CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Company Profile
Wave Industries Pvt Ltd., one of the Major players of Sugar producing groups, has its
Sugar Complex at Dhanaura, UP (W) and expanded its footprint to the surrounding areas by
acquiring sugar plants at Amroha, Bijnor, Chandpur and Bulandshahar. Apart from meeting
the cane potential of the said areas of cane crop Growers, Wave is also producing the Green
Power and exporting it to Grid by evacuating the power at Amroha 132 KV s/s, through its
Cogeneration Power plant facility available at Dhanaura plant. The Power is produced by
burning the Sugarcane Solid Waste called Bagasse in a High Pressure Boiler of latest design
with high energy efficiency and the power is produced through its 30 MW Steam Turbo
Generator of latest technology, imported from Shin Nippon Machinery Company Ltd., Japan

Fig. 1.1 Wave Industry

1.2 SUGARCANE
Sugar Cane is a perennial grass in the family Poaceae. It is cultivated in tropical and
sub-tropical regions for the sucrose that is found in its stems. It requires a frost-free climate
with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's great growth
potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed
rapidly to the processing plant. Here it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or
the sugar is extracted by diffusion. The juice is then clarified with lime and heated to kill
enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators after which
further water is removed by evaporation in vacuum containers. The resulting supersaturated
solution is seeded with sugar crystals and the sugar crystallizes out, is separated from the
fluid and dried. Molasses a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known as
bagasse, is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw
sugar have a sticky brown coating and can either be used as they are or can be bleached by
sulphur di-oxide or treated in a carbonization process to produce a whiter product.

CHAPTER-2
BOILER
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for converting
water into steam. The steam under pressure is then used for transferring
the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring
heat to a process. When water is boiled its volume increases by about
1600 times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder.
This causes the boiler to be extremely dangerous and must be treated
with a lot of care.

2.1 BOILER TYPES

There are infinite number of boiler designs but generally they fit into one of the two
categories:
1. Fire tube or fire in tube boilers, contain long steel tubes through which the hot
gases from a furnace pass and around which the water to be heated circulates. In a fire
tube boiler the heat (gases) from the combustion of the fuel passes through the tubes
and is transferred to the water which is in a large cylindrical storage area. Common
types of fire tube boilers are scotch marine, fire box, horizontal return tube. Fire tube
boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and easier to operate
but they are limited generally.
2. Water tube or water in tube boilers have water passing through the tubes and the
steam circulates around it. The common water tube boilers are D type, A type,
O type, bent tube and cast-iron sectional (ref fig 2.1). All fire tube boilers and most
water tube boilers are packaged boilers in that they can be transported by truck, rail or
barge. Large water tube boilers in industries with large steam demands and utilities
must be completely assembled and constructed in the field and are called field
erected boiler.

Fig 2.1 Water tube boiler D-type

2.2 BOILER OPERATION

The drum- type water tube boiler is the fundamental steam generator for both
industries and utility applications. The steam generated by a boiler may be used as a heat
transfer fluid for process heating, or it may be expanded in steam turbines to drive rotating
machinery such as fans, compressors, or electric generators.

Fig 2.2 Boiler Room Schematic

2.3 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF HORIZONTAL DRUM TYPE BOILER

The steam drum and mud drum are mounted in a furnace and are interconnected with
water tubes called risers and down comers. The furnace includes one or more burners for the
combustion of an air and fuel mixture. The heat of combustion is transferred to the water
4

tubes to generate steam. Steam bubbles form in the tubes (risers) closest to the burner and
rises to the steam drum where they are separated from the water. The steam in the risers is
replaced by water in the downcomers to provide natural circulation in the water tubes. A
continuous supply of feed water is necessary to replace the steam leaving the boiler. In most
cases, the saturated steam leaving the steam drum is returned to the furnace for superheating.
A forced draft (FD) fan provides combustion air to the windbox from which it is
delivered to the burners. The induced draft (ID) fan draws the flue gases from the furnace and
drives them up the stack. Heat from the flue gas is used to preheat the combustion air to
improve efficiency.
The primary purpose of any boiler control system is to manipulate the firing rate so
that the supply of steam remains in balance with the demand for steam over the full load
range. In addition it is necessary to maintain an adequate supply of feed water and the correct
mixture of air and fuel for safe and economical combustion.
2.4 RANKINE CYCLE
The Rankine cycle is a model that is used to predict the performance
of steam engines. The Rankine cycle is an idealised thermodynamic cycle
of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work. The heat is
supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as the
working fluid. The Rankine cycle, in the form of steam engines, generates
about 90% of all electric power used throughout the world, including
virtually all biomass, coal, solar thermal and nuclear power plants. It is
named after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath and
Glasgow University professor.

Fig. 2.3 Rankine Cycle

2.5 ROLE OF BOILERS IN PLANT OPERATION

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water under pressure is transformed into steam by
the application of heat. In the boiler furnace, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into
heat, and it is the function of the boiler to transfer this heat to the contained water in the most
efficient manner. The boiler should also be designed to generate high quality steam for plant
use. A flow diagram for a typical boiler plant is presented in Figure 3..l.
A boiler must be designed to absorb the maximum amount of heat released in the
process of combustion. This heat is transferred to the boiler water through radiation,
conduction and convection. The relative percentage of each is dependent upon the type of
boiler, the designed heat transfer surface and the fuels.

Fig. 2.4 Boiler Plant Block Diagram

Types
Two principal types of boilers are used for industrial applications:
1. Fire tube boiIers-Products of combustion pass through the tubes, which are surrounded
by water.
2. Water tube boilers- Products of combustion pass around the tubes containing water. The
tubes are interconnected to common channels or headers and eventually to a steam outlet
for distribution to the plant system.

2.6 UTILIZATION
7

The boiler house or steam generation facility within any given plant is frequently
referred to as the heart. In the event this system shuts down for unexpected reasons or for
plant turnaround, most processes within the plant will not be operable. For this reason, very
conservative treatment measures are used in the boiler. Operating personnel can be reluctant
to change treatment programs if the one currently in use is deemed successful. On the other
hand, if a treatment program is linked to a boiler failure, change usually comes quickly.

2.7 STEAM UTILIZATION

Steam is generated for the following plant uses:
1. Turbine drive for electric generating equipment, blowers and pumps
2. Process for direct contact with products, direct contact sterilization and noncontact for
processing temperatures
3. Heating and air conditioning for comfort and equipment
The efficiency achievable with steam generation relies heavily on the system's ability
to return condensed steam to the operating cycle. Many of the systems described above return
a significant portion of the condensed steam to the generation cycle.

2.8 STEAM PLANT OPERATION

For each plant operation, there is an optimum method of treatment. Many factors are
involved in proper selection of feed water preparation and internal treatment. Principally,
these are the requirements of the plant for safe and reliable operation at an economical
treating cost.

2.9 FEED WATER PREPARATION

This section deals with the preparation of boiler feed water. The basic assumption
with regard to the quality of feed water is that calcium and magnesium hardness, migratory
iron, migratory copper, colloidal silica and other contaminants have been reduced to a
minimum, consistent with boiler design and operation parameters.
Once feed water quality has been optimized with regard to soluble and particulate
contaminants. the next problem is corrosive gases. Dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon
8

dioxide are among the principal causes of corrosion in the boiler and pre-boiler systems. The
deposition of these metallic oxides in the boiler is frequently more troublesome than the
actual damage caused by the corrosion. Deposition is not only harmful in itself, but it offers
an opening for further corrosion mechanisms as well.
Contaminant products in the feed water cycle up and concentrate in the boiler. As a
result, deposition takes place on internal surfaces, particularly in high heat transfer areas,
where it can be least tolerated. Metallic deposits act as insulators, which can cause local
overheating and failure. Deposits can also restrict boiler water circulation. Reduced
circulation can contribute to overheating, film boiling and accelerated deposition.
The best way to start to control pre-boiler corrosion and ultimate deposition in the
boiler is to eliminate the contaminants from the feed water. Consequently, this section deals
principally with the removal of oxygen, the impact of trace amounts of contaminants
remaining in the feed water, and heat exchange impact. Deposition and boiler corrosion are
covered later in this chapter.
Feed water is defined as follows:

Feed water (FW) = Makeup water (MW) + Return condensate (RC)

The above equation is a mass balance (pounds or kilograms).

2.10 DEAERATION (MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL)

Mechanical and chemical deaeration is an integral part of modern boiler water
protection and control. Deaeration, coupled with other aspects of external treatment, provides
the best and highest quality feed water for boiler use.
Simply speaking, the purposes of deaeration are:
1. To remove oxygen, carbon dioxide and other noncondensable gases from feed water
2. To heat the incoming makeup water and return condensate to an optimum temperature
for:
3. Minimizing solubility of the undesirable gases
4. Providing the highest temperature water for injection to the boiler

2.11 ORIGIN OF THE PROBLEM

The most common source of corrosion in boiler systems is dissolved gas: oxygen,
carbon dioxide and ammonia. Of these, oxygen is the most aggressive. The importance of
9

eliminating oxygen as a source of pitting and iron deposition cannot be over-emphasized.

Even small concentrations of this gas can cause serious corrosion problems.
Makeup water introduces appreciable amounts of oxygen into the system. Oxygen can
also enter the feed water system from the condensate return system. Possible return line
sources are direct air-leakage on the suction side of pumps, systems under vacuum, the
breathing action of closed condensate receiving tanks, open condensate receiving tanks and
leakage of nondeaerated water used for condensate pump seal and/or quench water. With all
of these sources, good housekeeping is an essential part of the preventive program.
One of the most serious aspects of oxygen corrosion is that it occurs as pitting. This
type of corrosion can produce failures even though only a relatively small amount of metal
has been lost and the overall corrosion rate is relatively low. The degree of oxygen attack
depends on the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the pH and the temperature of the water.
The influence of temperature on the corrosivity of dissolved oxygen is particularly
important in closed heaters and economizers where the water temperature increases rapidly.
Elevated temperature in itself does not cause corrosion. Small concentrations of oxygen at
elevated temperatures do cause severe problems. This temperature rise provides the driving
force that accelerates the reaction so that even small quantities of dissolved oxygen can cause
serious corrosion.

2.12 PHENOMENA OF CORROSION PROCESS

Localized attack on metal can result in a forced shutdown. The prevention of a forced
shutdown is the true aim of corrosion control.
Because boiler systems are constructed primarily of carbon steel and the heat transfer
medium is water, the potential for corrosion is high. Iron is carried into the boiler in various
forms of chemical composition and physical state. Most of the iron found in the boiler enters
as iron oxide or hydroxide. Any soluble iron in the feed water is converted to the insoluble
hydroxide when exposed to the high alkalinity and temperature in the boiler.
These iron compounds are divided roughly into two types, red iron oxide (Fe 2O3) and
black magnetic oxide (Fe3O4). The red oxide (hematite) is formed under oxidizing conditions
that exist, for example, in the condensate system or in a boiler that is out of service. The black
10

oxides (magnetite) are formed under reducing conditions that typically exist in an operating
boiler.

2.13 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF WATER TUBE BOILER

The working principle of water tube boiler is very interesting and simple. Let us draw
a very basic diagram of water tube boiler. It consists of mainly tow drums, one is upper drum
called steam drum other is lower drum called mud drum. These upper drum and lower drum
are connected with two tubes namely down-comer and riser tubes as shown in the picture.
Water in the lower drum and in the riser connected to it, is heated and steam is produced in
them which comes to the upper drums naturally. In the upper drum the steam is separated
from water naturally and stored above the water surface. The colder water is fed from feed
water inlet at upper drum and as this water is heavier than the hotter water of lower drum and
that in the riser, the colder water push the hotter water upwards through the riser. So there is
one convectional flow of water in the boiler system.
More and more steam is produced the pressure of the closed system increases which
obstructs this convectional flow of water and hence rate production of steam becomes slower
proportionately. Again if the steam is taken trough steam outlet, the pressure inside the
system falls and consequently the convectional flow of water becomes faster which result in
faster steam production rate. In this way the water tube boiler can control its own pressure.
Hence this type of boiler is referred as self controlled machine.

11

Fig. 2.5 Water Tube Boiler

12

2.14 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HORIZONTAL DRUM WATER TUBE

BOILER
Working principle of Babcock Wilcox Boiler depends upon thermonyphon
principle. The longitudinally placed drum as mentioned in the construction of longitudinal
drum boiler, is fed by colder mater at its rear feed water inlet. As the colder water is heavier it
falls down through down-comer fitted at the rear part of the drum. From down-comer the
water enters in to horizontal water tube where it becomes hot and lighter. As the water
becomes lighter, it passes up through these inclined horizontal tubes and ultimately comes
back to the boiler drum through riser. During travelling of water through inclined water tubes,
it absorves heat of the hot gases, surrounds the water tube, consequently steam bubbles are
created in these tubes. These steam bubbles then come to the steam drum through riser and
naturally separated from water and occupies the space above the water surface in the
longitudinal drum of Babcock Wilcox Boiler.

Fig. 2.6 Horizontal Drum Water Tube Boiler

2.16 CONSTRUCTION OF CROSS DRUM WATER TUBE BOILER

Cross Drum Boiler is essentially a variant of the Longitudinal Drum Boiler. In Cross
Drum Boiler the steam drum is placed at cross ways to the heat source as shown in the figure.
13

Here, the down-comer is fitted on the bottom of the drum and riser is fitted on the top of the
drum via a horizontal tube as shown in the figure. 5o to 15 o inclined water tubes are
connected with down-comer and riser tubes in same manner of Babcock-Wilcox boiler.

2.17 BOILER FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

Safety valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler.

Water level indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, also
known as a sight glass, water gaugeor water column is provided.

Bottom blowdown valves: They provide a means for removing solid particulates
that condense and lie on the bottom of a boiler. As the name implies, this valve is usually
located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and is occasionally opened to use the pressure
in the boiler to push these particulates out.

Continuous blowdown valve: This allows a small quantity of water to escape

continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler becoming saturated with
dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause water droplets to be carried
over with the steam - a condition known as priming. Blowdown is also often used to
monitor the chemistry of the boiler water.

Flash Tank: High-pressure blowdown enters this vessel where the steam can 'flash'
safely and be used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere while the
ambient pressure blowdown flows to drain.

Automatic Blowdown/Continuous Heat Recovery System: This system allows the

boiler to blowdown only when makeup water is flowing to the boiler, thereby transferring
the maximum amount of heat possible from the blowdown to the makeup water. No flash
tank is generally needed as the blowdown discharged is close to the temperature of the
makeup water.

Hand holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for
inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of internal surfaces.

14

Steam drum internals, A series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).

Low- water cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that is used to
turn off the burner or shut off fuel to the boiler to prevent it from running once the water
goes below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it) it can
cause rupture or catastrophic failure.

Surface blowdown line: It provides a means for removing foam or other lightweight
non-condensible substances that tend to float on top of the water inside the boiler.

Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler after it has
expelled some of its heat.

Feedwater check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in the feedwater line.
This may be fitted to the side of the boiler, just below the water level, or to the top of the
boiler.

Top feed: In this design for feedwater injection, the water is fed to the top of the
boiler. This can reduce boiler fatigue caused by thermal stress. By spraying the feedwater
over a series of trays the water is quickly heated and this can reduce limescale.

Desuperheater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of tubes in the water

drum or the steam drum designed to cool superheated steam, in order to supply auxiliary
equipment that does not need, or may be damaged by, dry steam.

Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling feedwater pH.

Steam accessories

Main steam stop valve:

Steam traps:
Main steam stop/Check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.

Combustion accessories

Fuel oil system: fuel oil heaters

Gas system:
Coal system:
15

Soot blower

Other essential items

Pressure gauges:
Feed pumps:
Fusible plug:
Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
Name plate:
Registration plate:

16

2.18 AIR PREHEATER

An air preheater (APH) is a general term used to describe any device designed to heat air
before another process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective of
increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a
recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil.

Fig. 2.7 Air preheater

In particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found in
thermal power stations producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels, biomass or waste. The
purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the
thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a
consequence, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the conveyance system and the flue gas stack. It
also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions
regulations, for example).
2.19 SUPERHEATER
A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into superheated steam
or dry steam. Superheaters are used in steam engines or in processes, such as steam
reforming. There are three types of superheaters: radiant, convection, and separately fired. A
superheater can vary in size from a few tens of feet to several hundred feet (a few metres to
some hundred metres).

17

Fig. 2.8 Superheater

2.20 ECONOMISER
Economizers (US and Oxford spelling), or economisers (UK), are mechanical devices
intended to reduce energy consumption, or to perform useful function such as preheating a
fluid. The term economizer is used for other purposes as well. Boiler, power plant, heating,
Refrigeration, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) uses are discussed in this article. In
simple terms, an economizer is a heat exchanger.

Fig. 2.9 Economiser

2.21 EVAPORATOR
An evaporator is used in an air-conditioning system to allow a compressed cooling chemical,
such as R-22 (Freon) or R-410A, to evaporate from liquid to gas while absorbing heat in the
process. It can also be used to remove water or other liquids from mixtures. The process of
evaporation is widely used to concentrate foods and chemicals as well as salvage solvents. In
the concentration process, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a
solution which contains the desired product. In the case of desalination of sea water or in
18

Zero Liquid Discharge plants, the reverse purpose applies; evaporation removes the desirable
drinking water from the undesired product, salt.

Fig. 2.10 Evaporator

2.22 DEAERATOR
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of oxygen and other dissolved
gases from the feedwater to steam-generating boilers. In particular, dissolved oxygen in
boiler feedwaters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to the
walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). Dissolved
carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid that causes further corrosion. Most
deaerators are designed to remove oxygen down to levels of 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm/L)
or less as well as essentially eliminating carbon dioxide.

Fig. 2.11 Deaerator

19

2.23 BOILER FEED PUMP

A boiler feedwater pump is a specific type of pump used to pump feedwater into a steam
boiler. The water may be freshly supplied or returning condensate produced as a result of the
condensation of the steam produced by the boiler. These pumps are normally high pressure
units that take suction from a condensate return system and can be of the centrifugal pump
type or positive displacement type.

Fig. 2.12 Boiler Feed Pump

2.24 R O PLANT
A reverse osmosis plant is a manufacturing plant where the process of reverse osmosis takes
place. An average modern reverse osmosis plant needs six kilowatt-hours of electricity to
desalinate one cubic metre of water. The process also results in an amount of salty briny
waste. The challenge for these plants is to find ways to reduce energy consumption, use
sustainable energy sources, improve the process of desalination and to innovate in the area of
waste management to deal with the waste. Self-contained water treatment plants using
reverse osmosis, called reverse osmosis water purification units, are normally used in a
military context.

Fig. 2.13 R.O. Plant

20

CHAPTER-3
STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was
invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.

Fig. 3.1 Steam Turbine

Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to
drive an electrical generator about 90% of all electricity generation in the United States
(1996) is by use of steam turbines.[2] The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives
much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the
expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion
process.

3.1 TYPES
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <0.75 kW (<1 hp)
units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven
equipment, to 1 500 000 kW (1.5 GW; 2 000 000 hp) turbines used to generate electricity.
There are several classifications for modern steam turbines.
3.2 BLADE AND STAGE DESIGN
Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due
to the impact of steam on them and their profiles do not converge. This results in a steam
velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine
21

composed of blades alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine,
Rateau turbine, or Brown-Curtis turbine. Nozzles appear similar to blades, but their profiles
converge near the exit. This results in a steam pressure drop and velocity increase as steam
moves through the nozzles. Nozzles move due to both the impact of steam on them and the
reaction due to the high-velocity steam at the exit. A turbine composed of moving nozzles
alternating with fixed nozzles is called a reaction turbine or Parsons turbine.

Fig. 3.2 Blade And Stage Design

Except for low-power applications, turbine blades are arranged in multiple stages in
series, called compounding, which greatly improves efficiency at low speeds. A reaction stage
is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving nozzles. Multiple reaction stages
divide the pressure drop between the steam inlet and exhaust into numerous small drops,
resulting in a pressure-compounded turbine. Impulse stages may be either pressurecompounded, velocity-compounded, or pressure-velocity compounded. A pressurecompounded impulse stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving blades,
with multiple stages for compounding. This is also known as a Rateau turbine, after its
inventor. A velocity-compounded impulse stage (invented by Curtis and also called a "Curtis
wheel") is a row of fixed nozzles followed by two or more rows of moving blades alternating
with rows of fixed blades. This divides the velocity drop across the stage into several smaller
22

drops. A series of velocity-compounded impulse stages is called a pressure-velocity

compounded turbine.
By 1905, when steam turbines were coming into use on fast ships (such as HMS
Dreadnought (1906)) and in land-based power applications, it had been determined that it was
desirable to use one or more Curtis wheels at the beginning of a multi-stage turbine (where
the steam pressure is highest), followed by reaction stages. This was more efficient with highpressure steam due to reduced leakage between the turbine rotor and the casing. This is
illustrated in the drawing of the German 1905 AEG marine steam turbine. The steam from the
boilers enters from the right at high pressure through a throttle, controlled manually by an
operator (in this case a sailor known as the throttleman). It passes through five Curtis wheels
and numerous reaction stages (the small blades at the edges of the two large rotors in the
middle) before exiting at low pressure, almost certainly to a condenser. The condenser
provides a vacuum that maximizes the energy extracted from the steam, and condenses the
steam into feedwater to be returned to the boilers. On the left are several additional reaction
stages (on two large rotors) that rotate the turbine in reverse for astern operation, with steam
admitted by a separate throttle. Since ships are rarely operated in reverse, efficiency is not a
priority in astern turbines, so only a few stages are used to save cost.
3.3 STEAM SUPPLY AND EXHAUST CONDITIONS
These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and induction.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines
exhaust steam from a boiler in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at
a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.

Fig. 3.3 Steam Supply

23

Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam
applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the
process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp
and paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process
steam are needed.
3.4 CASING OR SHAFT ARRANGEMENTS
These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross compound
turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are
coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly
coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features
two or more shafts not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at different
speeds. A cross compound turbine is typically used for many large applications.
3.5 TWO-FLOW ROTORS
The steam enters in the middle of the shaft, and exits at each end, balancing the axial
force.

Fig. 3.4 Two-Flow Rotors

The moving steam imparts both a tangential and axial thrust on the turbine shaft, but
the axial thrust in a simple turbine is unopposed. To maintain the correct rotor position and
balancing, this force must be counteracted by an opposing force. Thrust bearings can be used
for the shaft bearings, the rotor can use dummy pistons, it can be double flow- the steam
enters in the middle of the shaft and exits at both ends, or a combination of any of these. In a
double flow rotor, the blades in each half face opposite ways, so that the axial forces negate
each other but the tangential forces act together. This design of rotor is also called called two-

24

flow, double-axial-flow, or double-exhaust. This arrangement is common in low-pressure

casings of a compound turbine.
3.6 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND DESIGN
An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy
process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the
steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, with typical
isentropic efficiencies ranging from 2090% based on the application of the turbine. The
interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades or buckets. One set of stationary blades
is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets
intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to
efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
3.7 TURBINE EFFICIENCY
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of
stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are
known as either impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a mixture of the
reaction and impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall
turbine uses both. Typically, higher pressure sections are reaction type and lower pressure
stages are impulse type.
3.8 IMPULSE TURBINES
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets.
These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which is converted into shaft rotation by the
bucket-like shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs
across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the
steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure
(atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of
expansion of steam, the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving
the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the
nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the carry over
velocity or leaving loss.

25

Fig. 3.5 Impulse Turbines

The law of moment of momentum states that the sum of the moments of external
forces acting on a fluid which is temporarily occupying the control volume is equal to the net
time change of angular momentum flux through the control volume.
3.9 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Because of the high pressures used in the steam circuits and the materials used, steam
turbines and their casings have high thermal inertia. When warming up a steam turbine for
use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated
steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the
steam turbine. Also, a turning gear is engaged when there is no steam to slowly rotate the
turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by
the turning gear, allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the
turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then
to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 1015 RPM (0.170.25 Hz) to slowly warm
the turbine. The warm up procedure for large steam turbines may exceed ten hours.

Fig. 3.6 Operation And Maintenance

Maintenance requirements of modern steam turbines are simple and incur low costs
(typically around $0.005 per kWh); their operational life often exceeds 50 years.
26

3.10 SPEED REGULATION

The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up
slowly to prevent damage and some applications (such as the generation of alternating current
electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can
lead to an overspeed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the
turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart,
often catastrophically. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and
special quality materials.

Fig. 3.7 Speed Regulation

During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power plants
are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load speed is 100%
and the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the stable operation of the network
without hunting and drop-outs of power plants. Normally the changes in speed are minor.
Adjustments in power output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the
spring pressure on a centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all
power plants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to the
instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside communication.
3.11 TESTING
British, German, other national and international test codes are used to standardize the
procedures and definitions used to test steam turbines. Selection of the test code to be used is
27

an agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, and has some significance to the
design of the turbine and associated systems. In the United States, ASME has produced
several performance test codes on steam turbines. These include ASME PTC 6-2004, Steam
Turbines, ASME PTC 6.2-2011, Steam Turbines in Combined Cycles, PTC 6S-1988,
Procedures for Routine Performance Test of Steam Turbines. These ASME performance test
codes have gained international recognition and acceptance for testing steam turbines. The
single most important and differentiating characteristic of ASME performance test codes,
including PTC 6, is that the test uncertainty of the measurement indicates the quality of the
test and is not to be used as a commercial tolerance.
3.12 ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE INCLUDE:

Ability to utilise high pressure and high temperatures

High efficiency.
High rotational speed
High capacity/weight ratio.
Smooth operation.
No internal lubrication.
Oil free exhaust system
Can be built in small or very large units ( upto to 1200 MW)

3.13 DISADVANTAGES INCLUDE:

For low speed application reduction gears are required.

Steam turbine cannot be made reversible.
Efficiency of small steam turbine is poor.

28

CONCLUSION
Steam quality is a measurement of the amount of water entrained in the steam. It
depends not on the efficiency of the boiler but on the ability of the steam to separate from
boiling water, without carrying liquid water particles with it throughout the entire range of
boiler operations. Video camera studies of internal boiler operation indicate the following
operating recommendations for preventing poor quality steam:
Fuel availability affects the type of cogeneration system selected. The nature of the
industry choosing to cogenerate will often determine the fuel type, and thereby the
cogeneration system. Pollution concerns must be considered as well. States are beginning to
heavily regulate industrial emissions. Clean burning fuels, either natural gas or light grade
fuel oils, will often be required in these states. Cogeneration systems which most effectively
utilize these fuels will probably prove to be the most economically attractive.

29

REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Engineering Thermodynamics by R.K. Rajput.

Engineering Thermodynamics by P.K. Naag.
Technical Papers, Boiler Congress-2000 Seminar, 11 & 12 January 2000.
Steam Generation, Distribution and Utilisation by TERI, GTZ and EMC.
Efficient Operation of Boilers by National Productivity Council.
Heat and Mass Transfer by P.K. Naag.

30