Physiology & Neuroscience: General principles

- Neuroscience is the study of the brain, spinal cord and nerves of the body.
- Subject of neuroscience is fairly young but the study of the brain is ancient.
The human brain a spongy 3-pound mass of tissue is the most complex living
structure in the universe. Society for Neuroscience website, 2012
What is physiology?
- Physiology is the study of how humans and animals function in an integrated
way, from the molecular basis of cell function to the integrated behaviour of
whole body.
- Subject of physiology old compared to neuroscience.
In physiology, as in all other sciences, no discovery is useless, no curiosity
misplaced or too ambitious, and we may be certain that every advance
achieved in the quest of pure knowledge will sooner or later play its part in the
service of man. - Ernest Starling
Heart vs brain Ancient Egypticians, 5000 years ago, aware of symptoms of brain damage BUT
heart seat of soul and memories.
- Body preserved but brain scooped out and discarded.
- Belief held that the heart is seat of consciousness until challenged at time of
Hippocrates (4 BC).
- 7000 years ago, common practice to bore holes in skull to cure headaches or
mental disorders by providing an escape route for evil spirits.
- Ancient Greeks argued that brain is seat of intelligence (Hippocrates, 460-379
B.C., being most influential).
- Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) disagreed by stating that the brains function was to
cool the blood that had been overheated by seething heart.
- Romans followed Hippocrates view.
- Galen (130-200 A.D.), physician to gladiators and avid dissector of animal
brains.
- Galen attempted to deduce function from structure.
Galens sheep brain
- Galen determined that hard cerebellum
commands muscles.
- Soft cerebrum deals with sensations.
- Not far off but reasoning incorrect.
Galens sheep brain
How does the brain receive sensations and control

limbs?

- In centre of brain are hollow spaces called

ventricles.

- Galen postulated that initiation and control

movement and sensations by flow of fluids
(humors) within ventricles and hollow tubes
(nerves).

of

- Galen was incorrect but nonetheless made

important observations.

Nerves act like wires

- Muscles twitch when nerves stimulated electrically.
- Nerves are wires that conduct electrical signals to and from brain. Within each
nerve there are many thin nerve filaments.
Within each nerve there is mixture of wires, some carrying information to the
brain and spinal cord, others carrying information out to muscles.

White and grey matter

17th & 18th century scientists focused on two types of matter in brain.
- White matter made up of fibre tracts. These fibre tracts carry neural
information.
- Grey matter made up of cells. Where neural information is processed.
Major advance:
All human brains have same surface pattern of bumps (gyri) and grooves (sulci).
Brain divided into lobes.
Different fuctions localised to different bumps on the brain.
Lobes of brain
Localisation of specific function
- Today much more is known about brain function.
- Specific functions are localised to specific brain areas.

Evolution of nervous system

- Behavioural traits specialised for particular species.
- Monkey brain highly specialised for sight.
- Rat brain highly specialised for touch with whiskers and snout.

Two divisions of the nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain & Spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves and nerve cells outside the brain and
spinal cord.
The Neuron
- Basic functional unit of the nervous system.
- Electrical signals carried in nerve cells.
- Responsible for initiating, mediating, modulating most physiological processes
in body.
Cardiovascular control
Respiratory control
Muscle control
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the condition of equilibrium (balance) in the bodys internal
environment due to constant interaction of the bodys many regulatory
processes.
From cells to systems, each structure has a role to play in keeping the internal
environment within normal limits.
In order to ensure optimal physiological function, variables maintained within
range of values: - PO2 100 mmHg - PCO2 40 mmHg - Blood pressure 120/80
mmHg - Temperature 37C - pH 7.4 - Plasma glucose 5.5mM
Homeostasis & body fluids Homeostasis important in maintaining volume and
composition of body fluids.
Intracellular fluid within cells
Extraceullar fluid outside cells - Interstitial fluid ECF between cells of tissues
- blood plasma ECF within blood vessels - lymph ECF within lymphatic vessels
- cerebrospinal fluid ECF around brain and spinal cord - synovial fluid in joints
- aqueous humour and vitreous body in eye.
Control of Homeostasis Human body faces continual disruption from - external
environment e.g., heat during hot day, lack of
oxygen during exercise. internal environment; e.g., reduced glucose levels - psychological stress
Disruption to homeostasis usually mild and temporary.

Under some conditions disruption is prolonged and severe; e.g. infection,

poisoning, temperature extremes.
Body has regulating systems to bring internal environment back to equilibrium.
The Endocrine system The Nervous system
Feedback systems
Stimulus:
a disruption that changes a controlled condition.
Feedback systems
Controlled condition:
a monitored variable, e.g., blood pressure, temperature, blood glucose levels etc.
Feedback systems
Receptor:
monitors changes in controlled condition and sends input to a control centre.
This is the AFFERENT pathway.
Feedback systems Control centre:
evaluates inputs from receptors then generates output commands when needed.
Output typically nerve impulses, hormones or other chemical signals.
This is the EFFERENT pathway.
Feedback systems
Effector:
a structure that produces a response or effect that changes the controlled
condition.
Most organs and tissues in the body can be an effector.
Feedback systems Response:
Alters the controlled condition in some way, either reversing (negative feedback
loop) or enhancing (positive feedback loop) it.
Homeostasis reached when controlled condition back to normal.
Negative feedback loop
Positive feedback loop
Feedback loops Positive and negative feedback loops regulate a controlled
condition in the bodys internal environment.
A positive feedback loop continually reinforces a change in a controlled
condition, some event outside the system must shut it off.

A negative feedback loop slows and then stops when the controlled condition
returns to its normal state.
Positive feedback systems reinforce conditions that do not happen very often.
Negative feedback systems regulate conditions in the body that remain stable
over time.