque.
He conquered Goa in 1510 from the Sultan of Bijapur. West Asia in the Persian Gulf and Malaysia in the
East were also conquered Diu & Daman also became Portuguese trading centres. In Bengal, Hooghly &
Balasore became the Portuguese trading centres. Goa became the Headquarters of the Portuguese in
India. Albuquerque thus made the Portuguese strong in India. He was an efficient administer, he integrated
the locals into the administration. He encouraged the propagation of Christianity & inter-marriage with the
natives. The Viceroys who came after Albuquerque were weak & inefficient. As a result the Portuguese
began to decline in India. They finally left India in the mid 17 th Century A.D. But three of their settlement,
namely Goa, Diu & Daman remained in their hands till 1961.

Causes for Decline of Portuguese:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

After Albuquerque the Portuguese administration in India became inefficient because his
successor were weak & inefficient.
The Portuguese officials were neglected by the home government. Their salaries were low. Thus
they indulged in corruption and malpractice.
The Portuguese adopted forced inter-marriage & conversion to the Christian faith which made the
natives hostile.
In 1580 Portugal was merged with Spain which neglected the Portuguese interest in India.
The Portuguese has to face the stiff competition of the Dutch in India.
Portuguese discovered Brazil which diverted their attention from India.

The Impact of Portuguese:

1.
2.
3.
4.

The Portuguese began to spread Christianity in the Malabar & the Konkan coast. Missionaries
like St. Francis Xavier, Father Rudolf & Father Monserette played a leading role in propagating
the Christian faith.
The Missionaries started schools & colleges along the west coast, where education was imparted
in the native language.
The missionaries undertook research on Indian history and culture. Fa Heras has made a deep
study on the Indus Valley Civilization.
The Portuguese brought the printing press to India. The Bible came to be printed in the Kannada
& Malayalam language.

5.

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [30]

The Portuguese brought some crops to India like Tobacco, some fruits & vegetables were also
introduced by him potatoes, ladys finger, chilly, pineapple, sapota, groundnuts, etc.

The Dutch
The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch. The East India Company of Netherlands was formed
in 1592 to trade with East Indies. Cornelius Houtman is the first Dutch to come to India. The Dutch
established trading centres at Nagapatnam in Tamil Nadu, Machalipatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Chinsora in
Bengal & at Mahe on the Malabar Coast. The headquarters of the Dutch in India was Nagapatnam. The
Dutch could not withstand the stiff competition of the Portuguese and the English and thus left India. The
complete monopoly of the Dutch over trade and commerce of Indonesia another reason as to why they left
India.

The English
The Portuguese and the Dutch were followed by the English. The charter of Queen Elizabeth
issued in 1600 authorised the London company to carry on trade & commerce with the east and other
countries. Later King James of England extended the charter for an indefinite period. The first Englishman
to come to India for the purpose of trade & commerce is Captain Williams Hawkins. He visited the court of
Moghul Emperor Jehangir & received permission to trade at Surat. Later Captain best who came to India
received permission to start a factory at Surat Capt. Best defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Swalley
near Surat. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe visited the court of Jehangir and obtained trade concessions.
The English in the course of time established trading centres at different places in India. Madras
became their trading centre whish was fortified by constructing Fort St. George Machalipatnam in A.P.,
Hariharpur & Balasora in Orissa & Kasim Bazar & Hooghly in Bengal and Patna in Bihar became the
trading centres of the English.
The company obtained Bombay from the English King Charles II who received it as a part of
dowry, when he married the Potuguese Princess Catherine. Ahmedabad Broach in Gujarat & Agra in Uttar
Pradesh also became their trading centres. The English acquired three villages in Bengal which later
developed to become Calcutta. The later Moghul Emperor Farookh Siyar granted the English the firman
which permitted them to carry on duty free trade in Bengal. The Headquarters of the English Company in
India was Madras.
Thus the English permanently settled in India till 1947. In 1707 the different trading companies
came together to form the United Company of the Merchants of England trading to East Indies. It was
this Company which carried on trade & commerce with India till 1857.

The French
The last Europeans to come to India is the French. Colbert the minister of Louie XIV, the Bourban
king of France established the French East India Company in 1664 which was authorized to carry on
commerce & colonise the East Indies.
In 1667 came Caron, the first French to India. The French first traded at Surat. The well-known
French Viceroy in India is Franco Martin. He extended the French commercial activities in India by
establishing French settlements at Balasore, Chinsora & Machalipatnam. Pondicherry the most important
French trading centre in India was also established by him Pondicherry became the Headquarters of
French in India.
The interference of French in the affairs of the Carnatic under Duplex brought the French into
conflict with the English.
Thus was fought the Carnatic wars in which the French were defeated & consequently left India in
the 1760s competition from the English & the discovery of Indo-China are the causes which made the
French leave India.

The Establishment of British Supremacy in India

Ever since the British came to India they have to face the contention of the Europeans powers
like the Dutch, the Portuguese & the French.
The Portuguese & the Dutch however were not serious competitor to the English. The only real
rival of the English was the French. The objective of the English to establish a complete monopoly of trade
& commerce in India brought them into conflict with the French. As a result was fought the Carnatic was
between the English and the French in India, which was to decide as to who was supreme in India.
The causes of the Carnatic wars between the English & the French was because of the difference
that existed between them outside India.

Carnatic Wars
First Carnatic War (1746-1748):
The cause of the first Carnatic war is the question of succession to the Austrian throne. The
differences between the English & the French regarding this event had its effect felt upon India. When the
war began to Europe in 1746, the English in India expected military from the home Government to fight

[31] Advanced History of USA

against the French.
Duplex, the Governor of Pondicherry called for help from the French Government of Mauritius.
Accordingly La Bourdonnais the French General, came to India & even conquered Madras. Duplex did not
surrender Madras as promised to the Nawab of Arcot, Anwaruddin & Duplex in which Amuaruddin was
defeated in the Battle of St. Thomas. Thus the French under Duplex were victorious in the First Carnatic
War.
When the Treaty of Aix La Chapelle signed between the English & the French in Europe the war
came to an end, in India as well. Accordingly to the treaty the French agreed to return Madras to the
English & the English on their part were to surrender the French territories which they had captured.

Second Carnatic War (1748-1756):

The main cause of the second Carnatic war is the question of succession to the throne of
Hyderabad. On the death of the Nizam of Hyderabad, his son Nasir Jang and his grandson Muzafar Jang
contended for the throne of Hyderbad. Musaffar Jang sought that help of Chanda Sahib, who wanted to
become the king of Arcot. Chanda Saheb sought the help of the French. On the other hand Nazir Jang
sought the help of the British.
The war broke out in 1748 with the help of the French Governord Duplex. Chanda Saheb
defeated & killed Anwaruddin and became the Nawab of Arcot. Musaffor Jang became the Nizam of
Hyderabad. Thus Duplex successfully asserted the French supremacy against the English. On the death
of Musaffor Jang, Salabath Jang was placed on the throne of Hyderabad by the French General Bussy for
which the French were rewarded with Northern Sarkars. Howeverthe French success were short lived.
Robert Clive an Englishman changed the course of the war. He defeated Chanda Saheb &
captured Arcot & Trichunapalli & placed on the throne of Arcot Anwaruddins son Mohammed Ali. As the
French forced defeat the home Government recalled Duplex & appointed Godehue as the Governor. As
the French could no longer continue with the fight, they were ready for peace. The war came to an end
when the Treaty of Trichunapalli was signed. Accordingly the English & the French agreed to not to
interfere in the affairs of Carnatic and secondly they agreed to exchange prisoners of war. Robert Clive
took the Northern Sarkars.

Third Carnatic War:

The cause of the third Carnatic war is the seven years war that broke out in Europe between the
English & the French.
During the third Carnatic war the French General was Count De Lally. The French lost the
support of Arcot as the Nizam Salbath Jang had joined the English. The war began when Count De Lally
attacked Madras. But he was defeated by the English General Sir Eyre Coote in the Battle of Wandiwash.
The English captured Pondicherry & Count De Lally was forced to surrender Karaikal & Jinji were also
captured by the English. Thus the French lost the Carnatic war.
The war came to end with the signing of treaty of Paris in Europe between the English & the
French. Accordingly the French settlements were to be returned but the French were not to build
fortification. Secondly the English & the French were to exchange prisoners of war.
The Carnatic wars thus prepared the Ground for the English to establish their supremacy in India
in the long run.

An Ongoing Voyage: What Became of America

By 1492 people had lived in the Western Hemisphere for tens of thousands of years. For much of
this time it is believed that they experienced virtually no recorded, sustained contact with other parts of the
worldEurope, Africa, or Asia.
Millions of people lived in an area some five times the size of Europe. In strikingly diverse
habitats and climates they developed possibly the most varied and productive agriculture in the world.
Their lifestyles and belief systems differed widely and they spoke hundreds of distinct languages.
Throughout the hemisphere, states and centers of high civilization had risen and fallen. The
dynamic Mexica (Aztec) and Inca empires were still expanding at this time and internal migration and
warfare were common. The peoples did not see themselves as part of an entity. Only later would this area
be given a unifying nameAmericaand the people labeled Indians by Europe.
We have focused on five geographical areas of the region to represent the variety and complexity
of peoples and cultures before 1492: the Caribbean, Middle America, the Andean region, the South
Atlantic, and North America. In order to understand what came to be called America we are often
dependent on European observations.

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492

[32]

The CaribbeanIsland Society

The largest group of people living in the islands of the Caribbean were the Tanos. Their villages
were governed by chieftains, or caciques, who enjoyed some distinctions of rank but received tribute in
times of crisis only. Related families lived together in large houses built of poles, mats, and thatch.
The Tanos were known for their fine wood carving and hammocks woven from cotton. Not a
particularly warlike people, they played ceremonial ball games, possibly as a substitute for warfare and as
an outlet for competition between villages and chiefdoms.
The other major group living in the Caribbean were the more mobile and aggressive Caribs, who
took to the sea in huge dugout canoes. By the late 15th century, the Caribs had expanded into the smaller
islands of the eastern Caribbean from the mainland, displacing or intermingling with the Tanos.
Oviedo came to America in 1514, where for over thirty years he compiled detailed ethnographic
descriptions of the goods, products, peoples and customs of the Caribbean and Central America. He
introduced Europe to a wide variety of previously unheard of New World exotica such as the pineapple,
the canoe, the smoking of tobacco, and the hammock.
The Indians sleep in a bed they call an 'hamaca' which looks like a piece of cloth with both an
open and tight weave, like a net ... made of cotton ... about 2.5 or 3 yards long, with many henequen twine
strings at either end which can be hung at any height. They are good beds, and clean ... and since the
weather is warm they require no covers at all ... and they are portable so a child can carry it over the arm.
The hammock was perfected in the Caribbean and Brazil and was first introduced to Europeans
during Columbus' first voyage of 1492.
Hammock in Fernndez de Oviedo y Valds, La Historia general y natural de las Indias... (Seville, 1535).
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress

Middle Atlantic Cultures

Before 1492, modern-day Mexico, most of Central America, and the southwestern United States
comprised an area now known as Meso or Middle America. Meso American peoples shared many
elements of culture: pictographic and hieroglyphic forms of writing; monumental architecture; a diet
primarily of corn, beans, squash and chiles; the weaving of cotton cloth; and extensive trade networks.
While most people lived by working the land, many societies also included nobles and priests, warriors,
craftsmen, and merchants.
The Mexica (Aztec) had formed a powerful state in the central valley of Mexico and conquered
many neighboring states by the late 15th century. The bustling island capital, Tenochtitlan, with a
population of perhaps 200,000, was located in the middle of Lake Texcoco. Groups like the Tarascans in
the west and Zapotecs to the south, however, remained relatively independent. Even states that had been
absorbed by the Mexica retained their rulers as well as their religion, language, and lands.
This highly accurate calendar was developed by the people of Mexico prior to 1492. The
tonalpohualli, or sacred calendar, ruled the life of each Mexica and was consulted on all important
occasions. It was made up of 260 days, or 20 months of 13 days.
The Tarascans inhabited Michoacn, an area west of Tenochtitln (present-day Mexico City) and
south of Guadalajara. This illustration depicts schematically various occupational groups existing before
the coming of the Spanish. Groups of figures sit, each with an object or symbol such as a net, a loom, a
bow and arrow, a writing instrument, feathers, etc., that identifies the occupation of a specific group. A
couple of figures in the upper part of the illustration sit alone and are identified as being the Cazonci and
su gobernador (their governor).
This well-illustrated manuscript from Mexico chronicles the history and customs of the Tarascan
people before as well as during the Conquest in the area of Michoacn. Although written by a Franciscan
friar, it is largely based on the accounts of informants among the Tarascan nobility and priests, thus
essentially expressing an indigenous .

[33]

Advanced History of USA

The Oztoticpac (Mexico) Lands Map is a central Mexican pictorial document with Spanish and
Nahuatl writing showing litigation surrounding the Oztoticpac estate within the city of Texcoco, ca. 1540. Its
glyph, a symbolic figure, corresponds to the name above the caves (oztotl,cave; icpac, above), a hill
stylized in the shape of a woman. The document on pre-European amatl paper involves the land and
property ownership of the ruler of Texcoco who was executed during the early days of the Spanish
Conquest in the Central Valley of Mexico. The execution left in its wake litigation involving ownership of
properties claimed by various sons of Nezahualpilli, the lords of Texcoco.
Most of the drawings on the map are plans of fields with indigenous measurements and place
glyphs. Near the upper left is the plan of several houses within a precinct. On the upper right is a map
showing about .

The AndesLife in the Highlands

Organized states and advanced cultures had long flourished in the Andean mountain region. The
semi-arid highlands were the center of the far-flung Inca empire, Tahuantinsuyu, that extended from
today's Chile to Colombia. Cuzco, the capital, was located at 10,000 feet above sea level.
Impressive adaptations to this unique environment allowed civilizations to thrive at higher
altitudes than anywhere else in the world. The Andean peoples had learned to freeze-dry foods by taking
advantage of the daily extremes of temperature at high altitudes. They kept herds of llamas and alpacas in
the altiplano, weaving textiles from the wool. Using irrigation and terracing, they developed varieties of
potatoes at high altitudes; grew corn and coca at lower levels; and raised cotton in the lowlands. They
were knowledgeable miners, fine metalworkers, and great builders.
A rotating system of labor for public works that was traditional among Andean peoples was used
to construct thousands of miles of roads. These roads greatly facilitated the movement of troops, peoples,
and goods.
The huge fortifications surrounding the Incan capital of Cuzco, built to protect and to solidify Incan
control, are outstanding examples of the advanced engineering techniques of Andean peoples. Stones of
several tons in weight were precisely cut and placed in jigsaw-like fashion, without the aid of mortar, to
form massive walls. These stone structures have withstood numerous earthquakes during the intervening
centuries.
This magnificent center of Incan culture, high in the Andes, is testimony to the extraordinary
construction capability of Andean peoples (i.e., intricate stone construction without the aid of mortar)
before the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century.

South Atlantic Peoples

The coastal areas of eastern South America and the interior of the Amazon basin were home to
several million people at the end of the 15th century. This enormous area, bordering the Andes mountains
on the west and the Atlantic Ocean on the east, extends from present-day Argentina to the Guianas.
Socio-political structures were usually not highly developed in this area. The Tup-speaking
groups lived in villages in which related families resided together in large houses. They practiced slashand-burn agriculture, and hunted and fished using blow guns and poison-tipped arrows. Manioc, a tuber,
was their staple crop. They engaged in warfare and some groups practiced ritual cannibalism. Tup groups
eventually overcame the Tapuyas, mobile hunters and gatherers.

North AmericaDiverse Societies

In the 16th century, North Americaoccupied today by Canada and most of the United States
was home to hundreds of groups speaking a striking variety of languages and dialects. They lived in
diverse settings, from the Algonquian of the eastern woodlands, to the Caddo and Wichita of the grassy
Midwestern plains, and the Taos of the arid southwest.
Some North American tribes, like the Iroquois, were organized into large political confederations.
Extensive trade networks - sometimes operating over long distances - allowed for the exchange of

Introduction: From Ancient Times to 1492 [34]

products such as animal skins, copper, shells, pigments, pottery, and foodstuffs. Housing styles varied
from covered wood to multilevel dwellings constructed of stone and mud, and transportable shelters made
of poles and animal hides. Many tribes played games such as lacrosse and stickball. Religion was an
integral part of daily life, tying them to the land, to other living things, and to the spirits that animated their
world and provided order to social relations.
The people of Secotan lived in permanent villages near today's North Carolina Outer Banks. Like
the northern Algonquians, they farmed collectively in the growing season and dispersed into family units to
hunt during the colder months.
The engraving, based on a drawing made by John White in the 1580s, shows careful
management and use of the land. Crops include tobacco and pumpkins, corn in three stages of growth,
and sunflowers, while domesticated deer graze in the adjoining woods. The buildings include family units
and storehouses for the surplus corn.
The Secotan traded with other groups like the powerful Mandoag of the Piedmont area of North
Carolina, who acted as middlemen in the copper trade.