Zone of proximal development

Zone of proximal development

(Learner can do with guidance)

Learner
can do
unaided

Learner cannot do

In the middle circle, representing the zone of proximal development, students cannot complete tasks unaided, but can complete
them with guidance.

The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated

as ZPD, is the dierence between what a learner can do
without help and what he or she can do with help.[1] It is
a concept introduced, yet not fully developed, by Soviet
psychologist Lev Vygotsky (18961934) during the last
ten years of his life.[2] Vygotsky stated that a child follows an adults example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help.[3] Vygotsky and some
other educators believe that the role of education is to
give children experiences that are within their zones of
proximal development, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning.[4]

Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934

initiated and completed by the children, stemming from

their own eorts. Piaget was a proponent of independent
thinking and critical of the standard teacher-led instruction that is common practice in schools.[6]
Alternatively, Vygotsky saw natural, spontaneous development as important, but not all-important. He believed
that children would not advance very far if they were left
to discover everything on their own. He noted cultural
experiences where children are greatly helped by knowledge and tools handed down from previous generations.
Vygotsky noted that good teachers shouldn't present material that is too dicult and pull the students along.[6]

Origins

The concept of the zone of proximal development was

originally developed by Vygotsky to argue against the
use of academic, knowledge-based tests as a means to
gauge students intelligence. He also created ZPD to further develop Jean Piaget's theory of children being lone
learners.[5] Vygotsky spent a lot of time studying the impact of school instruction on children and noted that children grasp language concepts quite naturally, but that
maths and writing dont come naturally, that these are
concepts taught in schools and tend to come along with
some diculty, while Piaget believed that there was a
clear distinction between development and teaching. He
said that development is a spontaneous process that is

Vygotsky argued that, rather than examining what a student knows to determine intelligence, it is better to examine his or her ability to solve problems independently and
his or her ability to solve problems with an adults help.[7]
He proposed a question: if two children perform the
same on a test, are their levels of development the same?"
He concluded that they were not.[8] However, Vygotskys
untimely death interrupted his work on the zone of proximal development, and it remained mostly incomplete.[9]
1

5 SEE ALSO

Denition

can do with scaolding will lead to the greatest learning

gains.[14]

Since Vygotskys original conception, the denition for

the zone of proximal development has been expanded
and modied. The zone of proximal development is an
area of learning that occurs when a person is assisted by
a teacher or peer with a skill set higher than that of the
subject.[1] The person learning the skill set cannot complete it without the assistance of the teacher or peer. The
teacher then helps the student attain the skill the student
is trying to master, in hopes that the teacher will no longer
be needed for that task.[10]

Scaolding is a process through which a teacher or a more

competent peer helps the student in his or her ZPD as
necessary and tapers o this aid as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaold is removed from a building after construction is completed. Scaolding [is] the way
the adult guides the childs learning via focused questions
and positive interactions.[15] This concept has been further developed by Mercedes Chaves Jaime, Ann Brown,
among others. Several instructional programs were developed based on this interpretation of the ZPD, includAny function within the zone of proximal development ing reciprocal teaching and dynamic assessment. In order
matures within a particular internal context that includes for scaolding to work and have an eect, one must start
[13]
not only the functions actual level but also how suscep- at the childs level of knowledge and build from there.
tible the child is to types of help, the sequence in which One example of children using ZPD is when they are
these types of help are oered, the exibility or rigidity learning to speak. As their speech develops, it inuences
of previously formed stereotypes, how willing the child is the way the child thinks, which in turn also inuences the
to collaborate, along with other factors.[11] This context childs manner of speaking.[8] Wells gives the example of
can impact the diagnosis of a functions potential level of dancing: when a person is learning how to dance, they
development.[9]
look to others around them on the dance oor and imiVygotsky stated that we cant just look at what students tate their moves. A person does not copy the dance moves
what they can and adds their own perare capable of doing on their own; we have to look at exactly, but takes
[16]
sonality
to
it.
what they are capable of doing in a social setting. In
many cases students are able to complete a task within
a group before they are able to complete it on their own.
He notes that the teachers job is to move the childs mind
forward step-by-step (after all, teachers cant teach complex chemical equations to rst-graders). At the same
time, teachers cant teach all children equally; they must
determine which students are ready for which lessons.[6]
An example is the often-used accelerated reading program in schools. Students are assessed and given a reading level and a range. Books rated below their level are
easy to read, while books above their level will challenge
the student. Sometimes students are not even allowed to
check out books from the school library that are outside
of their range. Vygotsky argued that a major shortcoming
of standardized tests is that they only measure what students are capable of on their own, not in a group setting
where their minds are being pushed by other students.[6]

Scaolding

The concept of the ZPD is widely used to study childrens

mental development as it relates to education. The ZPD
concept is seen as a scaolding, a structure of support
points for performing an action.[12] This refers to the
help or guidance received from an adult or more competent peer to permit the child to work within the ZPD.[13]
Although Vygotsky himself never mentioned the term,
scaolding was rst developed by Jerome Bruner, David
Wood, and Gail Ross, while applying Vygotskys concept
of ZPD to various educational contexts.[5] According to
Wass and Golding, giving students the hardest tasks they

Another example of scaolding is learning to drive. Parents and driving instructors guide driving students along
the way by showing them the mechanics of how the car
operates, the correct hand positions on the steering wheel,
the technique of scanning the roadway, etc. As the student progresses, less and less instruction is needed, until
they are ready to drive on their own.

4 Implications for educators

Various investigations, using dierent approaches and research frameworks have proved collaborative learning to
be eective in many kinds of settings and contexts.[17]
Teachers should assign tasks that students cannot do on
their own, but which they can do with assistance; they
should provide just enough assistance so that students
learn to complete the tasks independently and then provide an environment that enables students to do harder
tasks than would otherwise be possible.[14] In the context
of adults, peers should challenge each other in order to
support collaboration and success.[18]

5 See also
Constructivism (learning theory)
Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
Educational psychology
Social constructivism (learning theory)

3
Sociocultural theory

References

[1] Zone of proximal development. (2009). In Penguin dictionary of psychology. Retrieved from Credo Reference
database
[2] Stanlaw, J. (2005). Vygotsky, lev semenovich (18961934). In Encyclopedia of anthropology. Retrieved
from Credo Reference Database
[3] L.S. Vygotsky: Mind in Society: Development of Higher
Psychological Processes, p. 86
[4] Berk, L & Winsler, A. (1995). Vygotsky: His life and
works and Vygotskys approach to development. In
Scaolding childrens learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Natl. Assoc for Educ. Of Young Children.
p. 24
[5] Zone of Proximal Development and Cultural Tools Scaffolding, Guided Participation, 2006. In Key concepts in
developmental psychology. Retrieved from Credo Reference Database
[6] Crain, W. (2010). Theories of development: Concepts
and applications, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
[7] Berk, L & Winsler, A. (1995). Vygotsky: His life and
works and Vygotskys approach to development. In
Scaolding childrens learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Natl. Assoc for Educ. of Young Children.
pp. 2534
[8] Stages of development. (2010). In Curriculum connections psychology: Cognitive development. Retrieved from
Credo Reference Database
[9] Zaretskii, V. K. (NovemberDecember 2009). The Zone
of Proximal Development What Vygotsky Did Not Have
Time to Write. Journal of Russian and East European
Psychology. 47 (10610405/2010 $9.50 + 0.00.): 70
93. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405470604. Retrieved 21
November 2011.
[10] Burkitt, E. (2006). Zone of proximal development. In
Encyclopaedic dictionary of psychology. Retrieved from
Credo Reference database
[11] Bozhovich, E. D. (2009). Zone of Proximal Development: The Diagnostic Capabilities and Limitations of Indirect Collaboration. Journal Of Russian & East European Psychology, 47(6), 48-69. Retrieved from EBSCOHost Database
[12] Obukhova, L. F., & Korepanova, I. A. (2009). The Zone
of Proximal Development: A Spatiotemporal Model.
Journal of Russian & East European Psychology, 47(6),
25-47. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405470602
[13] Morgan, A. (2009, July 28). What is Scaolding and
the ZPD"? Retrieved October 13, 2014.

[14] Wass, R., & Golding, C. (2014). Sharpening a tool for

teaching: the zone of proximal development. Teaching in
Higher Education, 19(6), 671-684.
[15] Balaban, Nancy. (1995). Seeing the Child, Knowing the
Person. In Ayers, W. To Become a Teacher. Teachers
College Press. p. 52
[16] Wells, G. (1999). Dialogic Inquiries in education: Building
on the legacy of Vygotsky. Cambridge University Press. p.
57
[17] Grossman, P., Wineburg, S., & Woolworth, S. (2001).
Toward a theory of teacher community. Teachers College
Record, 103(6), 942-1012.
[18] Kuusisaari, H. (2014). Teachers at the zone of proximal
development: Collaboration promoting or hindering the
development process. Teaching and Teacher Education,
43, 46-57.

Chaiklin, S. (2003). The Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotskys analysis of learning and instruction. In Kozulin, A., Gindis, B., Ageyev, V.
& Miller, S. (Eds.) Vygotskys educational theory
and practice in cultural context. 39-64. Cambridge:
Cambridge University.
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction. (2nd
ed., pp. 462463). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

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