Energy development

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Further information: Outline of energy development
Energy development

Renewables split-up by
source
Fossil
Biomass
Biomass
electric
Renewable heat
SolarWind
Nuclear
water
GeoGeo-heat electric
Hydro
Solar PV
Ethanol
Solar CSP
Biodiesel
Oceanic
Source: Renewable Energy Policy
Network[1]

Total

World total primary energy

production

Total world primary energy production

(quadrillion Btu)[2]
China
United States
Russia
Europe
Africa
Central and South America
Note the different y-axis for total (left)
and regional curves (right)
US Energy Use/Flow in 2011

Energy flow charts show the relative size

of primary energy resources and end
uses in the United States, with fuels
compared on a common energy unit
basis (2011: 97.3 quads).[3]
Compounds and Radiant Energy
Solar
Wind
Coal
Nuclear Geothermal Biomass
Hydro
Natural
Petroleum
Gas
Producing Electrical
Currents/Utilizing Effects
Transmitted
Electricity Generation
Residential, Commercial,
Industrial, transportation
Rejected energy[note 1]
Energy Services

Energy development[4][5][6] is a field of endeavor focused on

making available sufficient primary energy sources[7] and
secondary energy forms to meet the needs of society.[8][9][10][11][12]
These endeavors encompass those which provide for the
production of conventional, alternative and renewable sources of
energy, and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would
otherwise be wasted. Energy conservation[note 2] and efficiency
measures[note 3] reduce the effect of energy development, and can
have benefits to society with changes in economic cost and with
changes in the environmental effects.
Contemporary industrial societies use primary and secondary
energy sources for transportation and the production of many
manufactured goods. Also, large industrial populations have
various generation and delivery services for energy distribution
and end-user utilization.[note 4] This energy is used by people who
can afford the cost to live under various climatic conditions
through the use of heating, ventilation, and/or air conditioning.
Level of use of external energy sources differs across societies,
along with the convenience, levels of traffic congestion,
pollution sources[13] and availability of domestic energy sources.
Thousands of people in society are employed in the energy
industry. The conventional industry comprises the petroleum
industry[note 5] the gas industry,[note 6] the electrical power
industry[note 7] the coal industry, and the nuclear power industry.
New energy industries include the renewable energy industry,
comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture, distribution,
and sale of alternative fuels. While there is the development of
new hydrocarbon sources,[14] including deepwater/horizontal
drilling and fracking, are continuously underway, commitments

to mitigate climate change are driving efforts to develop sources

of alternative and renewable energy.
Contents
1 Types of energy
2 Fossil fuels
3 Nuclear
o 3.1 Fission
o 3.2 Fission economics
4 Renewable sources
o 4.1 Hydroelectricity
o 4.2 Wind
o 4.3 Solar
o 4.4 Biofuels
o 4.5 Geothermal
o 4.6 Oceanic
o 4.7 100% renewable energy
5 Increased energy efficiency
6 Transmission

o 6.1 Shipping and pipelines

o 6.2 Wired energy transfer
o 6.3 Wireless energy transfer
7 Storage
8 History of energy development
o 8.1 Sustainability
o 8.2 Resilience
o 8.3 Present and future
9 See also
10 References and citations
11 Sources
12 Journals
13 External links
Types of energy[edit]
Further information: World energy resources and consumption
See also: Worldwide energy supply, Energy and society, Energy
planning, and Energy policy

Open System Model (basics)

Colloquially, and in non-scientific literature, the terms power,[note
8]
fuels, and energy can be used as synonyms, but in the field of
energy technology they possess different distinct meanings that
are associated with them. An energy source is usually in the
form of a closed system, the element that provides the energy by
conversion from another energy form; However, the energy can
be quantitative, the balance sheet is capable of containing open
system energy transfers.[note 9] Illustrative of this can be the
emanations from the sun, which with its nuclear fusion is the
most important energy source for the Earth[note 10] and which
provides its energy in the form of radiation.
The natural elements[note 11] of the material world exist in forms
that can be converted into usable energy and are resources from
which society can obtain energy to produce heat, light, and
motion (among the many uses). According to their nature, the
power plants can be classified into:
Primary : They are found in nature: wind, water, solar,[note
12]
wood, coal, oil, nuclear.
Secondary : Are those obtained from primary energy
sources: electricity, gas.

Classified according to the energy reserves of the energy source

used and the regeneration capacity with:
renewable: When the energy source used is freely
regenerated in a short period and there are practically
limitless reserves; An example is the solar energy that is the
source of energy from the sun, or the wind[note 13] used as an
energy resource. Renewable energies are:
o original solar
o natural wind (atmospheric flows)
o natural geothermal
o oceanic tidal
o natural waterfall (hydraulic flows)
o natural plant: paper, wood
o natural animal: wax, grease,[note 14] pack animals and
sources of mechanical energy[note 15]
nonrenewable: They are coming from energy limited
sources on Earth in quantity and, therefore, are exhaustible.
The non-renewable energy sources include, nonexclusively:
o fossil source: petroleum, natural gas, coal
o original mineral/chemical: uranium, shale gas[note 16]

So, for example, shale gas is secondary non-renewable. Wind is

a primary renewable.
The principle stated by Antoine Lavoisier on the conservation of
matter applies to energy development:[note 17] "nothing is created."
Thus any energy "production" is actually a recovery
transformation of the forms of energy whose origin is that of the
universe.
For example, a bicycle dynamo turns in part from the kinetic
energy (speed energy) of the movement of the cyclist and
converting it into electrical energy will transfer in particular to
its lights producing light, that is to say light energy, via the
heating of the filament of the bulb and therefore heat (thermal
energy). But the kinetic energy of the rider is itself biochemical
energy (the ATP muscle cells) derived from the chemical energy
of sugars synthesized by plants who use light energy from the
sun, which runs from the nuclear energy produced by fusion of
atoms of hydrogen. This material itself constitutes a form of
energy, called "mass energy."
Fossil fuels[edit]

The Moss Landing Power Plant in California is a fossil-fuel

power station that burns natural gas in a turbine to produce
electricity.

Main articles: Fossil fuel and Peak oil

Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or
hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition
of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels:
coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production
of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either
directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to
mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or
electrical power generation.
Fossil energy is from recovered fossils (like brown coal, hard
coal, peat, natural gas and crude oil) and are originated in
degradated products of dead plants and animals. These fossil
fuels are based on the carbon cycle and thus allow stored
(historic solar) energy to be recycled today. In 2005, 81% were
of the world's energy needs met from fossil sources.[15] Biomass
is also derived from wood and other organic wastes and modern
remains. The technical development of fossil fuels in the 18th
and 19th Century set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.
Fossil fuels make up the bulk of the world's current primary
energy sources. The technology and infrastructure already exist
for the use of fossil fuels. Petroleum energy density in terms of
volume (cubic space) and mass (weight) ranks currently above
that of alternative energy sources (or energy storage devices,
like a battery). Fossil fuels are currently economical, and
suitable for decentralised energy use.

A (horizontal) drilling rig for natural gas in Texas

Dependence on fossil fuels from regions or countries creates
energy security risks for dependent countries.[16][17][18][19][20] Oil
dependence in particular has led to war,[21] funding of radicals,[22]
monopolization,[23] and socio-political instability.[24] Fossil fuels
are non-renewable, un-sustainable resources, which will
eventually decline in production[25] and become exhausted, with
consequences to societies that remain dependent on them. Fossil
fuels are actually slowly forming continuously, but are being
consumed quicker than are formed.[note 18] Extracting fuels
becomes increasingly extreme as society consumes the most
accessible fuel deposits. Extraction in fuel mines get intensive
and oil rigs drill deeper (going further out to sea).[26] Extraction
of fossil fuels results in environmental degradation, such as the
strip mining and mountaintop removal of coal.
Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the
efficiency of a process that converts chemical potential energy
contained in a carrier fuel into kinetic energy or work. The fuel
economy is the energy efficiency of a particular vehicle, is given

as a ratio of distance travelled per unit of fuel consumed.

Weight-specific efficiency (efficiency per unit weight) may be
stated for freight, and passenger-specific efficiency (vehicle
efficiency per passenger). The inefficient atmospheric
combustion (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings, and
power plants contributes to urban heat islands.[27]
Conventional production of oil has peaked, conservatively,
between 2007 and 2010.[note 19] In 2010, it was estimated that an
investment in non-renewable resources of $8 trillion would be
required to maintain current levels of production for 25 years.[28]
In 2010, governments subsidized fossil fuels by an estimated
$500 billion a year.[29] Fossil fuels are also a source of
greenhouse gas emissions, leading to concerns about global
warming if consumption is not reduced.
The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution
into the atmosphere. The fossil fuels are mainly based on
organic carbon compounds. They are according to the IPCC the
causes of the global warming.[30] During the combustion with
oxygen in the form of heat energy, carbon dioxide released.
Depending on the composition and purity of the fossil fuel also
results in other chemical compounds such as nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and soot and other fine particulates alternativey.
Greenhouse gas emissions result from fossil fuel-based
electricity generation. A typical coal plant generates billions of
kilowatt hours per year.[31][note 20] Emissions from such fossil fuel
power station include carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, small
particulates, nitrogen oxides, smog with high levels of ozone,
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, volatile organic

compounds (VOC), mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium, other

heavy metals, and traces of uranium.[32][33]
Nuclear[edit]
Fission[edit]

The Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, a boiling water

reactor. The reactors are located inside the rectangular
containment buildings towards the front of the cooling towers.
The power station produces 63 million kilowatt hours per day.

American nuclear powered ships,(top to bottom) cruisers USS

Bainbridge, the USS Long Beach and the USS Enterprise, the
longest ever naval vessel, and the first nuclear-powered aircraft
carrier. Picture taken in 1964 during a record setting voyage of
26,540 nmi (49,190 km) around the world in 65 days without
refueling. Crew members are spelling out Einstein's mass-energy
equivalence formula E = mc2 on the flight deck.

The Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker NS Yamal on a joint

scientific expedition with the NSF in 1994
Main article: Nuclear power
Nuclear power, or nuclear energy, is the use of exothermic
nuclear processes,[34] to generate useful heat and electricity. The
term includes nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion.
Presently the nuclear fission of elements in the actinide series of
the periodic table produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in
the direct service of humankind, with nuclear decay processes,
primarily in the form of geothermal energy, and radioisotope
thermoelectric generators, in niche uses making up the rest.
Nuclear (fission) power stations, excluding the contribution
from naval nuclear fission reactors, provided about 5.7% of the
world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012.[35] In
2013, the IAEA report that there are 437 operational nuclear
power reactors,[36] in 31 countries,[37] although not every reactor
is producing electricity.[38] In addition, there are approximately
140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation,
powered by some 180 reactors.[39][40][41] As of 2013, attaining a
net energy gain from sustained nuclear fusion reactions,
excluding natural fusion power sources such as the Sun, remains
an ongoing area of international physics and engineering
research. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial
fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.[42]

There is an ongoing debate about nuclear power.[43][44][45]

Proponents, such as the World Nuclear Association, the IAEA
and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy contend that nuclear
power is a safe, sustainable energy source that reduces carbon
emissions.[46] Opponents, such as Greenpeace International and
NIRS, contend that nuclear power poses many threats to people
and the environment.[47][48][49]
Nuclear power plant accidents include the Chernobyl disaster
(1986), Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), and the
Three Mile Island accident (1979).[50] There have also been some
nuclear submarine accidents.[50][51][52] In terms of lives lost per
unit of energy generated, analysis has determined that nuclear
power has caused less fatalities per unit of energy generated than
the other major sources of energy generation. Energy production
from coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydropower has caused a
greater number of fatalities per unit of energy generated due to
air pollution and energy accident effects.[53][54][55][56][57] However,
the economic costs of nuclear power accidents is high, and
meltdowns can take decades to clean up. The human costs of
evacuations of affected populations and lost livelihoods is also
significant.[58][59]
In 2016, strengthening the case of nuclear fission being regarded
as a renewable energy, the global effort focused on techniques to
economically extract the naturally replenishing uranium found
in seawater took a step forward and will prevent "peak
uranium", as the quantity of uranium now becoming
economically recoverable with the field tested absorbent
polymer ropes, is practically inexhaustible.[60][61]

Along with other sustainable energy sources, nuclear power is a

low carbon power generation method of producing electricity,
with an analysis of the literature on its total life cycle emission
intensity finding that it is similar to other renewable sources in a
comparison of greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions per unit of
energy generated.[62] With this translating into, from the
beginning of nuclear power station commercialization in the
1970s, having prevented the emission of approximately 64
gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent(GtCO2-eq) greenhouse
gases, gases that would have otherwise resulted from the
burning of oil, coal or natural gas in fossil-fuel power stations.[63]
As of 2012, according to the IAEA, worldwide there were 68
civil nuclear power reactors under construction in 15 countries,
[36]
approximately 28 of which in the Peoples Republic of China
(PRC), with the most recent nuclear power reactor, as of May
2013, to be connected to the electrical grid, occurring on
February 17, 2013 in Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Plant in the
PRC.[64] In the United States, two new Generation III reactors
are under construction at Vogtle. U.S. nuclear industry officials
expect five new reactors to enter service by 2020, all at existing
plants.[65] In 2013, four aging, uncompetitive, reactors were
permanently closed.[66][67]
Japan's 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident, which
occurred in a reactor design from the 1960s, prompted a rethink
of nuclear safety and nuclear energy policy in many countries.[68]
Germany decided to close all its reactors by 2022, and Italy has
banned nuclear power.[68] Following Fukushima, in 2011 the
International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional
nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.[69][70]

Fission economics[edit]
Main article: Economics of new nuclear power plants

The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the second worst

nuclear incident, displaced 50,000 households after radioactive
material leaked into the air, soil and sea.[71] Radiation checks led
to bans on some shipments of vegetables and fish.[72]
The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial
subject, since there are diverging views on this topic, and
multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy
source. Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs
for building the plant, but low direct fuel costs.
In recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand
growth and financing has become more difficult, which affects
large projects such as nuclear reactors, with very large upfront
costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks.
[73]
In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are
struggling to find finance, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the
additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania, and some potential
backers have pulled out.[73] Where cheap gas is available and its
future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem
for nuclear projects.[73]

2 months after the Fukushima I failures, a global public support

survey by Ipsos (2011) for energy sources was published and
Nuclear/Fission was found to be the least popular.[74]
Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into
account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all
operating nuclear power plants were developed by state-owned
or regulated utility monopolies[75][76] where many of the risks
associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel
price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than
suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the electricity
market where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors
emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant
suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a
significantly different evaluation of the economics of new
nuclear power plants.[77]
Two of the four EPRs under construction (in Finland and
France) are significantly behind schedule and substantially over
cost.[78] Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster,
costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear
power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent
fuel management and elevated design basis threats.[79] While first
of their kind designs, such as the EPRs under construction are
behind schedule and over-budget, of the seven South Korean

APR-1400s presently under construction worldwide, two are in

S.Korea at the Hanul Nuclear Power Plant and four are at the
largest nuclear station construction project in the world as of
2016, in the United Arab Emirates at the planned Barakah
nuclear power plant. The first reactor, Barakah-1 is 85%
completed and on schedule for grid-connection during 2017.[80]
[81]

Renewable sources[edit]
Main article: Renewable energy commercialization

Wind, sun, and hydroelectricity are three renewable energy

sources.
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes
from resources which are naturally replenished on a human
timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and
geothermal heat.[82] Renewable energy replaces conventional
fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot
water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy
services.[83]
About 16% of global final energy consumption presently comes
from renewable resources, with 10% [84] of all energy from
traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from

hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern

biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for
another 3% and are growing rapidly.[85] At the national level, at
least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy
contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National
renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow
strongly in the coming decade and beyond.[86] Wind power, for
example, is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a
worldwide installed capacity of 282,482 megawatts (MW) at the
end of 2012.
Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas,
in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a
limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable
energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy
security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.[87] In
international public opinion surveys there is strong support for
promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind
power.[88]
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale,
renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas
and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in
human development.[89] United Nations' Secretary-General Ban
Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the
poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.[90]
Hydroelectricity[edit]
Main article: Hydroelectricity

The 22,500 MW Three Gorges Dam in China the world's

largest hydroelectric power station
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by
hydropower; the production of electrical power through the use
of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. In 2015
hydropower generated 16.6% of the worlds total electricity and
70% of all renewable electricity[91] and is expected to increase
about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific
region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010.
China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatthours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of
domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity
plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China,
Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in
Venezuela.[92]
The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a
competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of
electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5
U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[92] Hydro is also a flexible source of
electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly
to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming
interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and
building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing

people and wildlife.[92] Once a hydroelectric complex is

constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a
considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon
dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants.[93]
Wind[edit]
See also: Wind power

Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm in North West England

Global growth of wind power capacity

Wind (primary renewable natural) power harnesses the power
of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. These turbines
cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind
towers are usually built together on wind farms. There are

offshore and onshore wind farms. Global wind power capacity

has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy
production was around 4% of total worldwide electricity usage,
and growing rapidly.[94]
Wind power is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United
States.[95] Several countries have achieved relatively high levels
of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity
production in Denmark,[96] 18% in Portugal,[96] 16% in Spain,[96]
14% in Ireland,[97] and 9% in Germany in 2010.[96][98] By 2011, at
times over 50% of electricity in Germany and Spain came from
wind and solar power.[99][100] As of 2011, 83 countries around the
world are using wind power on a commercial basis.[98]
Many of the world's largest onshore wind farms are located in
the United States, China, and India. Most of the world's largest
offshore wind farms are located in Denmark, Germany and the
United Kingdom. The two largest offshore wind farm are
currently the 630 MW London Array and Gwynt y Mr.
Large onshore wind farms
Current
Wind farm
capacity
(MW)
Alta (Oak Creek-Mojave)
1,320
Jaisalmer Wind Park
1,064
Roscoe Wind Farm
781
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center 735
Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm
662
Fntnele-Cogealac Wind Farm
600
Fowler Ridge Wind Farm
599

Country

Notes

[101]
USA
[102]
India
[103]
USA
[104][105]
USA
[104][105]
USA
Romania [106]
[107]
USA

Solar[edit]
Main articles: Solar PV systems and Concentrated solar power

Part of the 354 MW SEGS solar complex in northern San

Bernardino County, California

The 150 MW Andasol Solar Power Station is a concentrated

solar power plant, located in Spain.
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed
using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar
heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar
architecture and artificial photosynthesis.[108][109]
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive
solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert
and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the
use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to
harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a
building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal
mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that
naturally circulate air.

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the

development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy
technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase
countries energy security through reliance on an indigenous,
inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance
sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating
climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise.
These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the
incentives for early deployment should be considered learning
investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely
shared".[108]

The Topaz Solar Farm is one of the worlds largest solar power
station.
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by
converting solar radiation into direct current electricity using
semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic
power generation employs solar panels composed of a number
of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials
presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride,
and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Due to the
increased demand for renewable energy sources, the
manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has
advanced considerably in recent years.

Solar photovoltaics is a sustainable energy source.[110] By the end

of 2011, a total of 71.1 GW[111] had been installed, sufficient to
generate 85 TWh/year.[112] And by end of 2012, the 100 GW
installed capacity milestone was achieved.[113] Solar
photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most
important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed
capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations
may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with
farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building
(either building-integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop).
Driven by advances in technology and increases in
manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics
has declined steadily since the first solar cells were
manufactured,[114] and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE)
from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in
an expanding list of geographic regions. Net metering and
financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solargenerated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in
many countries.[115] The Energy Payback Time (EPBT), also
known as energy amortization, depends on the location's annual
solar insolation and temperature profile, as well as on the used
type of PV-technology. For conventional crystalline silicon
photovoltaics, the EPBT is higher than for thin-film
technologies such as CdTe-PV or CPV-systems. Moreover, the
payback time decreased in the recent years due to a number of
improvements such as solar cell efficiency and more economic
manufacturing processes. As of 2014, photovoltaics recoup on
average the energy needed to manufacture them in 0.7 to 2
years. This results in about 95% of net-clean energy produced by
a solar rooftop PV system over a 30-year life-time.[116]:30

Biofuels[edit]
Main articles: Biofuel and Sustainable biofuel

A bus fueled by biodiesel

Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10%,

California
A biofuel is a fuel that contains energy from geologically recent
carbon fixation. These fuels are produced from living organisms.
Examples of this carbon fixation occur in plants and microalgae.
These fuels are made by a biomass conversion (biomass refers to
recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plantderived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient
energy containing substances in three different ways: thermal
conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.
This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas
form. This new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have
increased in popularity because of rising oil prices and the need
for energy security.

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from

carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or
sugarcane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources,
such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock
for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles
in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to
increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is
widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does
not provide for converting the lignin portion of plant raw
materials to fuel components by fermentation.
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel
can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is
usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates,
carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered
vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using
transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.
However, research is underway on producing renewable fuels
from decarboxylation[117]
In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters
(28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009,[118] and biofuels
provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a
contribution largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel.[citation needed]
Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23
billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as
the world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global
production. The world's largest biodiesel producer is the
European Union, accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production
in 2010.[118] As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in
31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or provinces. [98]

The International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet

more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by
2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal.[119]
Geothermal[edit]
Main article: Geothermal energy

Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in

Iceland
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the
Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the
temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's
crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%)
and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).[120] The
geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature
between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a
continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat
from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates
from the Greek roots (ge), meaning earth, and
(thermos), meaning hot.
Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from
radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's
formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach
over 4000 C (7,200 F).[121] The high temperature and pressure

in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to

behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting
upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and
water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 C (700 F).[122]
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing
since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient
Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity
generation. Worldwide, 11,400 megawatts (MW) of geothermal
power is online in 24 countries in 2012.[123] An additional 28
gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for
district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes,
desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.[124]
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and
environmentally friendly,[125] but has historically been limited to
areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological
advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of
viable resources, especially for applications such as home
heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation.
Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within
the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit
than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the
potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in
place of fossil fuels.
The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than
adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, but only a very
small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and
exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for
the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about
technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates. Pilot

programs like EWEB's customer opt in Green Power Program

[126]
show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for
a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of
government assisted research and industry experience, the cost
of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the
past two decades.[127] In 2001, geothermal energy cost between
two and ten US cents per kWh.[128]
Oceanic[edit]
Main article: Marine energy
Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as
ocean energy, ocean power, or marine and hydrokinetic
energy) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides,
salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of
water in the worlds oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy,
or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate
electricity to power homes, transport and industries.
The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e.
power from surface waves, and tidal power i.e. obtained from
the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore
wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is
derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over
water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are
close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean
energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of
new renewable energy around the world.
100% renewable energy[edit]
Main article: 100% renewable energy

The incentive to use 100% renewable energy, for electricity,

transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been
motivated by global warming and other ecological as well as
economic concerns. Renewable energy use has grown much
faster than anyone anticipated.[129] The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental
technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable
energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand.
[130]
At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world
already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of
energy supply. Also, Professors S. Pacala and Robert H.
Socolow have developed a series of "stabilization wedges" that
can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding
catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in
aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges." [131]
Mark Z. Jacobson says producing all new energy with wind
power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and
existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050.
Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to
be "primarily social and political, not technological or
economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar,
water system should be similar to today's energy costs.[132]
Similarly, in the United States, the independent National
Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable
resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a
significant role in future electricity generation and thus help
confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and
the escalation of energy costs Renewable energy is an
attractive option because renewable resources available in the

United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater

amounts of electricity than the total current or projected
domestic demand." .[133]
Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include
Vaclav Smil and James E. Hansen. Smil and Hansen are
concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power,
but Amory Lovins argues that the electricity grid can cope.[134]
Increased energy efficiency[edit]

A spiral-type integrated compact fluorescent lamp, which has

been popular among North American consumers since its
introduction in the mid-1990s.[135]
Main article: Efficient energy use
Although increasing the efficiency of energy use is not energy
development per se, it may be considered under the topic of
energy development since it makes existing energy sources
available to do work.[136]:22
Efficient energy use, simply called energy efficiency, is the goal
of efforts to reduce the amount of energy required to provide
products and services. For example, insulating a home allows a

building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and

maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing fluorescent lamps
or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to
attain the same level of illumination compared to using
traditional incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights
use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than
incandescent lights. Improvements in energy efficiency are most
often achieved by adopting an efficient technology or production
process.[137]
There are various motivations to improve energy efficiency.
Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a
financial cost saving to consumers if the energy savings offset
any additional costs of implementing an energy efficient
technology. Reducing energy use is also seen as a key solution
to the problem of reducing emissions. According to the
International Energy Agency, improved energy efficiency in
buildings, industrial processes and transportation could reduce
the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third, and help control
global emissions of greenhouse gases.[138]
Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin
pillars of sustainable energy policy.[139] In many countries energy
efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because
it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign
countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy
resources are depleted.
Transmission[edit]

An elevated section of the Alaska Pipeline

While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made
possible by new technology, distribution technology continually
evolves.[140] The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an
anticipated delivery technology.[141] This section presents the
various delivery technologies that have been important to
historic energy development. They all rely in way on the energy
sources listed in the previous section.
Shipping and pipelines[edit]
See also: Pipeline transport
Shipping is a flexible delivery technology that is used in the
whole range of energy development regimes from primitive to
highly advanced. Currently, coal, petroleum and their derivatives
are delivered by shipping via boat, rail, or road. Petroleum and
natural gas may also be delivered via pipeline and coal via a
Slurry pipeline. Refined hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and
LPG may also be delivered via aircraft. Natural gas pipelines
must maintain a certain minimum pressure to function correctly.

Ethanol's corrosive properties make it harder to build ethanol

pipelines. The higher costs of ethanol transportation and storage
are often prohibitive.[142] Geomagnetically induced currents, seen
as interfering with the normal operation of long buried pipeline
systems, are a manifestation[143][144] at ground level of space
weather that occur due to time-varying ionospheric source fields
and the conductivity of the Earth.
Wired energy transfer[edit]

Electrical grid Pylons and cables distribute power

Main article: Electrical grid
Electricity grids are the networks used to transmit and distribute
power from production source to end user, when the two may be
hundreds of kilometres away. Sources include electrical
generation plants such as a nuclear reactor, coal burning power
plant, etc. A combination of sub-stations, transformers, towers,
cables, and piping are used to maintain a constant flow of
electricity. Grids may suffer from transient blackouts and
brownouts, often due to weather damage. During certain

extreme space weather events solar wind can interfere with

transmissions. Grids also have a predefined carrying capacity or
load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements
exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent
problems, power is then rationed.
Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia
are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the
world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical
distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced,
although infrastructure maintenance is becoming a problem.
CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity
supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of
the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a
correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One
of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to
the state of Queensland, Australia.
Wireless energy transfer[edit]
Main article: Wireless energy transfer
Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy
is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does
not have a built-in power source, without the use of
interconnecting wires.
See also: World Wireless System
Storage[edit]

The Ffestiniog Power Station in Wales, United Kingdom.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) is used for grid energy
storage.
Main articles: Energy storage and List of energy storage
projects
Energy storage is accomplished by devices or physical media
that store energy to perform useful operation at a later time. A
device that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator.
All forms of energy are either potential energy (e.g. Chemical,
gravitational, electrical energy, temperature differential, latent
heat, etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. momentum). Some
technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others
can be very long-term such as power to gas using hydrogen or
methane and the storage of heat or cold between opposing
seasons in deep aquifers or bedrock. A wind-up clock stores
potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension),
a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a
mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a
reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Ice storage tanks
store ice (thermal energy in the form of latent heat) at night to
meet peak demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and
gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by
organisms that later died, became buried and over time were
then converted into these fuels. Even food (which is made by the

same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in

chemical form.
History of energy development[edit]

Energy generators past and present at Doel, Belgium: 17thcentury windmill Scheldemolen and 20th-century Doel Nuclear
Power Station
Since prehistory, when humanity discovered fire to warm up and
roast food, through the Middle Ages in which populations built
windmills to grind the wheat, until the modern era in which
nations can get electricity splitting the atom. Man has sought
endlessly for energy sources[note 21] from which to draw profit,
which have been the fossil fuels, on one hand the coal to fuel the
steam engines run industrial rails as well as maintain
households, and secondly, the oil and its derivatives in the
industry and transportation (primarily automotive), although
have lived with smaller-scale exploitation of wind power, hydro
and biomass. This model of development, however, is based on
the depletion of fossil resources from periods of millions years

without possibility for replacement as would be required to

maintain. The search for energy sources that are inexhaustible
and utilization by industrialized countries to strengthen their
national economies by reducing its dependence on fossil fuels,
[note 22]
has led to the adoption of nuclear energy and those with
sufficient water resources, the intensive hydraulic use of their
waterways.
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the question of
the future of energy supplies has been of interest. In 1865,
William Stanley Jevons published The Coal Question in which
he saw that the reserves of coal were being depleted and that oil
was an ineffective replacement. In 1914, U.S. Bureau of Mines
stated that the total production was 5.7 billion barrels
(910,000,000 m3). In 1956, Geophysicist M. King Hubbert
deduces that U.S. oil production will peak between 1965 and
1970 (peaked in 1971) and that oil production will peak "within
half a century" on the basis of 1956 data.[note 23] In 1989,
predicted peak by Colin Campbell[145] In 2004, OPEC estimated,
with substantial investments, it would nearly double oil output
by 2025[146]
Sustainability[edit]

Energy consumption from 1989 to 1999

See also: Climate change mitigation and Carbon pricing

The environmental movement has emphasized sustainability of
energy use and development.[147] Renewable energy is
sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be
diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of
years. "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the
environment to cope with waste products, especially air
pollution. Sources which have no direct waste products (such as
wind, solar, and hydropower) are brought up on this point. With
global demand for energy growing, the need to adopt various
energy sources is growing. Energy conservation is an alternative
or complementary process to energy development. It reduces the
demand for energy by using it efficiently.
Resilience[edit]

Energy consumption per capita (2001). Red hues indicate

increase, green hues decrease of consumption during the 1990s.
Some observers contend that idea of "energy independence" is
an unrealistic[note 24] and opaque concept.[148] The alternative offer
of "energy resilience" is a goal aligned with economic, security,
and energy realities. The notion of resilience in energy was
detailed in the 1982 book Brittle Power: Energy Strategy for

National Security.[149] The authors argued that simply switching

to domestic energy would not be secure inherently because the
true weakness is the interdependent and vulnerable energy
infrastructure of the United States. Key aspects such as gas lines
and the electrical power grid are centralized and easily
susceptible to disruption. They conclude that a "resilient energy
supply" is necessary for both national security and the
environment. They recommend a focus on energy efficiency and
renewable energy that is decentralized.[150]
In 2008, former Intel Corporation Chairman and CEO Andrew
Grove looked to energy resilience, arguing that complete
independence is unfeasible given the global market for energy.
[151]
He describes energy resilience as the ability to adjust to
interruptions in the supply of energy. To that end, he suggests
the U.S. make greater use of electricity.[152] Electricity can be
produced from a variety of sources. A diverse energy supply will
be less affected by the disruption in supply of any one source.
He reasons that another feature of electrification is that
electricity is "sticky" meaning the electricity produced in the
U.S. is to stay there because it cannot be transported overseas.
According to Grove, a key aspect of advancing electrification
and energy resilience will be converting the U.S. automotive
fleet from gasoline-powered to electric-powered. This, in turn,
will require the modernization and expansion of the electrical
power grid. As organizations such as The Reform Institute have
pointed out, advancements associated with the developing smart
grid would facilitate the ability of the grid to absorb vehicles en
masse connecting to it to charge their batteries.[153]
Present and future[edit]

OutlookWorld Energy Consumption by Fuel (as of 2011)[154]

Liquid fuels incl. Biofuels Coal Natural Gas
Renewable fuels Nuclear fuels

Increasing share of energy consumption by developing nations[155]

Industrialized nations
Developing nations
EE/Former Soviet Union
Extrapolations from current knowledge to the future offer a choice of energy futures.[156]
Predictions parallel the Malthusian catastrophe hypothesis. Numerous are complex models based
scenarios as pioneered by Limits to Growth. Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse
strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. Short
term energy crises are also a concern of energy development. Extrapolations lack plausibility,
particularly when they predict a continual increase in oil consumption.[citation needed]
Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind
power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel resources (see above) that are left are often
increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy

investments. If investment is greater than the energy produced by the resource, it is no longer an
effective energy source.[157][note 25] This means that resources, the wasteful ones, are not used
effectively for energy production.[note 26] Such resources can be exploited economically in order to
produce raw materials;[note 27] They then become ordinary mining reserves, economically
recoverable are not a positive energy sources. New technology may ameliorate this problem if it
can lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although
ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.
Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe,
world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided
by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled
irrigation.[158] The peaking of world hydrocarbon production (peak oil) may lead to significant
changes, and require sustainable methods of production.[159] One vision of a sustainable energy
future involves all human structures on the earth's surface (i.e., buildings, vehicles and roads)
doing artificial photosynthesis (using sunlight to split water as a source of hydrogen and
absorbing carbon dioxide to make fertilizer) efficiently than plants.[160]
With contemporary space industry's economic activity[161][162] and the related private spaceflight,
with the manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those
regions will require further energy development.[163][164][165][166] Commercialization of space includes
satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio; investments estimated to be
$50.8 billion.[167] Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power for collecting solar
power in space for use on Earth.[note 28][note 29] Space-based solar power only differ from solar and
other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would
reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a
system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing
and refracting atmosphere and nighttime in space.[note 30]

See also[edit]

Energy portal

Renewable energy portal

Nuclear technology portal

Sustainable development portal

Policy
Energy policy, Energy policy of the United States, Energy policy of China, Energy policy
of India, Energy policy of the European Union, Energy policy of the United Kingdom,
Energy policy of Russia, Energy policy of Brazil, Energy policy of Canada, Energy
policy of the Soviet Union, Energy Industry Liberalization and Privatization (Thailand)

General
Seasonal thermal energy storage (Interseasonal thermal energy storage), Geomagnetically
induced current, Energy harvesting
Feedstock
Raw material, Biomaterial, Commodity, Materials science, Recycling, Upcycling,
Downcycling
Other
Background radiation, Thorium-based nuclear power, List of oil pipelines, List of natural
gas pipelines, Ocean thermal energy conversion, Growth of photovoltaics

References and citations[edit]

Notes
1.

^ Also known as heat loss inefficiency

2.

^ See also: Fuel efficiency and Energy efficiency in transportation

3.

^ See also: Energy conversion efficiency

4.

^ For small-scale generation, see: Microgeneration.

5.

^ Including oil companies, petroleum refiners, fuel transport and end-user sales at gas stations

6.

^ Including natural gas extraction, and coal gas manufacture, as well as distribution and sales

7.

^ Including electricity generation, electric power distribution and sales

8.

^ Such as the physical jargon of "power", can be seen in the following:

Electric power transfer rate at which electrical energy is by a circuit

Human power performed by a human

Motive power to create motion

Power in an alternating current electric circuit

Transmitter output power

Effective radiated power measurement

Power spectral density signal

9.

^ See: thermodynamics open system

10.

^ Providing the day and the habitable zone the Earth is in.

11.

^ See also: Matter and Energy

12.

^ Or those pertaining to the cosmos.

13.

^ See also: velocity of wind

14.

^ petroleum products (fats), Hydrogenated vegetable oil (vegetable shortening), Brown grease,
and Yellow grease

15.

^ human, donkey, mule, elephant.

16.

^ from shale slate

17.

^ Or, moreover, the mass and energy coupling, as Albert Einstein states in the equivalence
between these two concepts in his formula, .

18.
19.

20.
21.

^ See: Oil reserves, Petroleum formation, and Pyrolysis.

^ More liberally, oil has or will peak between 2010 to 2025. One out of several estimations state
that there will be no peak. The timing of worldwide peak oil production is being actively debated, but may
have already happened in countries. For more, see: Congressional Record, Volume 151-Part 19: November
8, 2005 to November 16, 2005 (Pages 25297 to 26552). Government Printing Office, 2010. p26524-26525.
^ About 10 million kilowatt hours per day; Roughly, 420000 kilowatt hours per hour.
^ All terrestrial energy sources except nuclear, geothermal and tidal are from current solar
isolation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied directly and indirectly upon sunlight,
respectively. Ultimately, solar energy itself is the result of the Sun's nuclear fusion. Geothermal power from
hot, hardened rock above the magma of the Earth's core is the result of the decay of radioactive materials
present beneath the Earth's crust, and nuclear fission relies on man-made fission of heavy radioactive
elements in the Earth's crust; in both cases these elements were produced in supernova explosions before
the formation of the solar system.

22.

^ Concentrated in foreign territories after the exploitation and exhaustion of their own resource.

23.

^ See Hubbert peak theory.

24.

^ Said in relation with Liquid metal fast breeder reactor. For more, see: United States. Congress.
Senate. Committee on Appropriations. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975. Page 7349.

25.

^ See: Energy returned on energy invested and Fuel efficiency.

26.

^ See: Waste minimisation

27.

^ For plastics, fertilizers, etc.

28.

^ Using solar power satellites and satellite power systems, such as the electrodynamic tether.

29.

^ Space-based solar power has been in research since the early 1970s.

30.

^ Though, Earth based receiving structures of radiant electromotive forces are not beyond
conception.

Citations
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2.

^ eia.govU.S. Energy Information Administration International Energy Statistics

3.

^ Lawrence Livermore National LaboratoryEnergy flow chart, 2011

4.

^ The Federal nonnuclear energy research and development act (Public Law 93-577) section 11,
environmental evaluation: report to the President and Congress. By United States Environmental Protection
Agency. Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology.

5.

^ The Social impacts of energy development on national parks: final report By United States
National Park Service, University of Denver. Center for Community Change. The National Park Service,
U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1984.

6.

^ Assessment of Energy Resource Development Impact on Water Quality, Volume 1. By Susan M.

Melancon, Terry S. Michaud, Robert William Thomas. Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory,
1979.

7.

^ Resources for the twenty-first century: proceedings of the international centennial symposium of
the United States Geological Survey, held at Reston, Virginia, October 1419, 1979 . By Frank C.
Whitmore, Mary Ellen Williams, U.S. Geological Survey.

8.

^ The Homeowner's Guide to Renewable Energy: Achieving Energy Independence. By Dan

Chiras. New Society Publishers, July 5, 2011.

9.

^ Renewable Energy Sources for Sustainable Development. By Narendra Singh Rathore, N. L.

Panwar. New India Publishing, January 1, 2007

10.

^ Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation: Summary for Policymakers and
Technical Summary: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press, 2011.

11.

^ Solar Energy and Nonfossil Fuel Research. By United States. Cooperative State Research
Service, Smithsonian Science Information Exchange. The Department, 1981.

12.

^ Final Report of the Task Force on the Availability of Federally Owned Mineral Lands, Volumes
1-2. By United States. Task Force on the Availability of Federally Owned Mineral Lands.

13.
14.

^ Hydrocarbon Bioremediation, Volume 2 edited by Robert E. Hinchee

^ Exploitation of Hydrocarbon Resources: New Solutions in Energy Supply : Overview 19951998. By European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy DG XVII, 1999.

15.

^ International Energy Agency: Key World Energy Statistics 2007. S. 6

16.

^ Energy Security and Climate Policy: Assessing Interactions. p125

17.

^ Energy Security: Economics, Politics, Strategies, and Implications. Edited by Carlos Pascual,
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18.

^ Geothermal Energy Resources for Developing Countries. By D. Chandrasekharam, J.

Bundschuh. p91

19.

^ Congressional Record, V. 153, PT. 2, January 18, 2007 to February 1, 2007 edited by U S
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20.

^ India s Energy Security. Edited by Ligia Noronha, Anant Sudarshan.

21.

^ National security, safety, technology, and employment implications of increasing CAFE

standards : hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate,
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^ Ending our-Dependence on Oil - American Security Project. americansecurityproject.org

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^ Energy Dependency, Politics and Corruption in the Former Soviet Union. By Margarita M.
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24.

^ Oil-Led Development: Social, Political, and Economic Consequences. Terry Lynn Karl.
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^ Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation, and Risk Management. Was at:
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^ "Big Rig Building Boom". Rigzone.com. 2006-04-13. Archived from the original on 2007-10-21.
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^ "Heat Island Group Home Page". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2000-08-30.
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^ "Has the World Already Passed "Peak Oil"?". nationalgeographic.com.

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^ ScienceDaily.com (April 22, 2010) "Fossil-Fuel Subsidies Hurting Global Environment,

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30.

^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007): IPCC Fourth Assessment Report - Working
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31.

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32.

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33.
34.

^ NRDC: There Is No Such Thing as "Clean Coal"

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^
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46.

^ U.S. Energy Legislation May Be 'Renaissance' for Nuclear Power.

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^ Share. "Nuclear Waste Pools in North Carolina". Projectcensored.org. Retrieved 2010-08-24.

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^ Johnston, Robert (September 23, 2007). "Deadliest radiation accidents and other events
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