History of The USA CH 2 British Colony

Chapter 2
US AS A BRITISH COLONY
British Colonization of the Americas
ritish colonization of the Americas (including colonization by both the Kingdom of England and the
Kingdom of Scotland before the Acts of Union, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707)
began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia and reached its peak when colonies had been established
throughout the Americas. The English, and later the British, were among the most important
colonizers of the Americas, and their American empire came to rival the Spanish American colonies in
military and economic might.
Types of Colonies
Three types of colonies existed in the British Empire in America during the height of its power in
the eighteenth century. These were charter colonies, proprietary colonies and royal colonies.
1. Charter Colonies: Charter colony is one of the three classes of colonial government established
in the 17th century English colonies in North America. The colonies of Rhode Island, Connecticut,
and Massachusetts Bay were charter colonies. In a charter colony, the King granted a charter to
the colonial government establishing the rules under which the colony was to be governed. The
charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut granted the colonists significantly more political liberty
than other colonies. Rhode Island and Connecticut continued to use their colonial charters as
their State constitutions after the American Revolution.
2. Proprietary Colonies: In the British Empire, all land belonged to the king, and it was his
prerogative to divide. Therefore all colonial properties were partitioned by royal charter into one of
four types: proprietary, royal, joint stock, or covenant. King Charles II used the proprietary
solution to reward allies and focus his own attention on Britain itself. He offered his friends
colonial charters which facilitated private investment and colonial self-government. The charters
made the proprietor the effective ruler, albeit one ultimately responsible to English law and the
king. Charles II gave New Netherlands to his younger brother The Duke of York, who named it
New York. He gave an area to his political ally William Penn who named it Pennsylvania.
3. Royal/Crown Colonies: Crown, or royal, colonies were ruled by a governor appointed by the
monarch. By the middle of the 19th century, the sovereign appointed royal governors on the
advice of the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Under the name of royal colony, the first of
what would later become known as Crown colonies was the English Colony of Virginia in the
present-day United States, after the Crown, in 1624, revoked the royal charter it had granted to
the Virginia Company, taking over direct administration.
After the end of the Napoleonic Wars (18031815), British territories in the Americas were slowly
granted more responsible government. In 1838 the Durham Report recommended full responsible
government for Canada but this did not get fully implemented for another decade. Eventually with the
Confederation of Canada, the Canadian colonies were granted a significant amount of autonomy and
became a self-governing Dominion in 1867. Other colonies in the rest of the Americas followed at a much
slower pace. In this way, two countries in North America, ten in the Caribbean, and one in South America
have received their independence from the United Kingdom. All of these are members of the
Commonwealth of Nations and nine are Commonwealth realms. The eight remaining British overseas
territories in the Americas have varying degrees of self-government.
British colonies in North America

The Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada and
the Spanish colony of Florida in 1763. After being renamed the Province of Quebec, the former French
Canada was divided in two Provinces, the Canadas, consisting of the old settled country of Lower Canada
(today Quebec) and the newly settled Upper Canada (today Ontario).
In the north, the Hudsons Bay Company actively traded for fur with the indigenous peoples, and
had competed with French, Aboriginal, and Metis fur traders. The company came to control the entire
drainage basin of Hudson Bay called Ruperts Land. The small part of the Hudson Bay drainage south of
the 49th parallel went to the United States in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818.
US As a British Colony [36]

Thirteen of Great Britains colonies rebelled with the American Revolutionary War, beginning in
1775, primarily over representation, local laws and tax issues, and established the United States of
America, which was recognised internationally with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 3 September
1783.
The British Colonies in North America, 17631775
Great Britain also colonised the west coast of North America, indirectly via the Hudsons Bay
Company licenses west of the Rocky Mountains, the Columbia District and New Caledonia fur district,
most of which were jointly claimed as the Oregon Country by the United States from 1818 until the 49th
parallel was established as the international boundary west of the Rockies by the Oregon Treaty of 1846.
The Colony of Vancouver Island, founded in 1849, and the Colony of British Columbia, founded in 1858,
were combined in 1866 with the name Colony of British Columbia until joining Confederation in 1871.
British Columbia also was expanded with the inclusion of the Stikine Territory in 1863, and upon joining
Confederation with the addition of the Peace River Block, formerly part of Ruperts Land.
In 1867, the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada (the southern
portion of modern-day Ontario and Quebec) combined to form a self-governing dominion, named Canada,
within the British Empire (the term kingdom was avoided so as to not provoke the United States).
Quebec (including what is now the southern portion of Ontario) and Nova Scotia (including what is now
New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island) had been ceded to Britain by the French. The colonies of
Prince Edward Island and British Columbia joined over the next six years, and Newfoundland joined in
1949. Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory were ceded to Canada in 1870. This area now
consists of the provinces of Manitoba (admitted after negotiation between Canada and a Mtis provisional
government in 1870), Saskatchewan, and Alberta (both created in 1905), as well as the Northwest
Territories, the Yukon Territory (created 1898, following the start of the Klondike Gold Rush), and Nunavut
(created in 1999).
List of English and British colonies in North America
Roanoke Colony, founded 1586, abandoned the next year. Second attempt in 1587 disappeared
(also called the Lost Colony).
Cuttyhunk Island, established as a smallfortandtrading postbyBartholomew Gosnoldin 1602,
abandoned after one month.
Virginia Company, chartered 1606 and became theVirginia Colonyin 1624
London Company
Jamestown, Virginia, founded 1607 (briefly abandoned in 1610)
Bermuda, islands located in the North Atlantic, first settled in 1609 by the London Virginia
Company; administration passed in 1615 to theSomers Isles Company, formed by the same
shareholders. Known officially as the Somers Isles, they remain today a British overseas territory.
Citie of Henricopolis, founded in 1611 as an alternative to the swampy Jamestown site and was
destroyed in theIndian massacre of 1622.
Plymouth Company
Popham Colony, founded 1607, abandoned 1608
Society of Merchant Venturers(Newfoundland)
Cupers Cove, founded 1610, abandoned in the 1620s
Bristols Hope, founded 1618, abandoned in the 1630s
London and Bristol Company(Newfoundland)
US As a British Colony
[37]
The massacre of Jamestown settlers in 1622. Soon the colonists in the South feared all natives as
enemies.
New Cambriol, founded 1617, abandoned before 1637.

Renews, founded 1615, (abandoned in 1619)
St. Johns, Newfoundland, chartered by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583; seasonal settlements ca.
1520;informal year-round settlers before 1620.
Plymouth Council for New England
Plymouth Colony, founded 1620, merged with Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691
Ferryland, Newfoundland, granted to George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimorein 1620, first settlers in
August 1621
Province of Maine, granted 1622, sold to Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1677
South Falkland, Newfoundland, founded 1623 by Henry Cary, 1st Viscount Falkland
Province of New Hampshire, later New Hampshire settled in 1623, see also New Hampshire
Grants
Dorchester Company Colony, (Dorchester Company planted an unsuccessful fishing colony on
Cape Ann at modern Gloucester, Massachusetts in 1624)
Salem Colony, later Salem, Massachusetts, settled in 1628, merged with Massachusetts Bay
Colony the next year
Massachusetts Bay Colony, later part of Massachusetts, founded 1629
New Scotland, in present Nova Scotia, 16291632
Connecticut Colony, later part of Connecticut founded 1633
Province of Maryland, later Maryland, founded in 1634
The Treaty of William Penn with the Indians. Penns Treatywas never violated.
New Albion, chartered in 1634, failed by 164950, not to be confused with Nova Albion on the
Pacific coast (see next section)
Saybrook Colony, founded 1635, merged with Connecticut in 1644
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, first settled in 1636
New Haven Colony, founded 1638, merged with Connecticut in 1665
Gardiners Island, founded 1639, now part of East Hampton, New York
Province of New York, captured 1664
Province of New Jersey, captured in 1664
divided into West Jersey and East Jersey after 1674, each held by its own company of
Proprietors.
Province of Pennsylvania, later Pennsylvania, founded 1681 as an English colony, although first
settled by Dutch and Swedes
Delaware Colony, later Delaware, separated from Pennsylvania in 1704
Province of Carolina
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Advanced History of USA

Province of North Carolina, first permanent English settlements in late 1600s (nearly a century
after the failed Roanoke Colony), became separate colony in 1710-12.
Province of South Carolina, first permanent English settlement in 1670, became separate colony
in 1710-12.
Province of Georgia, later Georgia; first settled in about 1670, formal colony in 1732
Nova Scotia, site of abortive Scottish colony in 1629; British colony 1713, but this did not
permanently include Cape Breton Island until 1758.
Province of Quebec, which had been called Canada under French rule. Canada was by far the
most settled portion of New France. Britain gained complete control of French Canada in 1759
1761, from the events within the North American theater of the Seven Years War; France ceded
title with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Became Canada East in the Province of Canada, which also
included Ontario (Upper Canada) as Canada West, from 1841 to 1867.
East Florida and West Florida, acquired from Spain in 1763 in exchange for returning Cuba,
taken from Spain in 1761; the Florida were recovered by Spain in 1783. Backwoods areas almost
unaffected by the Stamp Act Crisis of 1765, which unified the thirteen colonies that formed the
United States, not much for abstract principles, and grateful to the crown, they declined to send
representatives to the Continental Congress or to participate in any way in the independence
movement. After the Second Spanish period, they were acquired by the United States in 1821.
Island of St. John, separated from Nova Scotia 1769, renamed Prince Edward Island in 1798
New Brunswick, separated from Nova Scotia in 1784
Ontario, separated from Quebec in 1791 as the Province of Upper Canada until 1841, when it
became Canada Westin the Province of Canada.
Fur traders in Canada, trading with Indians, 1777
Province of Canada combined the colonies of Quebec (Lower Canada) and Ontario (Upper
Canada) from 1841 to 1867.
Colony of Vancouver Island, founded by the Hudsons Bay Company at Fort Victoriain 1843.
Received royal charter for the Island as a colony in 1849, and merged with the colony of British
Columbia in 1866.
Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands, founded in 1852, merged with the Colony of Vancouver
Island in 1863.
Colony of British Columbia, aka the Mainland Colony or the Gold Colony, founded in 1858 from
the New Caledoniafur district and the remnant of the Columbia fur district north of the 49th
parallel (see below). The colony was expanded with the addition of most of the Stikine
Territory(aka Stickeen Territory) and the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands in 1863.
Colony of British Columbia, formed in 1866 from a merger of the Vancouver Island and Mainland
Colonies. The name British Columbia was chosen for the newly-merged colony despite the
opposition from Vancouver Island colonists.
USA AS ANENGLISH COLONY

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Patterns of Colonization
Massachusetts Bay Colony
New York
Patterns of Colonization in the Other Early Colonies
Portrait of the British Colonies
Early Technology
Mercantilism, Salutary Neglect and British Interference
I.
Mercantilism
II.
The Lords of Trade
III.
Navigation Acts
Indians in the 1700s
Philadelphia Election Riot
US As a British Colony
[39]
10. Education
1.Patterns of Colonization
The islands of Great Britain changed greatly in the Renaissance, resulting in the Church of
England, the British Civil War, and total transformation of economic, political, and legal systems. Yet
through this time, despite pressure from other nations and Americas own Natives, a diverse set of English
colonies were planted and thrived.
These new colonies were funded in three different ways. In one plan, corporate colonies were
established by joint stock companies. A joint stock company was a project in which people would invest
shares of stock into building a new colony. Depending on the success of the colony, each investor would
receive profit based on the shares he had bought. This investment was less risky than starting a colony
from scratch, and each investor influenced how the colony was run. These investors often elected their
own public officials. (An example of a joint stock company on another continent was the British East India
Company.) Virginia was settled in this way.
Proprietary colonies were owned by a person or family who made laws and appointed officials as
he or they pleased. Development was often a direct result of this ownership. Charles II granted William
Penn the territory now known as Pennsylvania. Penns new colony gave refuge to Quakers, a group of
millennialist Protestants who opposed the Church of England. (Quakers did not have ministers and did not
hold to civil or religious inequality, making them a dangerous element in hierarchical societies.) Penn was
an outspoken Quaker and had written many pamphlets defending the Quaker faith. He also invited settlers
from other countries and other Protestant minorities, and even some Catholics.
Finally, royal colonies were under the direct control of the King, who appointed a Royal Governor.
The resulting settlement was not always identical to England. For example, England had broken with
Catholicism during the reign of Henry the Eighth, and the Old Faith was seen not only as religious heresy
but the prelude to domination by other countries. Yet Marylands grant of toleration of Catholics was
granted as a boon from the British Crown. In 1634, Lord Baltimore appointed George Calvert of England to
settle a narrow strip of land north of Virginia and south of Pennsylvania as a Catholic colony via a royal
charter. Fifteen years later, in 1649, he signed the Act of Toleration, which proclaimed religious freedom for
its colonists. Despite the original charter, Protestants later became the majority faith. After Lord Baltimores
death several years later, Margaret Brent, the wife of an esteemed landowner in Maryland, executed his
will as governor of the colony. She defied gender roles in the colonies by being the first woman of nonroyal heritage to govern an English colony.
2.Massachusetts Bay Colony

The Massachusetts Bay Colony, another corporate colony, was founded as a place far from
England where its religious dissenters could live. The Puritans, a group of radical Protestants who wanted
what they called a return to the faith of the Bible, suffered torture and execution because they disagreed
with the official Church of England. In 1620, forty-one Puritans (who called themselves Pilgrims) sailed for
the new world. Their own contemporary accounts show that the Pilgrims originally intended to settle the
Hudson River region near present day Long Island, New York. Once Cape Cod was sighted, they turned
south to head for the Hudson River, but encountered treacherous seas and nearly shipwrecked. They then
decided to return to Cape Cod rather than risk another attempt to head south. After weeks of scouting for a
suitable settlement area, the Mayflowers passengers finally landed at Plymouth in present-day
Massachusetts on December 26, 1620. They called it Massachusetts after the name of the Indian tribe
then living there.
Passengers of the Mayflower signing the Mayflower Compact

William Bradford, who was selected as a governor after the death of John Carver, wrote a journal
that helps us to better understand the hardships colonists endured, encounters with the Native Americans,
and ultimately, the success of the colony. The Pilgrims agreed to govern themselves in the manner set
forth in the Mayflower Compact, which signed on the Pilgrims ship, The Mayflower. After two years they
abandoned the communal form of partnership begun under the Compact and in 1623 assigned individual
plots of land to each family to work.
Ten years later, the joint-stock Massachusetts Bay Company acquired a charter from King
Charles of England. The colony of Plymouth was eventually absorbed by Massachusetts Bay, but it
remained separate until 1691.
A large group of Pilgrims later migrated to the new colony of Massachusetts Bay. In keeping with
its mother Church of England, the colony did not provide religious freedom. It only allowed (male) Puritans
the right to vote, established Puritanism as the official religion of the colony in The Act of Toleration, and
punished people who did not go to their Church.
3.New York
Other countries used the joint-stock company to fund exploration. In 1609, the Dutch East India
company discovered a territory on the eastern coast of North America, from latitude 38 to 45 degrees
north. This was an expedition in the yacht Halve Maen (Half Moon) commanded by Henry Hudson.
Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiaensz explored the territory from 1611 until 1614. In March of 1614 the
States General, the governing body of the Netherlands, proclaimed exclusive patent for trade in the New
World. The States General issued patents for development of New Netherland as a private commercial
[40] Advanced History of USA

venture. Ft. Nassau was swiftly built in the area of present day Albany to defend river traffic and to trade
with Native Americans. New Netherland became a province of the Dutch Republic in 1624. The northern
border was then reduced to 42 degrees north, as the English had encroached north of Cape Cod.
According to the Law of Nations, a claim on a territory required not only discovery and charting
but settlement. In May 1624 the Dutch completed their claim by landing thirty Dutch families on Noten
Eylant, modern Governors Island.
In the next few decades incompetent directors-general ran New Netherland. The settlers were
attacked by Native Americans, and British and Dutch conflicts seemed destined to destroy the colony. All
that changed when Peter Stuyvesant was appointed Director-General in 1647. As he arrived he said, I
shall govern you as a father his children. He expanded the colonys borders. He oversaw conquest of the
one settlement of northernmost Europe, New Sweden, in 1655. He resolved the border dispute with New
England in 1650. He improved defenses against Native American raids, and the population of the colony
went from 500 in 1640 to 9,000 by 1664. But in August of 1664, four English warships arrived in New York
Harbor demanding the surrender of the colony. At first, Stuyvesant vowed to fight, but there was little
ammunition and gunpowder. He received weak support from the overwhelmed colonists, and was forced
to surrender. New Netherland was subsequently renamed New York, in honor of the British Duke of York.
In an attempt to gain supremacy over trade, the English waged war against the Dutch in 1664.
The English took control over the Dutch harbor of New Amsterdam on the Atlantic coast of America.
James, the brother of King Charles II, received the charter for New Amsterdam and the surrounding Dutch
territory.
In 1673 the Dutch, led by Michiel de Ruyter, briefly reoccupied New Netherland again, this time
naming it New Orange. After peace was made, ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War, they agreed to return it
to the English.
4.Patterns of Colonization in the Other Early Colonies

The territory of Carolina, named after the British King Charles I, was granted as a proprietary
colony to eight different nobles. The proprietors divided Carolina into two separate colonies -- North
Carolina and South Carolina.
Four colonies were formed by division from already extant larger territories. When New Holland
was taken to become New York, King James granted a portion of the territory, present-day New Jersey, to
Lord Berkeley and Sir George Cartaret, while retaining present-day New York for himself as a proprietary
colony. Sir George had come from the Isle of Jersey, and the new colony was named accordingly. Another
portion of the territory became the crown colony Connecticut. This colony was also named for its native
tribe of Indians. A corner of Pennsylvania which was not peopled by Quakers separated in 1704 to become
the colony of Delaware. This was given the name of Thomas West, Third Baron De La Warr, a nobleman
under Queen Elizabeth and a noted adventurer.
Rhode Island was a unique experiment in religious and political freedom. Massachusetts
banished Roger Williams after he began asserting that Jesus Christ meant for the Church to be separate
from the governing authority. This dissenter from the Church of England, and then from the Puritans,
became the first American Baptist. After many adventures in other colonies, he bought land from the
Narragansett Indians for a new settlement. Providence was meant to be a colony free from religious
entanglements and a refuge for people of conscience. He was later followed by Anne Hutchinson. She had
outraged Boston divines because she was a woman who preached, and because she believed that ones
works were not always tied to grace, unlike the Puritans. She also bought land from the Indians. On this
was the settlement subsequently named Portsmouth, and afterward a dissident sister town, Newport. The
colony was partially based upon Aquidneck Island, later called Rhode Island for unknown reasons, and the
entire establishment eventually took its name from that place.
Georgia was another proprietary colony, named after King George I, with a charter granted to
James Oglethorpe and others in 1732. It was intended as a buffer colony to protect the others from
attacks from the Florida Spanish and the Louisiana French. Because of this, Georgia was the only colony
to receive funds from the Crown from its founding. The laws in Great Britain put people in prison for debt.
Many of these people were shipped from overcrowded jails to freedom in the wilds of Georgia colony.
America was already seen as a land of prosperity, and Oglethorpe hoped that the ex-prisoners would soon
become honest and rich. However, few of the prisoners of London jails knew how to survive in the new
wilderness.
5.Portrait of the British Colonies

The Colonies are often considered as three groups: New England (New Hampshire,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut), the Southern Colonies (Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and
Georgia), and the Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware). Sometimes the
Carolinas and Georgia are counted as separate from the Chesapeake Colonies.
Each group had geographic and economic characteristics. New Englands rocky soil only
encouraged small farms, and its agricultural opportunities were limited. Thus it focused on fishing, forestry,
shipping, and small industry to make money.
Richer land in the Southern colonies was taken over by individual farmers who grasped acreage.
This created large plantation farms that grew tobacco, and later cotton. Farms in the Carolinas also farmed
sugar, rice, and indigo. In the 17th century, these were farmed by indentured servants, people who would
work for a period of years in return for passage to America and land. Many of these servants died before
their indentures ended. A group of indentured servants rose up in Bacons Rebellion in 1676. After Bacons

Rebellion, plantations began using African slaves instead. Even after release from indenture, many of
these white people remained in the economic lower classes, though not subject to the slave codes, which
became more harsh as time passed, denying almost all liberty to slaves in the southern colonies. By the
American Revolution, one in five colonists was an African slave. And the products produced by slavery in
the South were consumed and traded by towns in the Middle Colonies and New England. Few people
questioned the slave economy.
The Middle Colonies had medium-sized farms. These colonies also had people from many
different cultures with many different beliefs. Individuals in these states used indentured servants, and later
slaves, but there was not the concentration of masses of slave labor found in the Southern colonies.
Another distinction lies in religious practices. New England was mostly Congregationalist, with
some admixture of Presbyterian congregations and the religious non-conformists who called themselves
Baptists. These were all descendants of dissenters before and during the British Civil War. The South was
mostly Anglican, cherishing religious and secular traditions and holidays. The Middle Colonies held small
groups of people from Holland, German lands, and even Bohemia, and they brought a welter of Catholic
and Protestant faiths.
Among the whites sent to the colonies by English authorities were many Scots-Irish people from
Ulster. These had been Calvinist Protestants in the middle of a Irish Catholic majority, at odds both with
them and with England. This minority settled in the frontier region of the Appalachian Mountains and
eventually beyond in the Ohio and Mississippi country. In America their desire for land and freedom
pushed the colonial boundary westward at little cost to the government, and provided an armed buffer
between the eastern settlements and Native American tribes which had been driven away from the
seaboard. Colonial frontiersmen endured a very harsh life, building their towns and farms by hand in a
dense wilderness amid economic deprivation and native attack.
Each colony developed its own areas of edification and amusement, depending upon the local
faith and the local capacities. The culture of the South recorded early interest in musical theater, with
Charleston, South Carolina and Williamsburg, Virginia as hubs of musical activity. A performance of
Richard III, the first professional production of Shakespeare in America, took place in New York City in
1750. And preachers, lecturers, and singers entertained the colonists.
Their commonalities were stronger than their differences. All three regions shared a population
mostly derived from the British Isles. All had terrible roads, and all had connections to the Atlantic Ocean
as a means of transportation. And all were tied to the Atlantic economy. Atlantic merchants used ships to
trade slaves, tobacco, rum, sugar, gold, silver, spices, fish, lumber, and manufactured goods between
America, the West Indies, Europe and Africa. New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Charleston were the
largest cities and main ports at that time.
6.Early Technology
The first wave of colonists used hand labor to cultivate their farms, and established such landbased crafts such as pottery and tanning. As later ships brought cattle and horses, draft animals became
part of the economy. Indentured servants, and then slaves kidnapped from Africa, were imported. This was
when larger plantations began to be founded. In the latter part of the eighteenth century small-scale
machine-based manufacturing began to appear. Individuals started to dig for coal and iron ore. New
England used the latter to begin making building tools and horseshoes. A new textile industry arose,
dependent in part upon Southern cotton. Powered by wood or coal and fed by the need for strong metal,
household forges pioneered new techniques of iron-making. The blacksmith and the tinsmith became part
of large settlements. Colonies started making mechanized clocks, guns, and lead type for printing.
7.Mercantilism, Salutary Neglect and British Interference

The American colonies, entirely new societies separated by an ocean from Great Britain, believed
they had the right to govern themselves. This belief was encouraged by Great Britains Glorious Revolution
and 1689 Bill of Rights, which gave Parliament the ultimate authority in government. A policy of relatively
lax controls or Salutary Neglect ended in increased British regulation resulting from the policy of
mercantilism, and seen through the Lords of Trade and the later Navigation Acts.
I.
Mercantilism
Parliament placed controls on colonial trade in obedience to the economic policy of mercantilism.
This was the idea that a nations economic power depended on the value of its exports. A country could
use its colonies to create finished goods, rather than raw materials. These could be traded to other
countries, thus increasing the strength of the colonizing nation. This policy had been put forth by a
Frenchman named Jean-Baptiste Colbert. It seemed tailor-made for Great Britain. Spain had American
gold as its economic base, and France had American furs. England had neither of these. But it had
American cotton, molasses, and tobacco, as well as its state-of-the-art ships. Prior to the mid-1700s, the
colonies had enjoyed a long period of salutary neglect, where the British largely let the colonies govern
themselves. This now ended.
II.
The Lords of Trade
In an attempt to enforce mercantilist policies, King Charles II created the Lords of Trade as a new
committee on the Privy Council. The Lords of Trade attempted to affect the government of the colonies in a
manner beneficial to the English, rather than to the colonists.
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The Lords of Trade attempted to convert all American colonies to royal ones so that the Crown
could gain more power. Under King James II, the successor to Charles II, New York, New Jersey, and the
Puritan colonies were combined into the Dominion of New England in 1687.
However, the Dominion only lasted a brief time. King James II, a Catholic, was seen as a threat
by British Protestants. James was overthrown (he was technically held abdicated by Parliament) in the
bloodless Glorious Revolution of 1688. In 1689, James daughter Mary II and her husband William III took
the throne as joint rulers. However, the British Parliament actually held the power. The Dominion of New
England was dissolved, the various separate colonies were reestablished, and the Lords of Trade were
abandoned (replaced by a Board of Trade, a purely advisory body).
III.
Navigation Acts
Beginning in 1660, the Parliament of England passed the Navigation Acts to increase its benefit
from its colonies. The Acts required that any colonial imports or exports travel only on ships registered in
England. They forbid the colonies to export tobacco and sugar to any nation other than England. And the
colonies could not import anything manufactured outside England unless the goods were first taken to
England, where taxes were paid, and then to the colonies.
In the 1730s, The Sugar Act established a tax of six pence per gallon of sugar or molasses
imported into the colonies. By 1750, Parliament had begun to ban, restrict, or tax several more products. It
tried to curtail all manufacture in the colonies. This provoked much anger among the colonists, despite the
fact that their tax burdens were quite low, when compared to most subjects of European monarchies of the
same period.
Colonists hated the navigation acts because they believed they would be more prosperous and
rich if they had a free-enterprise and no boundaries. They also believed that some vital resources would
not be found in Britain. Navigation acts was tree branch of mercantilism.
8.Indians in the 1700s

Indians of the Great Plains:
Today, the area where the Indians of all the Great Plains lived is located from the Rocky
mountains to the Mississippi River. During the 1700s, there were about 30 tribes that lived on the Great
Plains. These tribes tended to rely on buffalo as their food source as well as other daily needs, such as
clothing. Not only did Indians, specifically women, make their clothing out of buffalo, but also out of deer.
Women would soak the deer or buffalo and scrape off the hair of the dead animal.
Also, Indian tribes traded with one another. The amount of horses an individual owned was a sign
of wealth; Indians would trade their horses for food, tools, weapons(such as guns), and hides. Since the
tribes spoke many different languages from one another, they had to use sign language to be able to trade
with each other.
9.Philadelphia Election Riot

A riot broke out on election day in Philadelphia in 1742 as a result of the Anglican population
disagreeing with the Quaker majority. The riot stemmed over a power struggle between the Anglican and
Quaker population. The Quakers had a history of political dominance over Philadelphia. The German
population backed the Quaker vote because of the Quaker Pacifism which would protect from higher taxes
and ultimately the draft. On election day, the Anglicans and sailors fought with the Quakers and Germans.
The Quakers were able to seek shelter in the courthouse and complete the election. The Anglican party
lost the election and 54 sailors were jailed following the riot.
10.Education
As the people in the colonies through the 1700s were made up of people with different interests,
they provided different sorts of education for their children. Although there were commonalities -- a rich
family in any of the three regions might send a son to Europe for his education -- people in different
colonies tended to educate in differing ways.
New Englands motives for education were both civil and religious. The good citizen had to know
his or her Bible. This was the Pilgrim ethos, set up in opposition to what they saw as the ignorance
imposed by tyrants. Both boys and girls were often taught to read the Bible by their parents, perhaps with
the aid of a horn book, an alphabet and syllabary covered by horn. A law was passed in 1647 in
Massachusetts that stated that if more than 50 families lived in a community, a schoolteacher must be
hired. (This was the beginning of the American grammar school, which initially taught Latin, but later
included practical subjects such as navigation, engineering, bookkeeping, and foreign languages.)
Education became mandatory in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1642. Most of the schools opened in
the colonial era were private. The second motive was that a Christian ought to be able to govern in his
society. (Government was the province of godly, property-holding men, rather than women.) To obtain this
youths had to gain a classical education -- that is, one based thoroughly on Latin. The first publicsupported school in the United States was the Boston Latin School in 1635. It had a rigorous education,
and as a result, few students. Harvard was the first university in America, founded in 1636 and originally
intended to teach Protestant clergy. Because of the small number of people graduating from the classical
curriculum, attendance was low. Some people jumped directly from the classical curriculum to the

University, sometimes entering Harvard as young as 14 or 15 years old. Cotton Mather graduated Harvard
at 15, an exception only because of his extreme precocity. In private schools, boys and girls learned
penmanship, basic Math, and reading and writing English. These fed the various trades, where older
children were apprenticed. Girls who did not become servants were often trained for domestic life, learning
needlework, cooking, and the several days-long task of cleaning clothes.
Like New England, the Middle Colonies had private schools which educated children in reading
and writing. However, the basics were rarer. The further west one lived, the less likely one was to be able
to go to school, or to read and write at all. Ethnic and religious sub-groups would have their own private
schools, which taught their own children their own folk-ways. In none of the colonies was higher education
certain. Secondary schools were very rare outside of such major towns as Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
and Charleston.
The Chesapeake experience was different again. Children could only could only read and write if
their parents could. And the South had few schools, of any kind, until the Revolutionary era. Children in
wealthy families would study with private tutors. Though wealthy girls might learn the womanly arts, they
would not have the same curriculum as their brothers. Martha Washingtons granddaughter Eliza Custis
was laughed at by her stepfather when thought it hard they would not teach me Greek and Latin because
I was a girl -- they laughed and said women ought not to know those things, and mending, writing,
Arithmetic, and Music was all I could be permitted to acquire. Middle class children might learn to read
from their parents, and many poor children, as well as all black children, went unschooled. The literacy
rates were lower in the South than the North until about the 19th century.
In 1693 the College of William & Mary was founded, Virginias first University. As the 18th century
wore on, it specialized not in theology for clergymen but in law. In 1701, the Collegiate College was
founded. In 1718 it received funds from a Welsh governor of the British East India Company, Elihu Yale,
and was renamed Yale College. These were later joined by several other universities, including Princeton
in 1747. In the 18th century, astronomy, physics, modern history and politics took a bigger place in the
college curriculum. Some colleges experimented with admitting Native American students in the 18th
century, though not African-Americans.
In 1640, The whole Booke of Psalms Faithfully Translated into English Metre, commonly known
as the Bay Psalm Book, was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was the first book written in the new
world. The Bay Psalm Book was the first metrical English translation of the Biblical psalms. This famous
and influential songbook was succeeded by a whole New England publishing industry. Sometime after
1687 the first New England Primer was published as an aid to childhood reading and spelling.
An alternative to the classical curriculum emerged in Benjamin Franklins American Academy,
founded in Philadelphia in 1751. This body represented something closer to the modern American high
school, offering vocational education. This sort of school later outnumbered the classical secondary
school. However, Franklins Academy was private as well, making such learning open only to those who
could afford it.
During this period colonists attempted to convert Native Americans to Christianity.
Colonial Religion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The Church of England

Great Awakening
Mennonites
Methodism
Methodism in Colonial America
Moravians
Judaism
Catholicism
Deism
1.The Church of England

The use of the American colonies as a pressure valve for Great Britain meant that the official faith
was poorly represented there, despite the presence of The Book of Common Prayer. The Church of
England had prelates: the Church of England in America had none. Even in colonies such as Virginia,
which were officially Anglican, the churches were what later ages would call low, without incense or great
pomp. No Bishops reminded them of Church authority. The weak religious ties of England and America
were like one more mile added to the miles of ocean between them.
2.Great Awakening
The Great Awakening was a period of religious revivalism in America. Historians view the Great
Awakening in four distinct stages. The first stage started in New England in the 1730s and lasted roughly
thirty years.There were two parts of the movement, the Puritan and the Methodist.
One of the major figures of colonial America, a scientist, a humanist, and a divine, was the
Puritan minister Johnathan Edwards. Like his peers, he was upset about what was seen as a drifting away
from the faith of the Pilgrims. More English immigrants were bringing more lukewarm observance, and a

greater adherence to form, rather than feeling. Unlike many of those contemporaries, he embraced
evangelism, an attempt to convert others to his own faith. Some of his sermons sent people to their knees
in tears, or to their feet, cheering for joy. One of his most notable sermons is titled Sinners in the Hands of
an Angry God, where he used his scientific knowledge (he had written a treatise on spiders) and his
spectacular gift for delivery to woo his audience.
The Methodist side of this Awakening was ignited by John Wesley, and his former schoolmate,
George Whitefield. Wesley came to Georgia in 1735, and first met with disappointment. However,
Whitefield, friend to both Edwards and Wesley, was able to hazard seven trips to America. He also
preached to African-American slaves, unlike many of his contemporaries.
3.Mennonites
At the invitation of William Penn, some Mennonites came in 1683 to settle in Pennsylvania. This
group was another attempt to get to the truth of the Bible. They angered their contemporaries in Germanspeaking countries by not baptizing infants, but only confessing adults. They also practiced a radical form
of pacifism, not paying taxes, bearing arms, or serving in any army. Later groups of Mennonites came to
the U.S. and Canada from Switzerland, Prussia, the Ukraine, and Russia, with their own hymns and
Psalters. Among the branches of the Mennonites are the Amish, who like their coreligionists use shunning
as a form of discipline.
4.Methodism
John and Charles Wesley are credited with creating Methodism in the 18th century. John Wesley
was a cleric for the Church of England. He and his brother led groups of Christians throughout England,
Ireland, and Scotland. These groups were part of what is called the Wesleyan Movement. These small
groups came to form what is known as Methodism. It began as a society of the Church of England, not a
church in itself. It was resented and feared because it put its emphasis on the laity, rather than a church
hierarchy, and because it saw emotional conviction as a confirmation of conversion. Who is a Methodist?
John Wesley asked in a sermon. I answer: A Methodist is one who has the love of God shed abroad in
his heart by the Holy Ghost given unto him Methodists focused on bible study and living a life free of
frivolity and luxury. They were called Methodists because of their methodical approach to religious study.
5.Methodism in Colonial America

Methodism spread to America in the late 1760s. Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmore were
both preachers appointed by John Wesley, that traveled to the new world in 1769 to start American
Methodist societies. Pilmore started working in Philadelphia, while Boardman worked in New York to
spread Methodism. Pilmore was more effective spreading the cause in Philadelphia and even traveled into
the south to preach and promote the society. Others traveled across the Atlantic as well; Robert Williams
and John King came to America without being appointed by Wesley. Francis Asbury and Richard Wright
arrived in 1771. Francis Asbury went onto become a very prominent leader in American Methodism.
George Shadford and Thomas Rankin came to America in 1773.
Unlike their Church of England contemporaries, Methodists were willing to preach in fields,
especially in areas where no church had yet been built. Also unlike them, most of the missionaries named
above were lay ministers, men ordained after a period of heartfelt conviction, rather than years of seminary
training. These helped spread Methodism along the east coast leading up to the American Revolution.
6.Moravians
The Moravians arrived with John and Charles Wesley in America in 1735. The group left Moravia
and Bohemia due to harsh persecution for their religious beliefs and practices. The Moravians wished to
serve as Christian Missionaries for the different ethnic groups in America. They first settled in Georgia,
then moved to Pennsylvania, and also North Carolina. The Moravians were deeply involved with music.
They practiced hymn singing daily, and some even wrote instrumental music.
John Antes was the first American born Moravian composer. Antes was born in 1740 in
Pennsylvania. He composed several religious anthems. The anthems were more complex than hymns,
with the intentions of a trained choir or soloist performing them, rather than the congregation.
7.Judaism
The first group of non-Christians to enter the American colonies were Sephardic Jews. This group
of emigrants from Spain and Portugal had first settled in Recife, Brazil, then landing in New Amsterdam
(the Dutch colony which later became New York City) in 1654. Though Holland had a well-regarded Jewish
minority, the governor of New Amsterdam, Peter Stuyvesant, did not want these Jews on his land. He
wrote a letter to the Dutch West India Company stated that the Jews threatened to infect and trouble this
new colony. In response, the Jews wrote a letter to the company explaining that Jews respected the
Dutch and were long-established citizens of their homeland. Indeed, some of the Company were Dutch
Jews. The Company ruled that the Jews could stay, as long as they took care of their own poor and did not
expect Christians to give them charity.
During the colonial period, Jews settled along the East Coast and in several southern colonies.
There were established communities of Jews in Savannah, Georgia; Charleston, South Carolina;
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Newport, Rhode Island. The oldest synagogue to this day was built by the
Sephardi Jews from the community in Newport. This Touro Synagogue, sanctified in 1763, is still extant
today. This building houses the Jeshuat Israel congregation.

The Jewish people found it hard to maintain education, worship, and dietary practices with so few
people. A woman by the name of Rebecca Samuel even wrote to her parents explaining that Jewishness
is pushed aside here. There are here [in Petersburg, Virgina] ten or twelve Jews, and they are not worthy
of being called Jews. . . . You can believe me that I crave to see a synagogue to which I can go. More
Jews did come to America, and all of them learned English and found their places in American society. Yet
they found it hard to go to Sabbath on Saturday when their neighbors were going to church on Sunday. In
some colonies, they could not vote, hold public office, or own property. They stood out, and they were
afraid of persecution as in Europe. But here they could earn some money. There was no knock at the door
at midnight, no torture or forced conversion by the Christian authorities.
8.Catholicism
Catholicism first came to the colonies in the Maryland Experiment. After the British civil war, King
Charles I issued a generous charter to Lord Cecil Calvert, a prominent Catholic convert from Anglicanism,
for the colony of Maryland. That colonys tolerance of Catholics was preserved by Calvert until 1654, when
Puritans from Virginia overthrew Calverts rule. However, he regained control of the colony four years later.
In Great Britain in 1689, the Glorious Revolution overturned Charless successor, bringing in the reign of
William and Mary. A new anti-Catholic revolt was ignited in Maryland, and the rule of the Calverts was
ended. In 1692 the Religious Toleration Act officially ended, and the assembly of Maryland established the
Church of England as the official state religion, supported by tax levies.
Though no Catholic was known to have lived in the Massachusetts Bay in the first twenty years of
the colonys existence, this did not deter the Puritan government from passing an anti-clerical law in May
of 1647. This threatened with death all and every Jesuit, seminary priest, missionary, or other spiritual or
ecclesiastical person made or ordained by any authority, power or jurisdiction, derived, challenged or
pretended, from the Pope or See of Rome. When Georgia, the 13th colony, was established in 1732 by a
charter granted by King George II, its guarantee of religious freedom was promised to all future settlers of
the colony, except papists. Restrictions were immediately restrictions were imposed on Catholics for
public worship. and it was a punishable offense for a priest to say Mass. Catholics were denied the right to
vote or otherwise participate in the government of the colony that their ancestors had founded.
Neither the Dutch nor English were pleased when, in 1672, the Duke of York converted to
Catholicism. The Dukes appointment of Irish-born Catholic Colonel Thomas Dongan as governor of the
colony of New York was followed by the passage of a charter of liberties and privileges for Catholics.
Proceeding the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Jacob Leisler, a staunch anti-Catholic, began to spread
rumors of Papist plots and false stories of impending French and Native American attacks upon the
English colonies. By the end of 1688 Leisler had overthrown Dongan and taken the post of lieutenant
governor for himself. He then ordered the arrest of all papists, abolished the franchise for Catholics, and
suspended all Catholic public office holders.
9.Deism
There was another faith which was influential, despite being hard to see by its contemporaries.
Many of the institutions of American society were influenced by the English belief of Deism. Yet, In fact,
most early deists opposed attempts to disseminate their views, because they felt that only the intellectually
qualified could understand religion rationally. Some of the tenets of Deism were also held by many
Christian churches, including the belief in a well-ordered nature which revealed its Creator, and belief in
human reason. But unlike Christians, Deists did not believe the Bible had any relationship to the Divine.
They believed that God did not speak to anyone; that nature was set up like a watch, and set to run
without further intervention; and that belief in miracles was madness. The list of known American Deists is
short. Benjamin Franklin was one for a brief time. Others include James Madison, Ethan Allen, and
Thomas Paine. (A notable writing of this last-named is The Age of Reason, which said that it was idiotic to
believe in miracles.) Thomas Jefferson was influenced by Deism, as we can see from the Declaration of
Independences referral to Nature and Natures God.
The United States is still a British Colony

The trouble with history is, we werent there when it took place and it can be changed to fit
someones belief and/or traditions, or it can be taught in the public schools to favor a political agenda, and
withhold many facts. I know you have been taught that we won the Revolutionary War and defeated the
British, but I can prove to the contrary. I want you to read this paper with an open mind, and allow yourself
to be instructed with the following verifiable facts. You be the judge and dont let prior conclusions on your
part or incorrect teaching, keep you from the truth.
I too was always taught in school and in studying our history books that our freedom came from
the Declaration of Independence and was secured by our winning the Revolutionary War. Im going to
discuss a few documents that are included at the end of this paper, in the footnotes. The first document is
the first Charter of Virginia in 1606 (footnote #1). In the first paragraph, the king of England granted our
fore fathers license to settle and colonize America. The definition for license is as follows.
In Government Regulation. Authority to do some act or carry on some trade or business, in its
nature lawful but prohibited by statute, except with the permission of the civil authority or which
would otherwise be unlawful. Bouviers Law Dictionary, 1914.
Keep in mind those that came to America from England were British subjects. So you can better
understand what Im going to tell you, here are the definitions for subject and citizen.
[46]

In monarchical governments, by subject is meant one who owes permanent allegiance to the
monarch. Bouviers Law Dictionary, 1914.
Constitutional Law. One that owes allegiance to a sovereign and is governed by his laws. The
natives of Great Britain are subjects of the British government. Men in free governments are
subjects as well as citizens; as citizens they enjoy rights and franchises; as subjects they are
bound to obey the laws. The term is little used, in this sense, in countries enjoying a republican
form of government. Swiss Nat. Ins. Co. v. Miller, 267 U.S. 42, 45 S. Ct. 213, 214, 69 L.Ed. 504.
Blacks fifth Ed.
I chose to give the definition for subject first, so you could better understand what definition of
citizen is really being used in American law. Below is the definition of citizen from Roman law.
The term citizen was used in Rome to indicate the possession of private civil rights, including
those accruing under the Roman family and inheritance law and the Roman contract and property
law. All other subjects were peregrines. But in the beginning of the 3d century the distinction was
abolished and all subjects were citizens; 1 sel. Essays in Anglo-Amer. L. H. 578. Bouviers Law
Dictionary, 1914.
The king was making a commercial venture when he sent his subjects to America, and used his
money and resources to do so. I think you would admit the king had a lawful right to receive gain and
prosper from his venture. In the Virginia Charter he declares his sovereignty over the land and his subjects
and in paragraph 9 he declares the amount of gold, silver and copper he is to receive if any is found by his
subjects. There could have just as easily been none, or his subjects could have been killed by the Indians.
This is why this was a valid right of the king (Jure Coronae, In right of the crown, Blacks forth Ed.), the
king expended his resources with the risk of total loss.
If youll notice in paragraph 9 the king declares that all his heirs and successors were to also
receive the same amount of gold, silver and copper that he claimed with this Charter. The gold that
remained in the colonies was also the kings. He provided the remainder as a benefit for his subjects,
which amounted to further use of his capital. You will see in this paper that not only is this valid, but it is still
in effect today. If you will read the rest of the Virginia Charter you will see that the king declared the right
and exercised the power to regulate every aspect of commerce in his new colony. A license had to be
granted for travel connected with transfer of goods (commerce) right down to the furniture they sat on. A
great deal of the kings declared property was ceded to America in the Treaty of 1783. I want you to stay
focused on the money and the commerce which was not ceded to America.
This brings us to the Declaration of Independence. Our freedom was declared because the king
did not fulfill his end of the covenant between king and subject. The main complaint was taxation without
representation, which was reaffirmed in the early 1606 Charter granted by the king. It was not a revolt over
being subject to the king of England, most wanted the protection and benefits provided by the king.
Because of the kings refusal to hear their demands and grant relief, separation from England became the
lesser of two evils. The cry of freedom and self determination became the rallying cry for the colonist. The
slogan Dont Tread On Me was the standard borne by the militias.
The Revolutionary War was fought and concluded when Cornwallis surrendered to Washington at
Yorktown. As Americans we have been taught that we defeated the king and won our freedom. The next
document I will use is the Treaty of 1783, which will totally contradict our having won the Revolutionary
War. (footnote 2).
I want you to notice in the first paragraph that the king refers to himself as prince of the Holy
Roman Empire and of the United States. You know from this that the United States did not negotiate this
Treaty of peace in a position of strength and victory, but it is obvious that Benjamin Franklin, John Jay and
John Adams negotiated a Treaty of further granted privileges from the king of England. Keep this in mind
as you study these documents. You also need to understand the players of those that negotiated this
Treaty. For the Americans it was Benjamin Franklin Esgr., a great patriot and standard bearer of freedom.
Or was he? His title includes Esquire.
An Esquire in the above usage was a granted rank and Title of nobility by the king, which is below
Knight and above a yeoman, common man. An Esquire is someone that does not do manual labor as
signified by this status, see the below definitions.
Esquires by virtue of their offices; as justices of the peace, and others who bear any office of
trust under the crown....for whosever studieth the laws of the realm, who studieth in the
universities, who professeth the liberal sciences, and who can live idly, and without manual labor,
and will bear the port, charge, and countenance of a gentleman, he shall be called master, and
shall be taken for a gentleman. Blackstone Commentaries p. 561-562
Esquire - In English Law. A title of dignity next above gentleman, and below knight. Also a title of
office given to sheriffs, serjeants, and barristers at law, justices of the peace, and others. Blacks
Law Dictionary fourth ed. p. 641
Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay as you can read in the Treaty were all Esquires
and were the signers of this Treaty and the only negotiators of the Treaty. The representative of the king
was David Hartley Esqr..

Benjamin Franklin was the main negotiator for the terms of the Treaty, he spent most of the War
traveling between England and France. The use of Esquire declared his and the others British subjection
and loyalty to the crown.
In the first article of the Treaty most of the kings claims to America are relinquished, except for his
claim to continue receiving gold, silver and copper as gain for his business venture. Article 3 gives
Americans the right to fish the waters around the United States and its rivers. In article 4 the United States
agreed to pay all bona fide debts. If you will read my other papers on money you will understand that the
financiers were working with the king. Why else would he protect their interest with this Treaty?
I wonder if you have seen the main and obvious point? This Treaty was signed in 1783, the war
was over in 1781. If the United States defeated England, how is the king granting rights to America, when
we were now his equal in status? We supposedly defeated him in the Revolutionary War! So why would
these supposed patriot Americans sign such a Treaty, when they knew that this would void any sovereignty
gained by the Declaration of Independence and the Revolutionary War? If we had won the Revolutionary
War, the king granting us our land would not be necessary, it would have been ours by his loss of the
Revolutionary War. To not dictate the terms of a peace treaty in a position of strength after winning a war;
means the war was never won. Think of other wars we have won, such as when we defeated Japan. Did
McArther allow Japan to dictate to him the terms for surrender? No way! All these men did is gain status
and privilege granted by the king and insure the subjection of future unaware generations. Worst of all,
they sold out those that gave their lives and property for the chance to be free.
When Cornwallis surrendered to Washington he surrendered the battle, not the war. Read the
Article of Capitulation signed by Cornwallis at Yorktown (footnote 3)
Jonathan Williams recorded in his book, Legions of Satan, 1781, that Cornwallis revealed to
Washington during his surrender that a holy war will now begin on America, and when it is ended America
will be supposedly the citadel of freedom, but her millions will unknowingly be loyal subjects to the
Crown.....in less than two hundred years the whole nation will be working for divine world government.
That government that they believe to be divine will be the British Empire.
All the Treaty did was remove the United States as a liability and obligation of the king. He no
longer had to ship material and money to support his subjects and colonies. At the same time he retained
financial subjection through debt owed after the Treaty, which is still being created today; millions of dollars
a day. And his heirs and successors are still reaping the benefit of the kings original venture. If you will
read the following quote from Title 26, you will see just one situation where the king is still collecting a tax
from those that receive a benefit from him, on property which is purchased with the money the king
supplies, at almost the same percentage:
-CITE26 USC Sec. 1491
HEADSec. 1491. Imposition of tax
-STATUTEThere is hereby imposed on the transfer of property by a citizen or resident of the United States, or by a
domestic corporation or partnership, or by an estate or trust which is not a foreign estate or trust, to a
foreign corporation as paid-in surplus or as a contribution to capital, or to a foreign estate or trust, or to a
foreign partnership, an excise tax equal to 35 percent of the excess of (1) the fair market value of the property so transferred, over
(2) the sum of (A) the adjusted basis (for determining gain) of such property in the hands of the transferor, plus
(B) the amount of the gain recognized to the transferor at the time of the transfer.
-SOURCE(Aug. 16, 1954, ch. 736, 68A Stat. 365; Oct. 4, 1976, Pub. L. 94-455, title X, Sec. 1015(a), 90 Stat. 1617;
Nov. 6, 1978, Pub. L. 95-600, title VII, Sec. 701(u)(14)(A), 92 Stat. 2919.)
-MISC1AMENDMENTS
1978 - Pub. L. 95-600 substituted estate or trust for trust wherever appearing.
1976 - Pub. L. 94-455 substituted in provisions preceding par.
(1) property for stocks and securities and 35 percent for 27 1/2 percent and in par.
(1) fair market value for value and property for stocks and securities and in par.
(2) designated existing provisions as subpar. (A) and added subpar. (B).
EFFECTIVE DATE OF 1978 AMENDMENT

Section 701(u)(14)(C) of Pub. L. 95-600 provided that: The amendments made by this paragraph
(amending this section and section 1492 of this title) shall apply to transfers after October 2, 1975.
EFFECTIVE DATE OF 1976 AMENDMENT
Section 1015(d) of Pub. L. 94-455 provided that: The amendments made by this section
(enacting section 1057 of this title, amending this section and section 1492 of this title, and renumbering
former section 1057 as 1058 of this title) shall apply to transfers of property after October 2, 1975.
A new war was declared when the Treaty was signed. The king wanted his land back and he
knew he would be able to regain his property for his heirs with the help of his world financiers. Here is a
quote from the king speaking to Parliament after the Revolutionary War had concluded.
(Six weeks after) the capitulation of Yorktown, the king of Great Britain, in his speech to
Parliament (Nov. 27, 1781), declared That he should not answer the trust committed to the sovereign of a
free people, if he consented to sacrifice either to his own desire of peace, or to their temporary ease and
relief, those essential rights and permanent interests, upon the maintenance and preservation of which the
future strength and security of the country must forever depend. The determined language of this speech,
pointing to the continuance of the American war, was echoed back by a majority of both Lords and
Commons.
In a few days after (Dec. 12), it was moved in the House of Commons that a resolution should be
adopted declaring it to be their opinion That all farther attempts to reduce the Americans to obedience by
force would be ineffectual, and injurious to the true interests of Great Britain. The rest of the debate can
be found in (footnote 4). What were the true interests of the king? The gold, silver and copper.
The new war was to be fought without Americans being aware that a war was even being waged,
it was to be fought by subterfuge and key personnel being placed in key positions. The first two parts of A
Country Defeated In Victory, go into detail about how this was done and exposes some of the main
players.
Every time you pay a tax you are transferring your labor to the king, and his heirs and successors
are still receiving interest from the original American Charters.
The following is the definition of tribute (tax).
A contribution which is raised by a prince or sovereign from his subjects to sustain the expenses
of the state. A sum of money paid by an inferior sovereign or state to a superior potentate, to
secure the friendship or protection of the latter. Blacks Law Dictionary forth ed. p. 1677
As further evidence, not that any is needed, a percentage of taxes that are paid are to enrich the
king/queen of England. For those that study Title 26 you will recognize IMF, which means Individual Master
File, all tax payers have one. To read one you have to be able to break their codes using file 6209, which is
about 467 pages. On your IMF you will find a blocking series, which tells you what type of tax you are
paying. You will probably find a 300-399 blocking series, which 6209 says is reserved. You then look up
the BMF 300-399, which is the Business Master File in 6209. You would have seen prior to 1991, this was
U.S.-U.K. Tax Claims, non-refile DLN. Meaning everyone is considered a business and involved in
commerce and you are being held liable for a tax via a treaty between the U.S. and the U.K., payable to
the U.K.. The form that is supposed to be used for this is form 8288, FIRPTA - Foreign Investment Real
Property Tax Account, you wont find many people using this form, just the 1040 form. The 8288 form can
be found in the Law Enforcement Manual of the IRS, chapter 3. If you will check the OMBs paper - Office
of Management and Budget, in the Department of Treasury, List of Active Information Collections,
Approved Under Paperwork Reduction Act, you will find this form under OMB number 1545-0902, which
says U.S. withholding tax-return for dispositions by foreign persons of U.S. real property interestsstatement of withholding on dispositions, by foreign persons, of U.S. Form #8288 #8288a. These codes
have since been changed to read as follows; IMF 300-309, Barred Assement, CP 55 generated valid for
MFT-30, which is the code for 1040 form. IMF 310-399 reserved, the BMF 300-309 reads the same as IMF
300-309. BMF 390-399 reads U.S./U.K. Tax Treaty Claims. The long and short of it is nothing changed, the
government just made it plainer, the 1040 is the payment of a foreign tax to the king/queen of England. We
have been in financial servitude since the Treaty of 1783.
Another Treaty between England and the United States was Jays Treaty of 1794 (footnote 5). If
you will remember from the Paris Treaty of 1783, John Jay Esqr. was one of the negotiators of the Treaty.
In 1794 he negotiated another Treaty with Britain. There was great controversy among the American
people about this Treaty.
In Article 2 you will see the king is still on land that was supposed to be ceded to the United
States at the Paris Treaty. This is 13 years after America supposedly won the Revolutionary War. I guess
someone forgot to tell the king of England. In Article 6, the king is still dictating terms to the United States
concerning the collection of debt and damages, the British government and World Bankers claimed we
owe. In Article 12 we find the king dictating terms again, this time concerning where and with who the
United States could trade. In Article 18 the United States agrees to a wide variety of material that would be
subject to confiscation if Britain found said material going to its enemies ports. Who won the Revolutionary
War?

Thats right, we were conned by some of our early fore fathers into believing that we are free and
sovereign people, when in fact we had the same status as before the Revolutionary War. I say had,
because our status is far worse now than then. Ill explain.
Early on in our history the king was satisfied with the interest made by the Bank of the United
States. But when the Bank Charter was canceled in 1811 it was time to gain control of the government, in
order to shape government policy and public policy. Have you never asked yourself why the British, after
burning the White House and all our early records during the War of 1812, left and did not take over the
government. The reason they did, was to remove the greatest barrier to their plans for this country. That
barrier was the newly adopted 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution. The purpose for this
Amendment was to stop anyone from serving in the government who was receiving a Title of nobility or
honor. It was and is obvious that these government employees would be loyal to the granter of the Title of
nobility or honor.
The War of 1812 served several purposes. It delayed the passage of the 13th Amendment by
Virginia, allowed the British to destroy the evidence of the first 12 states ratification of this Amendment,
and it increased the national debt, which would coerce the Congress to reestablish the Bank Charter in
1816 after the Treaty of Ghent was ratified by the Senate in 1815.
The American Revolution was the child of Enlightenment.

The Enlightenment influenced the American Revolution in numerous ways, with core
Enlightenment ideals including liberty, equality and justice leading the creation of conditions for the
American Revolution and the Constitution that followed. Many ideas and concepts, including natural rights,
freedom from oppression, and innovative ways of thinking regarding government structure came directly
from Enlightenment philosophers, and helped to form firm foundations for colonialism and modern day
America.
The American Enlightenment, a time of intellectual change in the 13 colonies between 1714 and
1818, paved the way for many defining moments and events in the countrys history, including American
Independence and the creation of the American Republic under the United States Constitution of 1787,
and the Bill of Rights in 1790.
The ideas of Enlightenment thinkers had a significant influence on the philosophical basis of the
American Revolution. Ill go over the key ideas of the Enlightenment and how these ideas, which can be
found in important documents from the revolution, influenced the American Revolution itself.
Enlightenment Ideas
Natural rights - John Locke is well-known for claiming every human has certain rights not given to
them by the law or society. Things such as freedom, privacy, life etc.
Social Contract - Again Locke, but also prominent in Jean-Jaques Rousseaus writings. A political
philosophy which claims that the government and people are bound under a contract, the government
protects the peoples natural rights and, in return, the people allow the government to rule.
Revolution - If the government fails to protect the peoples natural rights, Locke argued that it is
essentially obligatory for the people to revolt.
Reason - The ideas of the enlightenment are supported by reason, differing from previous eras
which relied on supernatural and spiritual justifications.
The American Revolution

Throughout the Dec. of Independence, the influence of the enlightenment ideas is made clear.
Take this famous quote for example:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness.
These unalienable rights are the natural rights Locke talks about.
Another quote reveals the influence of the social contract on the countrys founders:
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the
People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government
The ends the government destroys are the natural rights of the people. The Declaration of
Independence echoes Lockes ideas that such destruction justifies a revolution.
Essentially, the philosophical basis for the revolution is grounded in enlightenment ideas on
natural rights and the social contract. Since the colonists believed the British government had destroyed

their natural rights, they believed the British had violated their portion of the contract. The American
colonists therefore believed the British government did not have the right to rule them and decided to
revolt.
The enlightenment also influenced the ideas behind the subsequent government created once
the Americans won the revolution. The political philosophies of enlightenment thinkers influenced James
Madison and other writers of the Constitution. This is a whole other can of worms, however, so Ill simply
acknowledge the existence of such an influence.
Okay, so lets just stick with the big philosophical thinkers of the movement and their ideas and
how they influenced America.
Benjamin Franklin himself was an Enlightenment thinker, so every contribution by him was one by
the Enlightenment.
Becarria spoke out against the torture and wrongful imprisonment of individuals. He also spoke
out against long periods between the arrest of an individual, their trial, and their sentencing. Basically, if
you like Amendments 4-8 of the Bill of Rights, you can thank Becarria.
Diderot created the first encyclopedia, allowing many of the ideas of philosophers of the time to
spread among the masses.
Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence which drew heavily on Enlightenment
ideas.
Locke provided the idea that we, as humans, agree to government rule due to the fact that we are
rational individuals. He supported the basis for representative government which would serve all of the
people instead of only a king and perhaps a few nobles. Montesquieu added on the idea of separation of
power between branches of government. Oh, and natural rights, he said, were rights that, to an extent, the
government cannot obstruct (Remember though, loose lips sink ships, and the government can charge
you for treason).
Thomas Paines Common Sense (1776) fueled the revolutionary flames in the British colonies,
stating that the colonies had a right to rebel against King George III.
Rousseau declared that government was meant to promote the common good . Hes a big part of
why we, when electing officials in America, believe they should uphold the laws, ideals, and virtues of the
land.
Adam Smith of Scotland spoke in favor of a free market economy, giving rise to laissez-faire and
capitalism.
Voltaire spoke for the freedom of the press and the tolerance of religions. Twice arrested by the
French government, the man also fathered deism, a view that said that God, like a clock-maker, created
the universe and started the mechanisms within it before allowing it to run on its own, never interfering.
This led to the Founding Fathers seeing God as a rational being who would support them in their fight for
independence.
Thats about all I can think of at the moment, but yeah, the Enlightenment was the time when
people began to consider the idea that instead of a king and nobility having absolute power over the lower
classes, perhaps all men were equal and should have a say in government. Its also where the idea of
representative democracy (A republic like America or the modern UK) formed, allowing a suitable
replacement for direct democracy (Every voter meets, debates, and votes on all matters. Think Athens.)
which has only worked in local settings, not national ones.
The roots and justifications of the Revolution lie in the Enlightenment and its philosophers.
Thomas Jefferson was well read on a variety of subjects, including philosophy. Its one of the more
fascinating/nerdy aspects of the conflict in that our leaders were attempting to implement the best of the
best ideas. The Declaration of Independence suns it up best.
The second paragraph, known as the social contract reads:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of
Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their
just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes
destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new
Government
This is the justification for the war. John Locke went further than Hobbes by saying that the
people had a right to overthrow their rulers if the rulers became abusive or violated this social contract in
any way. Jefferson, Adams, and Washington went even farther than Locke in attempting to do so.

This is a very big deal. Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote quite a bit on it. That we began
implementing it at the time of Rousseaus death is something I always point out to my students.
For my undergrad work I wrote a whole paper on how the Constitution of the United States is the
manifestation of the Enlightenment. Im working on trying to find this 15 year old paper.
That being said, the fundamentals of the American revolution were based on Enlightenment
thought. However, it is incorrect to assume that European Enlightenment thinkers merely influenced
American thought and the revolution. Americans such as Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin
Franklin were just as much a part of the Enlightenment as Locke, Adams, Rousseau and Voltaire.
Locke and Rousseau developed the Social Contract theory in which they determined that
Government derived its power from the consent of the governed. Jefferson would use these words and
others from Locke (life, liberty and property) to espouse the American promise of life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness.
The United States favored capitalism, moving away from the mercantile system of Europe and
the insider corruption of Europe. Drawing on France, the Unite States was sure to include tolerance of all
religions in its founding documents, while also making sure to avoid the pitfalls of church involvement in
governing.
In short the American Revolution is called a revolution because of the Enlightenment. Without
the philosophy and ideology of the Enlightenment the Revolution is simply another war for colonial
independence.
This is a very interesting question. And the answer is not as straightforward as I thought. Thank
you. Ive been occupied researching the answer since you asked it. First thing Is that contrary to what is
commonly believed few literate Americans during the revolutionary era had read John Lockes second
treatise on government. Locke was the father of the Enlightenment and liberalism. Americans were not
that philosophically inclined. Rather they were angered for being oppressed by the Monarchy, by being
taxed without was not liberty or equality that they sought, but rather to be treated fairly as British subjects.
Jeffersons republicanism is what was in the air. Government can only be legitimately derived from the
people and there was no natural sovereign subject relationship supposedly ordained by God.
The Enlightenment idea that reason trumped tradition is what pervaded the entire process of the
writing of the Constitution. But the Protestant Establishment of the time viewed the enlightenment as anti
religious. Historian Daniel Boorstin had significant influence when he wrote that the American Revolution
was not due to a pervading influence of the Enlightenment. Rather it was the common experience of the
colonies of oppression. I recommend looking at the Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of the American
Enlightenment.
American Enlightenment
The American Enlightenment is a period of intellectual ferment in the thirteen American colonies
in the period 17141818, which led to the American Revolution, and the creation of the American
Republic. Influenced by the 18th-century European Enlightenment and its own native American
philosophy, the American Enlightenment applied scientific reasoning to politics, science, and religion,
promoted religious tolerance, and restored literature, the arts, and music as important disciplines and
professions worthy of study in colleges. The new-model American style colleges of Kings College New
York (now Columbia University), and the College of Philadelphia (now Penn) were founded, Yale College
and the College of William & Mary were reformed, and a non-denominational moral philosophy replaced
theology in many college curricula; even Puritan colleges such as the College of New Jersey (now
Princeton University) and Harvard University reformed their curricula to include natural philosophy
(science), modern astronomy, and mathematics.
Among the foremost representatives of the American Enlightenment were presidents of colleges,
including Puritan religious leaders Jonathan Edwards, Thomas Clap, and Ezra Stiles, and Anglican moral
philosophers Samuel Johnson and William Smith. The leading political thinkers were John Adams, James
Madison, George Mason, James Wilson, Ethan Allen, and Alexander Hamilton, and polymaths Benjamin
Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. Leading scientists included Benjamin Franklin for his work on electricity,
William Smith for his organization and observations of the Transit of Venus, Jared Eliot for his work in
metallurgy and agriculture, the astronomer David Rittenhouse in astronomy, math, and instruments,
Benjamin Rush in medical science, Charles Willson Peale in natural history, and Cadwallader Colden for
his work in botany and town sanitation. Coldens daughter, Jane Colden, was the first female botanist
working in America. Count Rumford was a leading scientist, especially in the field of heat.
Terminology
[52]

The term American Enlightenment was coined in the post-World War II era. It was not used in
the eighteenth century, when English speakers commonly referred to a process of becoming enlightened.
Dates
Various dates for the American Enlightenment have been proposed, including the dates 17501820, 1765 to 1815, and 1688-1815. One somewhat more precise start date proposed is the introduction
of a collection of donated Enlightenment books by Colonial Agent Jeremiah Dummer into the library of the
small college of Yale at Saybrook Point, Connecticut on or just after October 15, 1714. They were received
by a young post-graduate student Samuel Johnson, of Guilford, Connecticut, who studied the
Enlightenment works. Finding they contradicted all his hard learned Puritan learning, he wrote, using the
metaphors of light that would soon be used to characterize the age, that, All this was like a flood of day to
his low state of mind, and that he found himself like one at once emerging out of the glimmer of twilight
into the full sunshine of open day. Two years later in 1716 as a Yale Tutor, Johnson introduced a new
curriculum into Yale using the donated Dummer books, offering what Johnson called The New Learning,
which included the works and ideas of Francis Bacon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Boyle, Copernicus, and
literary works by Shakespeare, Milton, and Addison.Joseph Ellis has traced the impact of the newly
introduced Enlightenment ideas on the Yale Commencement Thesis of 1718.
Religious tolerance
Enlightened Founding Fathers, especially Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison
and George Washington, fought for and eventually attained religious freedom for minority denominations.
According to the founding fathers, the United States should be a country where peoples of all faiths could
live in peace and mutual benefit. James Madison summed up this ideal in 1792 saying, Conscience is the
most sacred of all property.
A switch away from established religion to religious tolerance, was one of the distinguishing
features of the era from 1775 to 1818. The passage of the new Connecticut Constitution on October 5,
1818, overturned the 180-year-old Standing Order and the The Connecticut Charter of 1662, whose
provisions dated back to the founding of the state in 1638 and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut; it
has been proposed as a date for the triumph if not the end of the American Enlightenment. The new
constitution guaranteed freedom of religion, and disestablished the Congregational church.
Intellectual currents
Between 1714 and 1818 a great intellectual change took place that changed the British Colonies
of America from a distant backwater into a leader in the fields of moral philosophy, educational reform,
religious revival, industrial technology, science, and, most notably, political philosophy. It saw a consensus
on a pursuit of happiness based political philosophy.
Architecture
After 1780, the Federal-style of American Architecture began to diverge from the Georgian style
and became a uniquely American genre; in 1813, the American architect Ithiel Town designed and in 18141816 built the first Gothic Style church in North America, Trinity Church on the Green in New Haven,
predating the English Gothic revival by a decade. In the fields of literature, poetry, music and drama some
nascent artistic attempts were made, particularly in pre-war Philadelphia, but American (non-popular)
culture in these fields was largely imitative of British culture for most of the period, and is generally
considered not very distinguished.
Republicanism
Politically, the age is distinguished by an emphasis upon economic liberty, republicanism and
religious tolerance, as clearly expressed in the United States Declaration of Independence. Attempts to
reconcile science and religion resulted in a rejection of prophecy, miracle, and revealed religion, resulting
in an inclination toward deism among some major political leaders of the age. American republicanism
emphasized consent of the government, riddance of aristocracy, and fear of corruption. It represented the
convergence of classical republicanism and English republicanism (of 17th century Commonwealthmen
and 18th century English Country Whigs).
J.G.A. Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:
The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, John Milton, James Harrington and Sidney,
Trenchard, Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters
of the tradition as far as Montesquieu, formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its
values and concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in
which the personality was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened
by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and
operating through such means as patronage, faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the
militia); established churches (opposed to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion); and
the promotion of a monied interestthough the formulation of this last concept was somewhat
hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies of settlement.
European sources

Sources of the American Enlightenment are many and vary according to time and place. As a
result of an extensive book trade with Great Britain, the colonies were well acquainted with European
literature almost contemporaneously. Early influences were English writers, including James Harrington,
Algernon Sidney, the Viscount Bolingbroke, John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon (especially the twos
Catos Letters), and Joseph Addison (whose tragedy Cato was extremely popular). A particularly important
English legal writer was Sir William Blackstone, whose Commentaries on the Laws of England served as a
major influence on the American Founders and is a key source in the development Anglo-American
common law. Although John Lockes Two Treatises of Government has long been cited as a major
influence on American thinkers, historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May demonstrate that Lockes
Essay Concerning Human Understanding was far more widely read than were his political Treatises.
The Scottish Enlightenment also influenced American thinkers. David Humes Essays and his
History of England were widely read in the colonies, and Humes political thought had a particular influence
on James Madison and the Constitution. Another important Scottish writer was Francis Hutcheson.
Hutchesons ideas of ethics, along with notions of civility and politeness developed by the Earl of
Shaftesbury, and Addison and Richard Steele in their Spectator, were a major influence on upper-class
American colonists who sought to emulate European manners and learning.
By far the most important French sources to the American Enlightenment, however, were
Montesquieus Spirit of the Laws and Emer de Vattels Law of Nations. Both informed early American ideas
of government and were major influences on the Constitution. Voltaires histories were widely read but
seldom cited. Rousseaus influence was marginal. Noah Webster used Rousseaus educational ideas of
child development to structure his famous Speller. A German influence includes Samuel Pufendorf, whose
writings were also commonly cited by American writers.
Liberalism and republicanism

Since the 1960s, historians have debated the Enlightenments role in the American Revolution.
Before 1960 the consensus was that liberalism, especially that of John Locke, was paramount;
republicanism was largely ignored.[17] The new interpretations were pioneered by J.G.A. Pocock who
argued in The Machiavellian Moment (1975) that, at least in the early eighteenth-century, republican ideas
were just as important as liberal ones. Pococks view is now widely accepted. Bernard Bailyn and Gordon
Wood pioneered the argument that the Founding Fathers of the United States were more influenced by
republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University Professor Isaac Kramnick, on the other
hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean.
In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and political leaders of the
colonies studied history intently, looking for guides or models for good (and bad) government. They
especially followed the development of republican ideas in England. Pocock explained the intellectual
sources in the United States:
The Whig canon and the neo-Harringtonians, John Milton, James Harrington and Sidney,
Trenchard, Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the
tradition as far as Montesquieu, formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its values and
concepts were those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the personality
was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually threatened by corruption; government
figuring paradoxically as the principal source of corruption and operating through such means as
patronage, faction, standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia), established churches (opposed to
the Puritan and deist modes of American religion) and the promotion of a monied interest though the
formulation of this last concept was somewhat hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper
credit common in colonies of settlement. A neoclassical politics provided both the ethos of the elites and
the rhetoric of the upwardly mobile, and accounts for the singular cultural and intellectual homogeneity of
the Founding Fathers and their generation.
The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made inevitable the American
Revolution, for Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and a threat to the
established liberties the Americans enjoyed.
Leopold von Ranke, a leading German historian, in 1848 claims that American republicanism
played a crucial role in the development of European liberalism:
By abandoning English constitutionalism and creating a new republic based on the rights of the
individual, the North Americans introduced a new force in the world. Ideas spread most rapidly when they
have found adequate concrete expression. Thus republicanism entered our Romanic/Germanic world....
Up to this point, the conviction had prevailed in Europe that monarchy best served the interests of the
nation. Now the idea spread that the nation should govern itself. But only after a state had actually been
formed on the basis of the theory of representation did the full significance of this idea become clear. All
later revolutionary movements have this same goal.... This was the complete reversal of a principle. Until
then, a king who ruled by the grace of God had been the center around which everything turned. Now the
idea emerged that power should come from below.... These two principles are like two opposite poles, and
it is the conflict between them that determines the course of the modern world. In Europe the conflict
between them had not yet taken on concrete form; with the French Revolution it did.
Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
[54]

Many historians find that the origin of this famous phrase derives from Lockes position that no
one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions. Others suggest that Jefferson took
the phrase from Sir William Blackstones Commentaries on the Laws of England. Others note that William
Wollastons 1722 book The Religion of Nature Delineated describes the truest definition of natural
religion as being The pursuit of happiness by the practice of reason and truth.
The Virginia Declaration of Rights, which was written by George Mason and adopted by the
Virginia Convention of Delegates on June 12, 1776, a few days before Jeffersons draft, in part reads:
That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of
which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their
posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property,
and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.
The United States Declaration of Independence, which was primarily written by Jefferson, was
adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The text of the second section of the
Declaration of Independence reads:
We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness.
Deism
Thomas Paine
Both the Moderate Enlightenment and a Radical or Revolutionary Enlightenment were reactions
against the authoritarianism, irrationality, and obscurantism of the established churches. Philosophers
such as Voltaire depicted organized Christianity as a tool of tyrants and oppressors and as being used to
defend monarchism, it was seen as hostile to the development of reason and the progress of science and
incapable of verification.
An alternative religion was deism, the philosophical belief in a deity based on reason, rather than
religious revelation or dogma. It was a popular perception among the philosophes, who adopted deistic
attitudes to varying degrees. Deism greatly influenced the thought of intellectuals and Founding Fathers,
including John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, perhaps George Washington and, especially, Thomas
Jefferson. The most articulate exponent was Thomas Paine, whose The Age of Reason was written in
France in the early 1790s, and soon reached the United States. Paine was highly controversial; when
Jefferson was attacked for his deism in the 1800 election, Democratic-Republican politicians took pains to
distance their candidate from Paine. Unitarianism and Deism were strongly connected, the former being
brought to America by Joseph Priestley, the oxygen scientist. Doctor Samuel Johnson called Lord Edward
Herbert the father of English Deism.
The American Enlightenment

Intellectual and Social Revolution
Alexandra has taught students at every age level from pre-school through adult. She has a BSEd
in English Education.
For a thousand years, Europe had been living in the Dark Ages until a series of philosophical,
religious and scientific movements helped turn on the lights. The Enlightenment began in Europe, but
quickly spread throughout America in the 1700s and helped set the stage for a revolution against British
rule.
The Dark Ages

Major events leading to the Age of Reason
Since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, Europes mostly illiterate
population had been guided by superstition, fear of an angry God and ignorant obedience to authorities
who may or may not have their subjects best interests at heart. Unable to read the scriptures or the law for
themselves, their only option was to obey or not obey - and challenging the authority of the king or the
church often resulted in a slow and painful death. A thousand years later, that finally began to change.
A series of intellectual and spiritual movements prompted some individuals to suggest that
humans had been living in the Dark Ages. A renewed awareness of old knowledge, combined with

developments in science, theology and philosophy, helped turn on the lights, so to speak. This movement,
spanning the 18th century, is known today as the Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason.
The Renaissance, Scientific Revolution and Reformation

First, the Renaissance reawakened knowledge of science, art and culture that had been lost
during the Middle Ages and began to shift the focus of these disciplines to humans rather than the divine.
Higher rates of literacy then ushered in the Scientific Revolution, and human knowledge increased rapidly,
laying the foundation for a scientific, rather than religious, world view.
At the time, it was controversial to explain the natural world in a way that didnt involve any
spiritual force. Galileo, for example, was imprisoned for the rest of his life after announcing that the Earth
revolves around the Sun, because religious authorities said he was challenging scripture. Galileo was a
religious man and didnt intend to undermine the Bible. But gradually, all of this new scientific knowledge
did lead a lot of people to question some of the traditional teachings of their churches.
Martin Luther went so far as to say the established church was interpreting the Bible incorrectly.
His protest led to the Protestant Reformation and broke the monopoly of power held by the Catholic
Church.
The actions of Martin Luther instigated the Protestant Reformation

The Age of Reason
People began to wonder that if the church had been wrong about the natural world or even the
Bible, maybe it could be wrong about other things, too. The Age of Reason gave rise to a completely new
way of thinking. Instead of trying to understand how God orchestrated everything in their lives, people
started to consider how they might shape the world around them. The result was a new emphasis on
scientific discovery and a boom in higher education. Reading someone elses experiment wasnt as good
as conducting your own. Accepting what youd been taught by others wasnt as good as challenging and
modifying their assumptions. This was especially true of the relationship between people and the
institutions in authority over them.
During the Middle Ages, Europeans were taught that God had orchestrated events to put their
monarchs in charge. Who were you to question their divine right? But then England was plagued by
political turmoil, and a series of failed governments in the 1600s disrupted the English monarchy,
prompting Enlightenment thinkers to consider how their philosophy might apply to government.
Enlightened Ideas of Government

In 1689, an Englishman named John Locke published an anonymous essay titled Two Treatises
of Government. In the first treatise, Locke argued that no monarchy had a divine right to exist; kings held
power by the luck of their birth. Lockes second treatise, stating that governments should only exist by the
consent of the governed, was more influential in America. As you might imagine, Lockes ideas were
unpopular with the people who held power in England, and he never acknowledged that he was the author
of the Two Treatises.
Benjamin Franklin was a major figure during the American Enlightenment

Other Europeans contributed enlightened ideas of government, as well. The Baron de
Montesquieu proposed that society might benefit from a separation of government powers. Jean-Jacques
Rousseau went so far as to suggest that society should be ruled by the general will of the people,
essentially advocating for direct democracy.
The American Enlightenment

The Enlightenment reached the colonies through the port cities. At first, such philosophy
circulated only among the educated elite. Then, Benjamin Franklin, arguably the single most important
figure of the Enlightenment in America, printed inexpensive pamphlets and newspapers to spread the

ideas quickly. He published Poor Richards Almanack to entertain the colonists and instill Enlightenment
values in them. While Europeans considered, discussed and sifted through these ideas for a century,
Americans put them into practice.
Free from the kind of entrenched power that had dominated Europe for centuries, a generation of
young American leaders was absolutely willing to question not only the role of the king, but the churches
and even God Himself. A theology, known as rational Christianity, emerged. It taught that God gave
humans the ability to reason, allowing them to understand and follow moral teachings, regardless of which
religious group they belonged to. Religious tolerance became even more widespread.
Many Americans moved toward Deism, a philosophical belief in a deity based on reason rather
than faith. In Deism, God is sometimes compared to a watchmaker who makes a watch, winds it up and
then leaves its maintenance to the person who owns it. Deists believed that God created the world and set
natural laws into motion and then his work was done. It is up to humans to keep the world running. Deists
do not believe that God supernaturally intervenes in the world or human events. Some of the founding
fathers, like Thomas Jefferson, were Deists. Many others were strongly influenced by Deism, even if they
didnt claim to follow it.
Though a few Enlightenment thinkers discarded religion altogether, most tried to reconcile their
belief in God with science and philosophy. One important result was the belief in human rights - that if God
created the world with laws that governed it, then He must have also established such natural laws for the
humans He created. Americans began to believe that the intended role of government was to protect these
God-given rights.
Combining these concepts of reason, enlightened government, religious tolerance and natural
rights resulted in the American version of republicanism. Dont confuse the Enlightenment philosophy of
republicanism with the modern political party. At the time, it was a complete reversal of the idea of divine
right. Divine Right teaches that a ruler gets authority from above - he or she is chosen by God Himself.
Republicanism teaches that a ruler gets authority from below - leaders are chosen by the masses. By
contrast, citizens get their rights from God, not from the monarch.
Thomas Paine wrote the influential Common Sense.
Republicanism gained wide-spread acceptance in America. The people knew first-hand that each
colony could successfully rule itself without the help of divinely appointed monarchs. They had been doing
it since Jamestown was founded, and even more so under the policy of salutary neglect. Thomas Paine
wrote a pamphlet called Common Sense in language familiar to average Americans. It helped colonists
better understand other Enlightenment philosophy and generated support for a revolution against British
rule.
The Legacy of the Enlightenment

But the Enlightenment was more than just the philosophical background for the American
Revolution - it was a blueprint for a modern democratic society. Here, democratic is not a reference to a
modern political party, but the concept of a society in which all citizens participate equally. Our earliest
documents, including the Declaration of Independence, as well as the constitutions of the United States
and all of the original states, cannot be separated from Enlightenment ideals, especially those of John
Locke.
The Enlightenment also fostered the values that were necessary for cooperative citizenship values such as patriotism, virtue and personal rights. It defined freedom as a right within the context of
citizenship and civic responsibility. These values were typified in the yeoman farmer - a common laborer
who worked hard to earn a living, live at peace with his neighbors, but was willing to take up his rifle and
fight for the rights God had given him. Such values have persisted in America to this day.
Child of the Enlightenment: Revolutionary Europe Reflected in a Boyhood Diary

Child of the Enlightenment is a captivating book: charming, moving, and richly informative, it
melds the intimate and distant, weaving together bodies, emotions and minds, Enlightenment ideas and
philosophy, and revolutionary politics. Technically brilliant, it retains coherence under the potential
centrifugal force of the authors objective to let the diary pose the questions raised by its own world (p. 1).
Although a boyhood diary directs the studys horizons, Arianne Baggerman and Rudolf Dekker also draw

upon a wealth of ego-documents, a panoply of print culture from pedagogy to conduct literature, travel
writing to fiction, the minutes of political meetings, maps, and 164 vibrant images, which just in themselves
must have taken huge effort to select and organise. This achievement is yet more remarkable when its coauthorship and translation are considered. Fortunately, their remarkable scholarship and prose are well
served by Diane Webbs outstanding translation skills.
The Enlightenment child under scrutiny is Otto van Eck. He began his oft-resented diary in 1791,
at the age of ten, writing regularly at his parents behest for several years, until his entries declined, with a
final one in November 1797. Thanks to Baggerman and Dekkers talents, Otto emerges as both archetypal
Enlightenment product, grown in soil watered by Rousseau and German pedagogues, and as an individual
personality: stubborn, occasionally grumpy and resentful, sometimes socially awkward, irritated by
younger siblings, yet kindly and affectionate towards his family. Born of enlightened parents and
discourses, and intended for the clerical profession, all Otto wanted was to spend his time outdoors on the
family estate, De Ruit, and grow up to be a farmer. This is hardly surprising given his Rousseauvian
upbringing and lack of enthusiasm for books.
Indeed, the authors sensitively contextualise Ottos education within Enlightenment pedagogy.
Although influenced by Rousseaus innovative Emile, Ottos parents actually used the German version of
this style of childrearing, developed from the 1770s, which was far more workable. These philanthropists
or friends of mankind, still saw nature as important, but, in contrast with Rousseau, believed that human
intervention was also crucial. Parents and pedagogues were to encourage children to channel their
emotions, inculcating tenderness, compassion, sympathy and hope, and quelling destructive passions.
Self-control was essential, as was discipline through a combination of rewards and fines, and withholding
parental affection from a naughty child. It is striking how these pedagogical values informed the rearing of
elite children across Europe though moulded by particular cultural influences and diverse enlightenments.
Ottos diary was a central tool in this educational regime, since writing it inculcated selfexamination. But it was no work of intimate introspection, for it was scrutinised daily by Ottos parents who
regularly advised harder work and reprimanded laziness. In it Otto summarised his reading, not just his
behaviour. Just as the German pedagogues advised, Charlotte and Lambert van Eck made good use of
the expanding genre of childrens publishing, and selected Ottos reading, for education and pleasure.
Monitoring his extensive reading programme meant that they could guide him in the project of channelling
feelings. His reading also reflected the van Ecks religious stance. Otto was reared in the Dutch Reformed
Church, with a framework of regular church attendance and family prayers, supplemented by reading
devotional literature. Traditional though this seems, Lambert was extremely liberal in his views, a
proponent of the separation of Church and State and ecumenicalism, and drawn to deism and natural
philosophy. His fathers religious liberalism seems to have prevailed over ritual since Otto read the Bible
very little, was not spiritual, and could even contemplate the possibility that there was no hereafter. This
was a boy who was encouraged to think things through.
Thus Otto was no prisoner in a paper panopticon as the authors so cleverly term it (p. 105).
Baggerman and Dekker reveal Ottos agency as he struggled against parental supervision, avoiding
writing daily entries, and rebelliously complaining when forced to do so. They also infer that although his
reading followed that of idealised fictional children, Otto stolidly refused to love it for pleasure alone. While
keeping the diary clearly led to tensions between Otto and his parents, one can also imagine that some of
his grudging confessions to ill temper, sibling quarrels, and reported throwaway comments, such as telling
his mother he wished that there were no pianos in the world, when obliged to repeat piano practice, might
have prompted rueful smiles among his parents at the close of day.
The central section of the book opens up Ottos wider world. Drawn together in one insightful
chapter are his delight in outdoor pursuits in the familys country estate, new vogues in landscape
gardening, the view that children were best reared in the countryside, away from worldly vices and
temptations, and the metaphor of the child as tender plant. Indeed, the Enlightenment electrified all these
aspects of child-rearing, nature, and landscape in the 1770s in the Netherlands. The formal gardens of
elite estates were made over in the natural English country style, symbolic of the desire for a purer,
virtuous lifestyle and offering a suitably rural location to nurture minds and bodies. Tellingly, the van Ecks
remodelled De Ruit at the same time as they were putting novel child-rearing ideas into practice. As his
Papa explained to Otto, one of the main reasons we live in the country both summer and winter is to teach
us from an early age that simplicity, moderation and industry are inextricably bound to our basic happiness
(p. 191). Raised with such metaphors of cultivation, which frequently revisited classical antecedents to
praise rural life as the seat of moral virtues, the poets and autobiographers of Ottos generation went on to
describe youth as a paradisiacal garden that they had to leave behind to enter the next stage of life. Yet,
the age of feelings bucolic bliss was not sentimentalised. Otto was permitted to attend the slaughter of
livestock in autumn, an agricultural activity which he relished. His unsentimental view of the animal
kingdom was perfectly valid: animals were not considered to feel; therefore, while needless cruelty was
forbidden, one did not need to extend sympathy over their rational use as human nourishment.
[58]

Baggerman and Dekker use Ottos diary to trace the ways in which his world expanded as he
grew older. Nestled first in the loving arms of his immediate family members, Otto increasingly travelled
beyond them. He was familiarised with his own family lineage, essential to acquiring maturity since it
marked status and prestige. He went further afield to extended kin and friends, eventually visiting them
without his parents. All this was to prepare him for sociability, the driving force of society and social
relations. Although sociability was compelled by the engine of politeness in England, in Dutch society it
seems to have been a value shaped by new social-scientific methods of studying society: an invaluable
form of conduct, after all, in a society newly deemed to be shaped by its people. Ottos physical world was
also extended. His first experiences were in the parental home and its environs. Thus the authors describe
the van Ecks splendid houses in the country and in town in The Hague, reminders of Ottos luxurious
lifestyle. He explored the world beyond his homes through the new discipline of geography. One feature of
his rich material culture was his access to maps, aesthetical and pedagogical devices and embodiment of
nationalist interests. In a striking image from Vaderlandsch A-B-boek (1781), a father cradles his toddler in
his arms and points to a vast map on the wall, explaining: The Netherlands is your fatherland, where you
live in utmost security. When you grow up, you too, will surely dwell here with your family.
As the rest of the book shows, this security was illusory, disrupted by time and events. Ottos
perception of time passing is placed within the changing understandings of time from the mid 18th century.
In the aftermath of the French Revolution understandings of time went from cyclical to linear. Not just a
characteristic of industrialisation, time was measured through industriousness: the less sleep and more
useful activities the better. Time was also the resource of the powerful, who controlled the time of others; a
feature of age as well as social hierarchy, as Otto discovered when sent to bed early as punishment for
bad behaviour. Baggerman and Dekker trace this new notion of linear time through Utopian writing. Later
18th-century utopias were set in the future rather than an undiscovered place. Child-rearing was
fundamental to them, the marker and mechanism for reconstructing society. Otto experienced these
conceptual shifts in body and mind. Inoculation was part of improving society and the van Ecks used it to
protect their children. Gauging the right time to implement it was, however, agonising. Otto and his sister
Cootje were inoculated as older children at their house in The Hague. While they recovered well, their
infant sister Annemietje stayed with her grandparents in Delft, deemed by the doctor too young to
inoculate. She contracted smallpox and died. No wonder Ottos diary entries describe time as short, all too
quickly lost, to be carefully harvested and used efficiently. These are signs of modern time-keeping, but
his diary nonetheless reveals that traditional ideas of time persisted. Otto also structured his entries
around these older markers of time, like the New Year, annual events like fairs, and the changing seasons.
The Netherlands faced political insecurity too. Baggerman and Dekker give a precise account of
the Batavian Revolution, an episode in Dutch history which has received little scholarly attention. Ottos
father Lambert and uncle Pieter Paulus were key players. On the heels of French occupation in 1795
Lambert led the velvet revolution in The Hague. The Stadholder Willem V fled and the Patriots took
power. By May 1795 he represented The Hague in the new government of the province of Holland and
Paulus was elected president of the provincial assembly of Holland. By March 1796 a National Assembly
had been voted in by something approaching universal male suffrage. Paulus was elected chairman, and
Lambert joined the assembly in October. For all this, the van Eck family did not profit from these major
national events. Ottos beloved Uncle Pieter died soon after his installation as chairman. In January 1797
Lambert was himself elected chairman of the National Assembly and Ottos diary reflects his fathers
demanding role largely by bemoaning his absences from home at work. Lambert next became embroiled
in debate about the new Dutch constitution. Perhaps explaining why Otto missed his father so much was
van Ecks proposed amendment to the constitution that no one lacking in domestic virtues can be a good
citizen (p.370). The debates triggered conflict that ended in a coup dtat in January 1798 that ousted him.
In February van Eck and other revolutionaries were imprisoned in Huis ten Bosch. A more moderate group
staged a further coup in June 1798 and a new governing regulation was imposed in July, at which point it
was declared that the revolution was ended. What gave hope to van Eck and his companions in
misfortune was their firm belief that it would be future generations who by virtue of their enlightened
educations would be deserving of, and equal to, that true freedom (p. 3945). Certainly, revolutionary
ideals of liberty and egalitarianism were transmitted through policies on education, catechisms for the
young and symbolic festivities.
Did Otto inherit his fathers hoped-for liberties? From the start we know that Otto had a short life,
yet Baggerman and Dekker avoid the shadow that this could have cast over the whole book. Instead they
move us through what is fundamentally an optimistic Enlightened Dutch world seen through Ottos eyes.
The brightness of the new ideas radiates in Ottos generation, who grew to adulthood around 1800. Yet the
book draws to an unwelcome and painful close, for Otto was excluded from his generations potential to
enjoy the benefits of the Batavian revolution. The closing chapters centre on the vulnerable body, both
physical and political. Here we see Otto struggling with a long, life-threatening, painful attack of psoriasis
in 1792, when he was 12, and numerous severe colds and fevers, which often rendered him deaf. The van
Ecks did all they could, adopting a regimen in the countryside intended to make the body hardier and able
to withstand illness. More unusual, it seems that when very ill Otto was given his mothers breast milk,
available since she had just given birth to another sibling. The authors are largely silent on this report.
Even in a society that promoted maternal breastfeeding, surely this was strange to contemporaries? How
was it delivered to Otto [expressed, one hopes]? What is all too apparent, however, is Ottos recognition

that life itself was precarious. Death was overly familiar to Otto: he operated in a culture that moped
melancholically via poetry like Youngs Night Thoughts, Harveys Meditations among the Tombs and Grays
Elegy and their Dutch imitators; his relatives died frequently; and his family subscribed to new initiatives
which moved cemeteries outside cities to make burials more hygienic.
Ottos diary ended on 29 November 1797 and so the rest of his story is told largely via his fathers
words. It is a depressing one for the reader who has accompanied Otto and his loving family so far. Just as
he became seriously ill, at only 17, early in 1798, his father was imprisoned. In mid-March Lambert was
permitted a visit from his children. His joy at seeing them was destroyed, however, by seeing the full extent
of the ravages caused by his sons illness, newly diagnosed as consumption. The following week the
authorities allowed Lambert to return home to be with his dying child. Otto died in his 18th year at the end
of March and was buried in the familys new cemetery plot. His father returned to prison until he was
released that summer following the second coup. Emotionally and physically shattered, he also
succumbed to TB on 5 October 1803. The book ends movingly with family memories of Ottos vivacity,
promise, and his parents consuming love for him
This is a book that is indispensable to scholars of diverse historical topics and countries. It shows
the application of Enlightenment principles in home, culture, and politics and thus enriches scholars
understanding of the long 18th century. It is indispensable for anyone interested in the development of
pedagogy, the values inculcated in elite child-rearing, and family life, but also the dissemination of political
rhetoric across generations, changing conceptions of nature, time, space and religion. In fact it is
exemplary in revealing how ideas and practice interweave. In some ways, the original Dutch title of the
book is especially apt: The Wonderful World of Otto van Eck: a Cultural History of the Batavian Revolution,
for this is a truly wonderful evocation of his world and a superb book.

History of The USA CH 2 British Colony

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Chapter 2

British colonies in North America

US As a British Colony [36]

The British Colonies in North America, 17631775

List of English and British colonies in North America

New Cambriol, founded 1617, abandoned before 1637.

Advanced History of USA

Fur traders in Canada, trading with Indians, 1777

USA AS ANENGLISH COLONY

2.Massachusetts Bay Colony

Passengers of the Mayflower signing the Mayflower Compact

[40] Advanced History of USA

4.Patterns of Colonization in the Other Early Colonies

5.Portrait of the British Colonies

US As a British Colony [41]

7.Mercantilism, Salutary Neglect and British Interference

Advanced History of USA

8.Indians in the 1700s

9.Philadelphia Election Riot

US As a British Colony [43]

The Church of England

1.The Church of England

[44] Advanced History of USA

5.Methodism in Colonial America

US As a British Colony [45]

The United States is still a British Colony

Advanced History of USA

US As a British Colony [47]

[48] Advanced History of USA

US As a British Colony [49]

The American Revolution was the child of Enlightenment.

The American Revolution

[50] Advanced History of USA

US As a British Colony [51]

Advanced History of USA

US As a British Colony [53]

Liberalism and republicanism

Advanced History of USA

The American Enlightenment

The Dark Ages

US As a British Colony [55]

The Renaissance, Scientific Revolution and Reformation

The actions of Martin Luther instigated the Protestant Reformation

Enlightened Ideas of Government

Benjamin Franklin was a major figure during the American Enlightenment

The American Enlightenment

[56] Advanced History of USA

The Legacy of the Enlightenment

Child of the Enlightenment: Revolutionary Europe Reflected in a Boyhood Diary

US As a British Colony [57]

Advanced History of USA

US As a British Colony [59]

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