CHAPTER 5

Applications and implications of genetics

Current reproductive technologies and genetic
engineering have the potential to alter the path
of evolution
The term reproductive technology
applies to any use of technology to
assist and improve reproduction.
Current reproductive technologies
and genetic engineering are the
culmination, over many hundreds
of years, of the efforts of humans to
improve the quality and yield of their
food. At first, humans obtained food by
hunting and gathering; they then began
raising their own animals and growing
their own crops and soon realised
the advantage of selecting seeds from
the best crops and breeding the best
quality animals, to improve the quality
and yield of future generations. This
was the start of selective breeding or
artificial selection, involving the human
manipulation of living organisms by
selecting those which should breed,
ensuring they pass on their favourable
characteristics. As time went by,
early agriculturalists discovered that
cross-breeding different varieties
of organisms resulted in stronger,
healthier offspring than inbreeding
a phenomenon known as hybrid
vigour.
The trend to manipulate the
phenotype of offspring to achieve
desirable characteristics has continued
over many hundreds of years,
becoming more sophisticated as
technology has improved. The older
techniques of artificial pollination
(plants) and selective breeding are
still used, together with modern-day
reproductive technologies which

include artificial insemination

(animals), in vitro fertilisation, embryo
transfer and cloning, amongst others.
This advanced technology allows more
specific selection and breeding, and
has led to the even more advanced
technology of inserting desired
genes into organisms by genetic
engineering.
Genetic engineering is only
considered a reproductive technology
if the gene being inserted has the
effect of assisting reproduction (e.g.
increasing fertility).
The manipulation made by humans
using reproductive technologies is
a contentious issue, raising ethical
considerationsan area of study
known as bioethics has developed to
help people make wise decisions when
important values are at stake. Although
selective breeding may be beneficial
to society in terms of agriculture, if
applied to the human species it brings
to mind past breaches of ethicse.g.
the abuse of human subjects in
biomedical experiments during World
War II and imposing eugenics, trying
to create a super race. The advanced
technologies such as cloning and
genetic engineering make it much
easier for humans to tamper with the
human genome and recombine genes
of different species. This raises issues
of human rights and animal rights and
also how tampering with nature may
alter the path of evolution as a result of
using these technologies.

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

Investigating hybridisation and its genetic effects

SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.3

process information from secondary sources to describe

an example of hybridisation within a species and
explain the purpose of this hybridisation

(Note: This dot point appears in the syllabus

under Syllabus Statement 2. It has been
addressed in this textbook under Syllabus
Statement 5 because it ts in well with the
concept of selective breeding and reproductive
technologies being dealt with.)

Introduction
The term hybridisation means the crossbreeding of two genetically non-identical
individuals. This may mean crossing parents of
the same species, who show genetic variation
(intraspecic hybridisation), or it may extend
to parents of different species (interspecic
hybridisation).
This secondary source investigation is
limited to examples of hybridisation within
a species (intraspecic as opposed to
interspecic hybridisationthese are useful key
words to use when searching websites).
Within the units classied as species, there
are populations that may be more or less
distinct from each other. These groups are
called races or, more scientically, subspecies
or varieties. When discussing hybridisation in
this investigation, you are expected to describe
intraspecic hybridisation of varieties or
subspecies, not hybridisation between species.

The purpose of hybridisation

Hybridisation involves cross-breeding as
opposed to in-breeding. It occurs both in
nature and articially (e.g. as a result of human
Figure 5.1 The
labradoodle is an
example of crossbreeding

manipulation of breedingknown as selective

breeding). Cross-breeding or hybridisation is
commonly used in horticulture and agriculture
to improve the quality of the plants and animals
being grown or raised. Selective breeding
occurs at two stages in the hybridisation
process:
selecting parent individuals with desirable
traits and then breeding them in the hope
that some offspring will inherit a combination
of these desirable traits
selecting offspring that reect the desired
combination of traits for further breeding.
The result is the production of hybrid
offspring with combined traits that make them
better suited to their environment or to meet
their end use (e.g. bigger owers, higher
nutrient value, increased crop yields, more
suitable breeding time, greater resistance
to drought or disease or salinity and higher
stamina).
The purpose of hybridisation is therefore
more than simply avoiding the disadvantages
of inbreeding. Successful hybridisation leads to
hybrid vigourincreased strength, better health
and greater fertility in the hybrid individuals than
is usually found in the homozygous individuals
from which they were bred. Hybrids often display
advantages that are not present in either of the
parental varieties, as a result of the compounded
effects of their new gene combinations, giving
new phenotypes on which natural selection
can act. There are some disadvantages of
hybridisationboth the advantages and
disadvantages are summarised below.
Advantages of hybridisation
It increases genetic variety.
It may combine the best feature of each
parent, resulting in hybrid vigour.
Disadvantages of hybridisation
It may combine the weaker features of
each parent and the offspring would have
less stamina, less resistance to disease
or changes in the environment, lower crop
yields, and so on.
It is a costly procedure, especially if the
resulting offspring do not display hybrid
vigour.
Sometimes the hybrid offspring are infertile
or have reduced fertility (they may be

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

Figure 5.2
William Farrer

heterozygous for some genes where the

homozygous condition gave a breeding
advantage to the parent generation).
Hybridisation is often followed by selective
interbreeding of the resulting hybrids with
each other to maintain the favourable
combination of traits within the population.
This equates to in-breeding the hybrids
and negative effects may become
apparent in other traits; e.g. in chickens
that have been cross-bred to create a
high clutch yield (increased egg laying),
subsequent in-breeding of these hybrids
has resulted in eggs with very thin shells
that break easily.

Example of early hybridisation:

wheat in Australia
In Chapter 2 of this module, the hybridisation
of wheat in Australia was outlined to show
how advanced this thinking was, at a time
before the rediscovery of Mendels laws. In
this chapter, you are required to perform a
secondary source investigation to explain the
purpose of hybridisation. Research on wheat
hybridisation in Australia below may be used
as an example on which students can model
their own research task (see page 218).

Wheat hybridisation in Australia

In 1870, William Farrer (a 25-year-old
mathematics graduate and medical student)
moved to Australia from England. He was
employed by the Department of Lands in the
Dubbo to Cooma districts and later began
farming.
Farrer was aware that wheat growing
in Australia was presenting problemsthe
strains being grown (in particular the English
varieties) were not suited to the harsh, dry
environment, were susceptible to disease
such as rust, matured early and the grain
quality was not of a high enough standard for
milling and baking.
Two examples of Farrers very successful
hybridisations are described below.
Example 1
Indian wheat was drought-tolerant and
resistant to some diseases.
Canadian Fife wheat matured late and
had the best milling and baking qualities.
Farrer hybridised these two varieties and
then selected plants that had the advantages
of both parents, to produce many hybrids,
of which one was the Bobs variety, the
rst commercially grown wheat variety in

Australia. He also created a FifeIndian wheat

variety called Yandilla from these parent
varieties.
Example 2
An extremely successful hybrid was the
result of his cross between a Purple Straw
variety, 14A, and his a FifeIndian wheat
variety Yandilla. This resulting variety
called Federation (named in 1901) had the
hardiness of the Indian variety, a tendency to
escape rust disease and short, strong straw
that made it ideally suited to the Australian
climate and harvesting methods. Farrers
wheat hybridisation success was evident
when, by the year 1914, 22 varieties out of
the 29 grown in New South Wales were Farrer
wheats.
Farrers studies also contributed to an
understanding that factors such as diseaseresistance, grain quality and maturing time in
wheat can be inherited.
Today, hybridisation and selective
breeding still play a role in agriculture
in Australia, along with advanced
biotechnological techniques such as cloning
and genetic engineering to create transgenic
species.

TR

Teaching strategy
interpretation of the
task and explanations

SR

Hybridisationa
b idi ti
genetic explanation
and examples

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

TR

Task
Investigating hybridisation within
a species

Extension work
William Farrer:
PFA H2-based task

Students are required to choose one example of

hybridisation within a species for investigation.
This secondary source investigation may be
done as a further in-depth study of wheat
hybridisation (including Farrers wheats), or
students may prefer to select an example of
hybridisation in a different area of interest. (See
the information belowHybridisation: meeting
the dot point criteriabefore you begin.)
There are a number of recommended
websites on the Student Resource CD for
this part of the investigation, dealing with
hybridisation in a variety of organisms including
rice, cotton, mangoes, grapes, watermelons
and dogs.
Information to research
1. Describe the aim of this hybridisation by
identifying the parent lines and describing
the desirable traits in each line.

Figure 5.3 Seedless

watermelons

5.1

2. Describe how the parent lines were crossbred.

3. Outline the desired results that the breeders
were hoping for and compare this with the
actual resulting hybrid offspring that were
obtained.
4. Discuss the purpose of this hybridisation
and the outcomes.
5. Explain the advantage of hybrid vigour in
this organism in terms of the inheritance
of alleles.
Hybridisationmeeting the dot point
criteria
The word species in Latin means kind,
as used in different kinds of organisms.
A species is a group of organisms that can
interbreed and give rise to fertile offspring
(that is, offspring that are able to reproduce).
Therefore to address hybridisation within a
species (intraspecic hybridisation as opposed
to interspecic hybridisation), the selection of
examples should not include creatures such as
mules or any other hybrids across species (see
the examples below).
Examples that meet the criteria of this dot
point (examples where true-breeding lines
within a species are cross-bred) are:
corn hybridisation
grape hybridisation
cattle breeding (e.g. Hereford Angus)
seedless watermelons
dog hybridisations (e.g. labradoodles).
Examples that do not meet the criteria (that
is, examples of hybridisation between species)
are:
donkey horse = mule/hinny
tiger lion = liger/tigon
cabbage radish = rabbage
emmer wheat goat grass = common
wheat.

Reproductive technologies and the gene pool

Repr

identify how the following current reproductive

techniques may alter the genetic composition of a
population:
artificial insemination
artificial pollination
cloning

(Note: This dot point relates to

Domain: Knowledge H7.)
Selective breeding techniques are

reproductive technologies that may be

used to achieve hybridisation. Selective
breeding can be thought of as a

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

form of artificial selection imposed by

humans, when they conduct deliberate
crosses of living organisms to obtain a
combination of desirable characteristics
in the offspring. (This contrasts with
natural selection where environmental
conditions determine which individuals
produce the most offspring.) Selective
breeding in plants is by means of
artificial pollination. In animals, it
may be by selected mating or as a result
of artificial insemination. Once suitable
hybrids have been created, these
technologies are applied for continued
breeding of these hybrids; cloning has
been introduced more recently for
continued breeding of existing hybrids.

Selective breeding in plants

artificial pollination
Records show that artificial pollination
is not only a modern practice. It was
used in ancient timesan Assyrian
carving that dates back to 870 BCE
shows the artificial pollination of date
palms. Artificial pollination was used
by Mendel in his experiments with pea
plants in the 19th century and was also
used by scientists such as Farrer who
were involved in hybridisation studies;
it is still used today. In the past century,
thousands of new breeds of plants have
been created using artificial pollination.
The process of artificial pollination
involves removing the stamens of
a flower and dusting the pollen
onto the stigma of the same flower
(self-pollination) or another flower
(cross-pollination). This, like the other
selective breeding processes discussed
below, gives the breeder a greater
degree of control over the breeding
process.

some offspring will inherit both

characteristics. For example, crossing a
male of the Friesian variety (known for
the ability to produce large quantities
of milk) with a Jersey cow (which
produces creamy milk) will create some
offspring who produce large amounts
of creamy milk. Offspring that reflect
this desirable trait are then selected
for further breeding. (In selective
breeding, both parent individuals are
different varieties of the same species,
so the offspring produced are fertile.)
In addition to the advantages and
disadvantages of hybridisation, selective
breeding has some disadvantages:
The breeding of undesirable side
effects, for example a physical
disadvantage to animals arises when
Friesian cattle (which produce high
milk yields) are crossed with Jersey
cattle (which produce creamy milk)
to produce cows that produce large
quantities of creamy milk. Some of
these hybrid cows have such large
udders that they can hardly walk
(see Fig. 5.4).

SR

Recommended
d d
websites on
reproductive
technologies

TR

Student activity
comparing
reproductive
technologies

Figure 5.4 Selectively

bred cow with very
large udder

Selective breeding in animals

Selective breeding in animals, in its most
basic form, involves mating a male that
displays one desirable characteristic
with a female with another desirable
characteristic in the hope that

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

Costs (time and money): another

disadvantage is that selective
mating is time-consuming and
costly. It involves the transport of
large animals over long distances,
risking putting them together with
a breeding partner of the opposite
sex, hoping they will not injure each
other and then waiting for them to
mate. To overcome these problems,
a newer technology called artificial
insemination was introduced.

Artificial insemination

Artificial insemination in animals

involves taking sperm from a chosen
male and artificially introducing it into
several selected females. Although
there are records of attempting artificial
insemination of cattle and horses in the
early 1900s, it was only from the 1980s
onwards that it became widespread,
with the discovery (as a result of
research) of the effective storage
and transport of sperm. The semen
containing sperm may be removed
from the male (using mechanical
stimulation), and the fluid is first chilled
and then frozen in liquid nitrogen for
long-term storage and transported.
Figure 5.5 Baby
gorilla Myzuri
produced by artificial
insemination at
Melbourne Zoo

Advantages

Transporting frozen sperm overcomes

the problem of transporting large
animals over long distances, is costeffective and reduces the danger
to animals of injury in transit or
during mating. Many females can be
inseminated and so one male can sire
offspring with several females. Since
the semen can be frozen indefinitely,
a male can be dead but still produce
offspring. Artificial insemination is
also being used in conservation, to
increase the numbers of endangered
speciesMonash University PhD
student Jonathan Daly conducted the
first artificial insemination of a shark
(he used a broad-nosed seven-gill shark
as a model species) to try to develop
a technique to apply to grey nurse
sharks whose numbers are dwindling
on the east coast of Australia. Myzuri,
a male gorilla, is the first successful
gorilla produced using this reproductive
technology, which was carried out
at Melbourne Zoo by Professor
David Galloway of the University of
Melbourne.
Disadvantages

A disadvantage of artificial insemination

is that many offspring arise from one
father, leading to reduced genetic
variability.
Artificial insemination has become
the principal assisted reproductive
technology method for many types
of cattle, sheep and pigs, as well as
performance and sport horses around
the world, including in Australia.
In vitro fertilisation

In vitro fertilisation (IVF) differs

from artificial insemination in that an
egg is fertilised by a sperm outside
the mothers body (in an artificially
created environment, e.g. a Petri dish).
The zygotes are cultured until they
have progressed to an early stage of
development and they can then be
transferred into the biological mother,

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

into a surrogate mother or frozen in

liquid nitrogen for later transplantation
or for use in scientific research. This
method is often used in cases where
there is decreased fertility in one or
both of the parents.

Alterations in the genetic

composition of the population
With the use of selective breeding
techniques such as artificial pollination
and insemination, humans alter the
genetic composition of the breeding
population by selecting organisms
with traits considered by the breeder
to be of advantage and carrying out
controlled breeding of these organisms.
As a result, organisms with the desired
phenotypes have new combinations of
alleles which are introduced into the
population and these offspring are then
selectively bred in turn. The alleles that
increase in frequency in the gene pool
of the population are therefore those
that have been selected by the breeder
rather than by nature. The survival
and reproduction of an individual
within the population depend on the
presence of alleles that enable them
to increase the output of a product
that is useful to humans, rather than
alleles that increase their fitness in
terms of suitability to the environment
or reproductive success. Since the
selected offspring are fertile, these new
combinations of alleles can be passed
on to future generations.
In addition to these changes in
genetic composition of a population, in
vitro fertilisation also has the following
effects:
Genes for infertility, which would
not naturally have been passed on,
are now inherited by offspring. It
is important to consider whether
humans are breeding infertility into a
population by assisting reproduction
with reproductive technologies such
as in vitro fertilisation. This is the
opposite of natural selection, where

the frequency of genes that enhance

fertility tend to increase.
Sperm banks also have the potential
to alter the genetic composition of
a population. People can choose
the sperm donor they would prefer,
based on a list of his traits. This may
increase the frequency of certain
donor genes within the population
(e.g. in humans, academic ability or
physically attractive features) and
decrease the frequency of those
seen as unfavourable. Elimination of
certain genes means other important
alleles may be lost (e.g. those
associated with creativity or disease
resistance).
Artificial pollination, insemination
and in vitro fertilisation are technologies
that allow humans to manipulate
combinations of alleles and therefore
increase the frequency of those seen as
favourable within a population. They
do not allow humans to determine the
exact combination of genes that will
be passed on; favourable traits may
be linked to unfavourable ones that
do not threaten the survival of, but
may bring discomfort or suffering to,
animals. There is a short-term increase
in the genetic diversity when new
hybrid species are created, but in the
longer term the continued breeding of
the same hybrid lines decreases genetic
diversity.

Cloning
Taking the unknown out of
selective breeding

Selective breeding relies to some

extent on trial and errorhoping
that the desired combination of
favourable genes ends up in some
individuals, which can then be selected
and interbred. Two modern-day
technologies that take care of the trial
and error nature of selective breeding
are cloning and genetic engineering
(genetically modifying organisms).
Cloning involves making an individual

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

identical to the one that already exists,

whereas genetically modifying an
organism involves adding a desirable
gene to the DNA of an individual or
removing and substituting a gene and
then ensuring that, when it reproduces,
it passes this gene on with all of its
other genes, creating a transgenic
species (genetic engineering).
Types of cloning

Figure 5.6 Identical

twins are clones
of each otherthey
share the same
DNA. Any phenotypic
differences are the
result of environmental
influences

Cloning involves the production of an

individual that is genetically identical to
one that already exists. There are three
types of cloning:
1. Reproductive cloning involves
creating a genetically identical,
fully developed (whole) organism,
using a cell (or a few cells) from
another mature organism. This
whole organism cloning is a form
of asexual reproduction and so it
is considered to be a reproductive
technology.
2. Therapeutic cloning involves using
cells from an individual to produce
a cloned early embryo, which is then
used as a source of embryonic stem
cells to replace degenerating adult
tissues or to repair damage. The
purpose of therapeutic cloning is not
to produce a new animal or plant,
but to provide a source of cells that
can be used to repair adult tissue
that has been damaged (e.g. by
degenerative disease).

3. Gene cloning occurs at a cellular

level and involves producing
identical copies of a gene. It is an
important step in the process of
genetic engineering (and will be
dealt with in more detail later in this
chapter).
Cloninga contentious issue?

Cloning is not a new phenomenon

identical twins are naturally produced
genetic clones and occur in every
animal species studied for this
phenomenon. Cloning is also common
in plantsbotanists have been using
cuttings, the splitting of bulbs and
other forms of asexual reproduction to
propagate plants over many centuries.
Animals were first cloned a century ago
when two-celled embryos of sea urchins
and salamanders were split. Bananas
are also clones of each other and vastly
different from their ancestral stock. They
have a very limited gene pool.
Dolly, a sheep, was the first mammal
to be artificially cloned from an adult
cell, and was born on 5 July 1996
at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh,
Scotland. She was cloned from mature
cells taken from the udder of a 6-yearold sheep. It is the age of the animal
from which modern day clones are
produced that makes this process so
remarkable. Embryo-splitting leading
to multiple births occurs naturally
and can be fairly easily replicated in
a laboratory. However, cloning from
adult cells (of living or even deceased
organisms) is not a phenomenon that
occurs in nature. The main difficulty
faced by scientists who produce
clones from adult cells is that certain
genes, especially those needed for
development, have been switched off
or shut down in differentiated cells
and so they need to be switched on
or reprogrammed for development.
(The methodology used in cloning will
be researched as a secondary source
investigation on page 223.)

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

Cloning alters the genetic

composition of a population

Reproductive cloning produces an

organism derived from only one
parent (an artificial form of asexual
reproduction). It produces organisms
that are genetically identical. If many
clones are produced from one parent
organism, the effect would be to reduce
the variability of the population as all
organisms would have identical DNA.
Cloning is used as a form of selective
breeding once an ideal hybrid has
been obtained. The advantage is
that cloning reduces the unknown
element in selective breedingthe
characteristics being bred can be
precisely controlled. This type of
artificial selection occurs in growing
seedless grapes and bananas.
In nature, genes are conserved
by evolution only if they serve an
essential function for the organism. For
example, the genes for cytochromes
(proteins that are essential for chemical
respiration) are conserved because,

if they are altered by mutation, the

individual cannot survive. Therefore
a mutation in such a gene, which
alters the protein, will not be passed
on. The disadvantage of cloning is
that, if all members of a species are
identical, the population is less likely to
survive sudden environmental changes
and would be vulnerable to foreign
pathogens.

Figure 5.7 Ian Wilmut

with Dolly the sheep

Methodology of cloning

process information from secondary sources to describe

a methodology used in cloning

Introduction
The methodology for cloning was tested,
proven and patented in 1996. It took about 276
attempts before the success of Dolly the sheep
and the rate of success, although improving, is
still low. This makes cloning a very expensive
technology. Since the start of the 21st century,
many mammals have been cloned, including
Tetra, the rhesus macaque which became the
rst primate to be cloned in 2000. The rst
horse clone, Prometea, was produced in Italy in
2003. The international rules of horse racing do
not permit any articial insemination or fertility
treatment for the breeding of horses, so it is
unlikely that cloning will be acceptable in horse
racing at any time in the near future.
Cloning is most commonly applied in
agriculture; e.g. cloned beef is available in

supermarkets in Japan, and seedless grapes,

consumed worldwide, are a product of plant
cloning.

SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.2; H14.3

Information on cloning
methodology
Reproductive cloning is also known as somatic
cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). Each time a
mammal is cloned, the process (SCNT) involves
three animals: one that donates the nucleus,
one that acts as an egg donor and one that
plays the role of surrogate mother.
Ian Wilmut and his team used the method
of SCNT described below to create Dolly the
sheep:
1. Cells were taken from the udder (mammary
glands) of a six-year-old ewe (sheep

SR

Additionall iinformation
f
ti
and websites on
cloning in agriculture

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

number 1). They were starved of nutrients to

stop them dividing.
2. The nucleus was removed from an
unfertilised egg, a process called
enucleation, of another sheep (sheep
number 2). The scientists made sure the
rest of the cell (the cytoplasmic contents
and membrane) was in good working order.
3. An udder cell from sheep 1 was injected into
the enucleated egg of sheep 2. The two cells
were then zapped with electricity, which
caused the cells to fuse or blend together
and the now fertilised egg cell was allowed
to undergo normal growth and development,
dividing by the process of mitosis. As the

Figure 5.8
Methodology of cloning
by somatic cell nuclear
transfer

cells continued to divide, the embryo was

implanted into the uterus of a third sheep
(sheep number 3). The embryo continued
to grow and was born as a genetic identical
twin to sheep 1the original sheep that
donated the cells from its mammary gland.

Task
Read and analyse the information provided
at the start of the investigation and on the
recommended websites (see the Student
Resource CD). Using this information, answer
the questions that follow and annotate the
sequence of diagrams on the Student Resource
CD representing the cloning of Dolly the sheep.

nucleus containing
source DNA

4
1
Mammary cell is extracted
and grown in a lab.

Mammary cell is inserted

inside the egg cell.

5
Electric shock opens cell
membranes and triggers
cell division.
3
Egg cell is extracted

Nucleus is removed
from egg cell with a
micropipette

Preparation

Cell fusion

Cell division

embryo

8
After a five-month
pregnancy, a lamb
genetically identical
to the sheep from
which the mammary
cell was extracted is
born.
6

Embryo begins to
develop in vitro.

Development

Embryo is implanted
into surrogate mother.

Implantation

Birth of clone

Growth to adulthood

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

Part A: Cloning methodology

1. Explain why Dolly the sheep is genetically
the identical twin and not the daughter of
sheep 1.
2. Account for cloning being called somatic cell
nuclear transfer.
3. Explain the role of each of the following
processes in nuclear transfer:
(a) enucleating the donor egg
(b) exposing the fused cells to a short,
sharp burst of electricity
(c) exposing the DNA of the transferred
nucleus to cytoplasm of an immature
egg cell
(d) implanting the cloned embryo into a
surrogate mother.
4. (a) Annotate the sequence of diagrams
provided on the Student Resource
CD.
(b) Identify the other technologies
presented by ow charts on the
Student Resource CD Worksheet and
state one similarity and one difference
between each of these techniques and
cloning.
5. A second method for cloning involves
the splitting of an embryo at the 32-cell
stage to produce clones. The remainder
of the procedure is similar to that for adult

cell cloning, with the nucleus of each

embryonic cell inserted an enucleated egg
cell. One or two embryos are implanted
into each surrogate mother cow. Discuss
the advantages and disadvantages of the
outcomes of this method of cloning rather
than SCNT.

Part B: General questions on cloning

(based on website articles)
Refer to the articles on the Student Resource
CD recommended websites and then answer
the following questions:
1. Did Dolly the sheep die from the effects of
cloning? Justify your answer.
2. How do scientists account for the fact that
Dolly aged faster than sheep that had not
been cloned?
3. Discuss whether cloning is ethically
acceptable if it is conned to agricultural
species.
4. (a) Identify the main ethical issue that leads
scientists to reject the idea of human
cloning.
(b) Explain the main advantage to humans
of therapeutic cloning.
(c) Describe an alternative, more acceptable
method of creating stem cells.

Biotechnology, genetic engineering and transgenic

species

SR

W k h t on
Worksheet
reproductive
technologies,
recommended
websites and
extension activity

TR

Answers to worksheet,
extension task and
student activity

5.2

outline the process used to produce transgenic species

and include examples of this process and reasons for
its use

(Note: this dot point refers to Domain:

Knowledge H8 and H10.)

Introduction
Biotechnology is any technique
that uses living organisms to make
products. As far back in recorded
history as biblical times, biotechnology
was used; e.g. yeast was used to bake
bread and for the fermentation of
wine and the production of cheese.
People in ancient times were unaware
that they were employing what we
call biotechnologyit was only when

Louis Pasteur discovered (in 1862)

that fermentation is caused by microorganisms and is not an inorganic
chemical process that people became
aware that they were using living things
to make everyday products.
In modern times, biotechnology
has come to be associated with genetic
modification (genetic engineering)
of living organisms. Modern
biotechnology involves manipulating
the DNA (genetic material) of living
organisms, to artificially combine
specific qualities of different

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

organisms. It is an advancement on
the reproductive technologies that we
have already discussed, as it allows
specific desirable genes to be moved
from one species to another. Genes
can be cut and pastedremoved from
the cells of one organism and inserted
into the genome of another organism,
where they become part of the new
organisms genetic make-up and are
passed on to its offspring. This has
only become possible with an advance
in the scientific understanding of the
structure and functioning of DNA.
A transgenic organism is one whose
normal genome has been altered
by introducing a gene from another
species (transgene) into it in such a
way that the organism can pass on
this transgene to its offspring during
reproduction.
The creation of transgenic species
has many applications, including:
creating genetically modified foods
with increased nutrients, higher
yields and which can be processed
more easily
introducing resistance to disease,
pests and pesticides in species
treating disease
reproductive technology (see note
below).
Note: Creation of transgenic species
is considered to be a reproductive
technology only in cases where it
increases the breeding success of the
individuals.
When an organism is genetically
modified, this usually entails adding
a desirable gene to its DNA. Ideally,
one would like to ensure that when it
reproduces, it passes this gene on to
its offspring, along with all of its other
genes. The latter involves the process
of genetic engineering to create a
transgenic species.
Terminology associated with the
process of genetic engineering

Genetically modify: add or remove

genes

Transgenics: trans = across; that

is, a transgenic species is one that
has been created by moving a gene
across speciestaking a gene from
one species and inserting it into the
DNA of another species. A gene is
inserted into an organism from a
different species and it becomes part
of that organisms genome (DNA)
and can be inherited by subsequent
generations. This involves inserting
the gene into a germ-line cella
cell that will give rise to new
offspring. The gene should be
inserted into a fertilised egg cell that
gives rise to an organism.
Gene therapy: a healthy copy of a
gene is inserted into defective tissue
only. Therefore it will not be passed
on to the next generation. Gene
therapy will be used as a new form
of medicine, to replace conventional
treatments for diseases, and the
desirable gene will be inserted into
non-germ line tissue in a developed
or mature plant or animal.

Technologyproducing
transgenic species
Below is a simplified explanation of
the process of gene manipulation
known as genetic engineering, used to
create transgenic species. An annotated
diagram follows, illustrating each step
in more detail.
Simplified steps outlining how to
create a transgenic species

The simplified explanation is cut, copy

and paste:
The process of gene manipulation

1. cut: a gene for a favourable

characteristic is removed from the
cell of an organism, using restriction
enzymes
2. copy: multiple copies are made
(called gene cloning)this step is
usually carried out in bacteria
3. paste: the genes are inserted
(injected) into an egg cell of another

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

Xji
bacterium

chromosome

isolation of plasmid DNA

and DNA containing
gene of interest

gene inserted
into plasmid

plasmid

XX XX
XX XX XX
XX XX
XX

gene of
interest

recombinant DNA
(plasmid)
3 plasmid put into
bacterial cell
recombinant
bacterium

Xden
4 cells divide, cloning the gene of interest

XjiVcY
eVhiZ

5 identification of desired cell

copies of protein made
by gene

copies of gene

gene for pest

resistance inserted
into plants

6 various applications

igVch\Zc^X
dg\Vc^hb
basic
research
on gene

human growth
hormone treats
stunted growth
basic
research
on protein

future gene
therapy
gene used to alter
bacteria for cleaning
up toxic waste

species and after fertilisation become

part of the newly formed organisms
DNA
4. The egg develops into a mature
organism (a transgenic species)
with the new gene switched on to
function.
(See Fig. 5.9.)
Gene delivery techniques

There are four main ways of inserting

the desired gene into the genome of a
species to be genetically transformed:
1. micro-injection of DNA directly into
the nucleus of a single cellthis is
usually performed under an optical
microscope to introduce DNA into

protein dissolves blood clots

in heart attack therapy

egg cells when creating transgenic

species (see Fig. 5.10a)
2. biolistics: methods of mechanically
delivering DNA on microscopic
particles into target tissues and cells
by firing them from a gene gun;
e.g. tiny gold particles are used to
coat the DNA, which is then fired at
the target cells under high pressure
or voltage by a gene gun.
3. electroporation: increasing the
membrane permeability by applying
an electrical current
4. transduction by a viral vector: DNA
may be carried by vectors such as an
adenovirus, liposomes or bacterial
plasmids into cells. These viral
vectors may be injected directly into

Figure 5.9 The

process of genetic
engineering

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

Figure 5.10 Methods

of inserting genes
into reproducing cells
of plants or animals
to create transgenic
organisms: (a) microinjection; (b) viral
vectors in aerosols

(a)

Detailed example: transgenic

cotton(Bt cotton plants)
Bt cotton is an example of a transgenic
organism. Below is an outline of:
the process used to produce this
transgenic species
the reasons for its use.
The syllabus requires you to debate
whether the creation of transgenic
species is ethical or not, so it is worth
thinking about this as you discover
in more detail the process of genetic
engineering outlined below.

(b)

Reason for the production of

transgenic cotton

In the 1990s, CSIRO scientists in

collaboration with the US company
Monsanto extensively trialled the use
of its Ingard GM cotton, also known
as Bt cotton, which is a transgenic
species.
Over the years, traditional pesticides
used on cotton plants had to be
made stronger and be applied
more frequently to eradicate insect
pests such as the caterpillar of
the Helicoverpa zea moth, a pest
which destroys hundreds of millions
of dollars worth of cotton each
year. With increased sprayings,
these caterpillars were building up
immunity to the pesticides due to
natural selection. Bt cotton plants
were genetically modified and
contain a gene that codes for the
production of a protein that kills the
caterpillar of the Helicoverpa zea
moth. The insertion of the Bt gene
into the cotton plant has reduced
the need to use pesticides to kill
these caterpillars, which is better for
the environment and reduces the
development of pesticide resistance
in the caterpillars. The gene is called
Bt because it was originally taken
from the soil bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis. While cotton growers
in New South Wales and Queensland
would normally spray their crops

the bloodstream or may be delivered

by aerosol delivery (nasal spray
or oral aerosol for example, used
in trials of gene therapy for cystic
fibrosis). (See Fig. 5.10b.)
Assessing whether the gene has
been incorporated

SR

Studentt worksheet
k h t on
Bt cotton

A gene for a fluorescent protein from

jellyfish is now used to determine
whether an individual has successfully
incorporated a transgene. The
fluorescent gene is used as a marker
and is attached to the desired gene
that will be inserted into prospective
transgenic organisms. The gene with
attached marker is injected into an egg
cell and the resulting offspring fluoresce
under certain lighting conditions.
This allows the biologist to recognise
immediately which individuals have
been transformed. This marker has
been used in some instances to create
fluorescent creatures for aesthetic
purposes or even as works of art.

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

numerous times in one growing

season, they now only spray
occasionally to eliminate sucking
insects and mites, using a narrow
spectrum pesticide that does not
wipe out beneficial insects (such as
ladybirds and wasps) in the way the
powerful, broad spectrum sprays for
Helicoverpa zea used to.
The Bt gene codes for the
production of the toxic protein in
an inactive form that is harmless to
humans and most animals, and even
to most insects. However, when the
protein is eaten by a caterpillar, it is
converted by the digestive system
into an active form that kills the
insect.
Process used to produce transgenic
cotton

1. Scientists cut normal cotton seedlings

into small pieces and place them on
a solid growth medium where they
grow into calluses (see Fig. 5.11).
After about six weeks they transfer
the callus cells to a liquid medium
where they are given hormones to
induce them to grow into cotton
plant embryos.
2. By genetic engineering, the Bt
gene is extracted from a bacterium,
Bacillus thuringiensis, using
restriction enzymes.
3. The Bt gene must then be transferred
to the cotton plant embryos. This is
done using a second bacterium as
a carrier or vector. This bacterium,
called Agrobacterium tumefaciens,
is known to cause the disease crown
gall in plants. This vector is able to
inject genes into other cells.
4. The cotton plant embryos are dipped
in a solution that contains a mixture
of the vector, Agrobacterium, and
the extracted Bt genes (which have
recombined with the Agrobacterium
genome), and the vector bacteria
inject the Bt genes into the cotton
cells.

(b)

(c)

(d)
(a)
(f)
(e)

5. Once the gene is inserted, the

embryos containing the Bt genes are
grown in tissue culture and are then
placed on another solid medium and
germinated into small plants, which
are planted in pots and grown in
glasshouses. These plants are now a
transgenic species, containing a gene
from another species in their genome.
Cotton is a very difficult plant to
culture, but CSIRO scientists have
developed workable techniques for
growing three varieties of cotton. In
order to increase the success of the
project, the scientists have developed
four different insecticidal genes to use
in the cotton. However, the project has
been very controversial, with critics
claiming that it is doing more harm
than good.

Figure 5.11 Tissue

culture of Bt cotton:
(a) normal cotton
seedling;
(b) fragmented
seedling infected
with Bt genes;
(c) fragment grown
into a callus;
(d) callus cells in
liquid medium
with hormones
becomes an
embryo;
(e) cotton seedling
develops from
embryo;
(f) transgenic mature
plant

Reducing the risk of resistance

Ingard, a cotton containing the product

of a single gene, has been replaced
by Bollgard II cotton, which contains
two inserted genes and produces two
lethal proteins against the caterpillar.
It is highly unlikely that the caterpillar
will become resistant to both genes. In
addition, cotton farmers plant a refuge
crop of pea plants in a field nearby, so
that moths that may have one recessive
allele for resistance to Bollgard II

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

continue to interbreed with moths who

feed on the refuge crop, to reduce the
chances of in-breeding caterpillars with
double recessive alleles, which could
confer resistance.

Cotton and carnations are the main

genetically modified crops that may be
legally grown in Australia.

Ethical issues arising from the use of transgenic

species
SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
INVE
PFAs
H3

analyse information from secondary sources to identify

examples of the use of transgenic species and use
available evidence to debate the ethical issues arising
from the development and use of transgenic species

H4
H5

BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.1
H12.3; H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.2; H14.3

PFA

H4

TR

For link
i k tto UNESCO
Bioethical Principles

Implications of biology for

society and the environment
Biotechnology and its applications have a
signicant impact on everyday life in todays
world. Genetically modied plants and animals
are common in agriculture, genetically modied
food is commonly found on our supermarket
shelves and genetic testing is becoming a
routine part of medical practice and forensic
investigations. Biotechnology is the new and
controversial global revolutionwe need to
judge carefully what boundaries are being
crossed if we allow unregulated manipulation
of genomes. The possible future outcomes of
the development and use of transgenic species
must be assessed. Should we fear this new
technology, or should we be excited by its
potential? There are many advantages and
disadvantages of this new technology.
As knowledge and technological power
in the biological sciences advances rapidly,
the need arises for careful consideration
of the values in society that are at stake. An
International Bioethics Committee has been
formed by UNESCO to ensure that progress in
genetics is accompanied by reecting on and

Task
Students need to access a wide variety of
sources including video footage, internet
research, information from the news media as
well as scientic media, text-type secondary
sources and any others (e.g. interviews with
people) to help prepare for a debate. The aim
is to:

taking action to ensure the values of human

dignity and freedom are respected. Respect
for all living organisms and the environment
is encouraged. They are also concerned with
trying to reach international agreement on legal
and ethical issues in molecular biology.

Areas for consideration when

assessing the impacts of biology
on society and the environment
To assess means to pass judgement, based on
criteria. The following general areas are worth
considering whenever you are asked such a
question:
1. effects on the environment
2. nancial and social justice issues
3. medical and health benets
4. animal and human rights.
Specic points for consideration in relation
to transgenic species are listed in the following
table. It is essential that any arguments you build
up for or against these points are based on sound
criteria. Your research of specic examples will
provide the criteria and depth that you need,
in order to establish a solid argument for and
against the topic to support your point of view.
Table 5.1 outlines ethical issues for consideration.

learn more detail about the procedures

involved in creating transgenic species and
the results of these procedures
develop an informed opinion on how
appropriate it is to apply these technologies
to solve problems in the world.
One contentious area for debatethat of
genetically modied foodis dealt with on the
following page.

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

Genetically modified food

A very simple example of issues arising for
debate are those concerning genetically
modied food:
If a gene from a pig is inserted into a
vegetable, can vegetarians still eat this
genetically modied vegetable? Should
those with religious beliefs that prohibit
eating pork eat this vegetable?
If a human gene is inserted into an animal,
are we humanising it? Is it acceptable to
eat the meat of an animal that contains
human genes?

Allergy issuesinserting genes from a

substance to which a person is allergic into
another food form can and does bring about
allergic reactionsa common example at
present is the presence of peanut genes in
soy products.
If it means creating crops extremely high
in nutritional value that could feed starving
people in third-world countries and reduce
malnutrition and disease, and death from
these conditions, is it ethical to not pursue
this research?

SR

Blankk ttable
bl ffor
investigation and
relevant websites

TR

Teaching strategy
genetic engineering
and transgenic species
debate
Table 5.1 Issues that impact
p
on societyy and the environment
Ethical issue

For

Against

Environment and nature

Is it ethical to interfere with nature?

Many new discoveries are considered

to be a threat at first, e.g. nuclear
power, but can be used to benefit
society and the environment. If we are
able to produce products that are of
benefit, it would be unethical not to
develop them.

Is it wrong to play God and tamper

with nature?
Biodiversity is upset as variation in the
gene pool is lowered; this may lead
to mass extinctions of wild and/or
modified species.
We may be changing the natural
process of evolution.
Is it ethical to mix the genetic
material of humans with that of other
organisms?

Financial and social justice issues

Is it ethical to put a price on (for people
to own or patent, for personal gain)
genetically modified products, thereby
giving only a select group access to these
(and denying access to those who cannot
afford them)?
Respect should be shown for human
vulnerability and personal integrity.

We could create crops that are more

drought-tolerant/resistant to pests
and have a higher yield; this is costeffective since the quality improves and
less money needs to be spent (e.g. on
pesticides).
Financial gain is essentialmoney can
be put back into further research.

People in third-world countries may

not be able to afford or have access
to beneficial GM products, so they
may fall even further behind developed
countries, widening the poverty gap
even more.
Patenting and ownership of certain
genes or speciessingle companies
have the rights to technologies; other
companies do not have access to
them (even if they could be beneficial),
creating a monopoly.

Medical and health issues

If we are able to make products that
bring medical benefits and improve the
health and quality of life for humans,
would it be unethical not to do so, even if
we are unsure of the consequences?

Foods with higher nutritional value may

be developed to supply better nutrition
to people in third-world countries.
Reduced use of pesticides is better for
consumers health.

Potential long-term health risks of

GM products are not yet known.
People with allergies may have
allergic reactions to foods they could
previously eat, if those foods include
the DNA of other organisms.

Animal and human rights issues

Is it ethical to genetically modify foods or
other products and make them available
to the public, when the public may not
have full knowledge of what they are
consuming or being exposed to, and they
are not given alternatives and the right to
choose?

GM crops may be used to solve food

shortages in third-world countries,
producing a higher yield at lower cost.

Vegetarians may unknowingly eat food

with animal DNA.
Transgenic animals could be created
as genetically modified works of art.

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

Examples of transgenic species

Figure 5.12
Transgenic species:
salmon genes allow
strawberries to grow
in cold climates

Transgenic sheep in Australia have

been given a gene for the blood-clotting
factor lacking in people who suffer from
haemophilia. The factor can be obtained
from the sheeps milk and used for human
treatment.
The alfalfa plant in Australia has been
genetically modied to produce high levels
of cysteine. Sheep that graze on this
alfalfa with high levels of cysteine have an
enhanced wool quality. Future research
involves trying to develop a method to insert
this gene directly into sheep.
The human insulin gene has been
inserted into sh in Belgium. This
can be used to treat diabetics.
Strawberries in Scandinavia have
been transformed with a salmon
gene that allows them to grow in
cold conditions.

Task
1. Research in detail at least two
examples transgenic speciesmake
notes on the following for each (you
may do Bt cotton and one other or two
examples other than Bt cotton):

5.3

details of the two species whose genes

have been recombined
the advantages (and/or disadvantages)
of this transformation
any ethical issues arising from the
development or use of this transgenic
species.
Websites on the Student Resource CD deal
with transgenic organisms which have been
developed, including transgenic mice that
can resist cancer, others that can overcome
anaemia, drought-tolerant plants, goats with
implanted human DNA, and more.
2. Prepare to debate ethical issues on the
development and use of transgenic species
in a class lesson. You should be able to
argue on the afrmative or negative team
you will be assigned to a team at the start
of the lesson and given a specic topic for
debate. Identify three ethical issues and
prepare a written discussion on each.
(Note: Points for and against must link
back to the issue, otherwise they will be
considered irrelevant.) The table on the
Student Resource CD may be used as a
starting point. It is an editable document and
so you can target the particular areas of
interest to you.

Impacts of technologies on genetic diversity

Impact

discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction

technologies on genetic diversity of species using
a named plant and animal example that have been
genetically altered

(Note: This dot point relates to Domain:

Knowledge H7, H8 and H10).
Reproductive technologies may
increase or decrease genetic diversity
of species, depending on how the
technologies are used. For example,
selective breeding has the potential
to both increase and decrease genetic
diversity.
Darwin was aware of the effects of
selective breedinghe bred pigeons and
used the results of his artificial selection
to demonstrate the principles of natural
selection. Darwin explained that the
process of selection (natural
or artificial) determines the success of an

individual in reproducing and passing

on its variations. In terms of genetics,
selection acts on the phenotype and
determines which genotypes are passed
on, directly affecting the gene pool.
Selective breeding often leads to a
decrease in genetic variationwhen
particular traits are recognised in purebred species and animals that are
highly pedigreed because they have
these traits selectively bred.

Cloning and genetic diversity

Cloning decreases genetic diversity in
populations, as organisms produced

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

Examples of transgenic species

Figure 5.12
Transgenic species:
salmon genes allow
strawberries to grow
in cold climates

Transgenic sheep in Australia have

been given a gene for the blood-clotting
factor lacking in people who suffer from
haemophilia. The factor can be obtained
from the sheeps milk and used for human
treatment.
The alfalfa plant in Australia has been
genetically modied to produce high levels
of cysteine. Sheep that graze on this
alfalfa with high levels of cysteine have an
enhanced wool quality. Future research
involves trying to develop a method to insert
this gene directly into sheep.
The human insulin gene has been
inserted into sh in Belgium. This
can be used to treat diabetics.
Strawberries in Scandinavia have
been transformed with a salmon
gene that allows them to grow in
cold conditions.

Task
1. Research in detail at least two
examples transgenic speciesmake
notes on the following for each (you
may do Bt cotton and one other or two
examples other than Bt cotton):

5.3

details of the two species whose genes

have been recombined
the advantages (and/or disadvantages)
of this transformation
any ethical issues arising from the
development or use of this transgenic
species.
Websites on the Student Resource CD deal
with transgenic organisms which have been
developed, including transgenic mice that
can resist cancer, others that can overcome
anaemia, drought-tolerant plants, goats with
implanted human DNA, and more.
2. Prepare to debate ethical issues on the
development and use of transgenic species
in a class lesson. You should be able to
argue on the afrmative or negative team
you will be assigned to a team at the start
of the lesson and given a specic topic for
debate. Identify three ethical issues and
prepare a written discussion on each.
(Note: Points for and against must link
back to the issue, otherwise they will be
considered irrelevant.) The table on the
Student Resource CD may be used as a
starting point. It is an editable document and
so you can target the particular areas of
interest to you.

Impacts of technologies on genetic diversity

Impact

discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction

technologies on genetic diversity of species using
a named plant and animal example that have been
genetically altered

(Note: This dot point relates to

Domain: Knowledge H7, H8 and H10).
Reproductive technologies may
increase or decrease genetic diversity
of species, depending on how the
technologies are used. For example,
selective breeding has the potential
to both increase and decrease genetic
diversity.
Darwin was aware of the effects of
selective breedinghe bred pigeons and
used the results of his artificial selection
to demonstrate the principles of natural
selection. Darwin explained that the
process of selection (natural
or artificial) determines the success of an

individual in reproducing and passing

on its variations. In terms of genetics,
selection acts on the phenotype and
determines which genotypes are passed
on, directly affecting the gene pool.
Selective breeding often leads to a
decrease in genetic variationwhen
particular traits are recognised in purebred species and animals that are
highly pedigreed because they have
these traits selectively bred.

Cloning and genetic diversity

Cloning decreases genetic diversity in
populations, as organisms produced

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BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

of hybrid species. The use of artificial

pollination to create hybrids is an area
where genetic diversity increasesnew
combinations of alleles are introduced
into the gene pool of a population.
For example, wheat hybrids were
created by crossing Purple Straw variety
14A and a FifeIndian wheat variety
Yandilla to create a new variety called
Federation. New gene combinations
can be passed on to future generations
if the hybrids are fertile, increasing their
frequency in the gene pool and thereby
altering the genetic composition of
the population. (Remember that in
hybridisation within a species, the
resulting hybrids are fertile, as opposed
to hybridisation across species, where
the offspring are usually infertile.)
Distantly related organisms are less
likely to have mutations of the same
alleles and therefore offspring have less
chance of being homozygous recessive
for any pair of alleles.
An interesting case of artificial
pollination being used to create a new
species is the example of a wheatrye
hybrid that was produced by crossing a
wheat species, Triticum turgidum, with
a rye plant, Secale cereale, to create the
hybrid cereal, Triticale. Usually, hybrids
created from two different species are
sterile because they have a difference
in chromosome number and during
gamete formation their chromosomes
cannot pair up during meiosis. The
triticale hybrid was subjected to a
chemical treatment that caused its
chromosome number to double,
making the new species tetraploid
that is, it has four sets of chromosomes
rather than being diploid, with two
sets. Its chromosomes can now pair
and separate during gamete formation
and so it is fertile. These hybrids are
no longer able to interbreed with
the wild diploid speciesa form of
reproductive isolation exists, equivalent
to a new species arising in nature due
to isolation. Therefore hybridisation by
artificial pollination can increase genetic

diversity by creating new species. In

the long term, ongoing breeding of this
same species may lead to a decrease in
genetic diversity.
Advantageincreased genetic
variety

When new hybrid species are created,

this leads to a short-term increase in
genetic diversity and may result in
hybrid vigour: hybrids are healthier
organisms because most do not have
two copies of detrimental (harmful)
recessive alleles. Greater genetic
diversity within the gene pool equips
a species for adaptation and survival if
there is a sudden environmental change
such as an epidemic disease or food
shortage.
Disadvantagedecreased genetic
variety

In the longer term, the continued

breeding of the same hybrid lines
decreases genetic diversity. The overuse
of one breeding line, or in-breeding
of hybrids from the same parental
lines, leads to a greater chance of
the offspring inheriting two copies
of the same detrimental allele from
their closely related parents. They
are also less likely to survive sudden
environmental change or pathogens.

Creating transgenic species

This is only considered a reproductive
technology if it increases the breeding
success of the individuals. Creating
transgenic species enables scientists
to choose the traits that they want
expressed and to artificially combine
these qualities relatively quicklythese
may affect the organisms breeding.
For example, larger male salmon are
more attractive to females and therefore
have an increased chance of mating
and passing on their genes for the
large phenotype. The potential impact
on genetic diversity depends on how
well the species competes in the wild.
If their genes are advantageous to the

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APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

population, the frequency of these

genes in the gene pool will increase.
Advantages and disadvantages of
transgenic species

In the short term, creating transgenic

species increases genetic diversity
genes are moved from one species to
another and this can be used to confer
resistance on species that previously
were susceptible to particular diseases,
allowing them to survive and pass on
their favourable genes.
However, in the long term, it may
decrease genetic diversity since the
original genetic material of some
organisms may be reduced or lost
forever; that is, there may be loss of
biodiversity.

Conclusion
Modern biotechnology gives humans
the potential to alter the path of
evolution by artificially combining
the qualities of organisms that once
were separate species (e.g. creating
transgenic species). This could increase
biodiversity in the short term, but

could also decrease biodiversity if

large numbers of identical organisms
are produced and bred (e.g. using
reproductive technologies such as
cloning) or if organisms are selectively
in-bred to maintain parent lines of
hybrids that benefit us in terms of their
agricultural produce. Biologists and
breeders in agriculture realise the need
to instil a practice whereby organisms
are conserved for their usefulness or
desirability by humans and for the
organisms own long-term survival. If
humans influence the path of evolution
to the extent that species become
extinct (e.g. in response to a sudden
environmental change, due to a lack of
diversity), human survival may also be
compromised. A balanced ecosystem
with a wide diversity of species is
more likely to save us than selectively
breeding certain stocks of organisms.
Our ability to prepare organisms for
epidemics by genetically transforming
them with genes for resistance to
diseases may prove too costly and
time-consuming for us to win the battle
against nature.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Dene selective breeding, articial pollination, articial insemination and hybridisation.
2. Distinguish between gene cloning and whole organism cloning.
3. Each time a mammal is cloned, the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) involves three
animals. Identify and describe the role played by each of these animals during SCNT.
4. What is a transgenic species? Give an example to illustrate your answer.
5. It is interesting to note that the second-cloned horse, Pieraz-Cryozootech, was cloned from a
gelding (a castrated male horse). Consider the implications and advantages of this application of
cloning as a reproductive technology.

SR

TR

6. Explain how developing a transgenic species can introduce wide-scale resistance to a disease.
7. Explain how the genetic diversity of a species may be increased using:
(a) cloning
(b) transgenic species.

Answers to revision
questions

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