Anatomy and Physiology

Lecture 3.1

 Since biomedical engineering is an

interdisciplinary field based in both engineering
and the life sciences, it is important for
biomedical engineers to have knowledge about
and be able to communicate in both areas.
Biomedical engineers must understand the basic
components of the body and how they function
well enough to exchange ideas and information
with physicians and life scientists.

 Two of the most basic terms and areas of

study in the life sciences are anatomy and
physiology.
Anatomy ?
Physiology ?

 Anatomy refers to the internal and external

structures of the body and their physical
relationships
Whereas physiology refers to the study of the
functions of those structures.

bodies in anatomical positions

 In clinical practice, directional terms are used to describe

the relative positions of various parts of the body.
Proximal parts are nearer to the trunk of the body or to
the attached end of a limb than are distal parts
Superior: Parts of the body that are located closer to the
head than other parts when
the body is in anatomical position.
Inferior: Those located closer to the feet than other
parts.
Medial implies that a part is toward the midline of the
body.
lateral means away from the midline.

the cranial direction : Parts of the body that lie in the

direction of the head.
the caudal direction: those parts that lie in the direction
of the feet.
Anatomical locations can also be described in terms of
planes.
the midsaggital plane: The plane that divides the body
into two symmetric halves along its midline.
sagittal planes: Planes that are parallel to the
midsaggital plane but do not divide the body into
symmetric halves.
transverse planes: Planes that cut across the body and
are perpendicular to the midsaggital and frontal planes.

Human bodies are divided into two main

regions: axial and appendicular.
The axial part consists of the head, neck,
thorax (chest), abdomen, and pelvis.
The appendicular part consists of the upper
and lower extremities. The upper extremities,
or limbs, include the shoulders, upper arms,
forearms, wrists, and hands, while the lower
extremities include the hips, thighs, lower
legs, ankles, and feet. The abdominal region
can be further divided into nine regions or
four quadrants

 Correct use of these terms is vital for

biomedical engineers to communicate with
health care professionals and to understand
the medical problem of concern or interest.

CELL ?

CELL

 Cell is the the smallest anatomical and

physiological unit in the human body that can,
under appropriate conditions, live and
reproduce on its own.

 The most common elements found in humans:

?

 The most common elements found in humans

(in descending order based on percent of body
weight) are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium,
chlorine, magnesium, sulfur, iron, and iodine.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
contribute more than 99 percent of all the
atoms in the body.

Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane performs several functions
for the cell. It gives mechanical strength, provides
structure, helps with movement, and controls the
cells volume and its activities by regulating the
movement of chemicals in and out of the cell.

 Osmosis is the process by which substances

move across a selectively permeable
membrane such as a cells plasma membrane,
whereas diffusion refers to the movement of
molecules from an area of relatively high
concentration to an area of relatively low
concentration.

 Diffusion equilibrium: The concentration of the

substance inside the cell equals the
concentration of the substance outside of the
cell.
Osmolarity is defined in terms of concentration
of dissolved substances.
A 1 osmolar (1 Osm) solution contains 1 mole of
dissolved particles per liter of solution, while a
1 milliosmolar (1 mOsm) solution has 1 mole of
dissolved particles per 1,000 liters of solution.

 The cytoplasm contains fluid (cytosol) and

organelles.
The nucleus consists of the nuclear envelope
(a double membrane) and the nucleoplasm (a
fluid that contains ions, enzymes, nucleotides,
proteins, DNA, and small amounts of RNA).
The nucleus contains DNA ?
Ribosomes ?

 Molecular biology; the branch of biology that

study gene structure and function at the
molecular level.
Genome is the totality of genetic information
of an organism. It is encoded in the DNA (for
some viruses, RNA)

DNA and Gene Expression

DNA is found in the nucleus and mitochondria of
eukaryotic cells.
In organisms that reproduce sexually, the DNA in
the nucleus contains information from both
parents, while that in the mitochondria comes
from the organisms mother.

 In the nucleus, the DNA is wrapped around

protein spools, called nucleosomes, and is
organized into pairs of chromosomes.

If the DNA from all 46 chromosomes in a human

somatic cellthat is, any cell that does not become
an egg or sperm cellwas stretched out end to end,
it would be about 2 nm wide and 2 m long.

 Each chromosome contains thousands of

individual genes that are the units of information
about heritable traits.
Each gene has a particular location in a specific
chromosome and contains the code for producing
one of the three forms of RNA (ribosomal RNA,
messenger RNA,and transfer RNA).
The Human Genome Project ?

 The Human Genome Project was begun in

1990 and had as its goal to first identify the
location of at least 3,000 specific human
genes and then to determine the sequence of
nucleotides (about 3 billion!) in a complete set
of haploid human chromosomes (one
chromosome from each of the 23 pairs).

The Genome Size

Human Genome

Species/ Number of
Chromosomes
Species

Number of chromosomes

Human

46

Mouse

40

Rat

42

Fruit flies

Bacteria

General Structure of Nucleic

Acid
DNA and RNA are
long chain polymers
of small chemical
compound called
nucleotides.

Nucleotides
Nucleotides; ring shaped structures composed of:
Nitrogenous base; these bases are classified based
on their chemical structures into two groups:
Purine; double ringed structure (Adenine and Guanine).
Pyrimidine; single ring structures (cytosine and thymine).

Sugar
Phosphate group

Nucleotides
DNA: Four different types of nucleotides
differ in nitrogenous base:

A is for adenine;

G is for guanine;

C is for cytosine and

T is for thymine.

RNA: thymine base replaced by uracil base.

The DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA); the genetic

material of all cellular organisms and most viruses.
DNA; the gigantic molecule which is used to
encode genetic information for all life on Earth.
A human cell contains about 2 meters of DNA.
DNA in the body could stretch to the sun and back
almost 100 times. So it is tightly packed.
DNA responsible for preserving, copying and
transmitting information within cells and from
generation to generation.

DNA Double Helix

The Gene

The gene; it is a segment within a very long strand

of DNA.
Genes are the basic units of hereditary.
Genes located on chromosome on its place or
locus.
Allele; a variant of the DNA sequence at a given
locus. Each allele inherited from a different parent.
In humans, genes constitute only about 2-3% of
DNA, the rest is junk DNA.

The Gene

Gene Structure
Most of the genes consist of; short coding
sequences or exons are interrupted by a longer
intervening noncoding sequence or introns;
although a few genes in the human genome
have no introns.

The RNA

Three major classes of RNA: messenger

(mRNA), transfer (tRNA) and ribosomal
(rRNA). Minor classes of RNA include small
nuclear RNA; small nucleolar RNA;.

RNA is a single stranded; the pyrimidine base

uracil (U) replaces thymine and ribose sugar
replaces deoxyribose.

Messenger RNA/ mRNA

Transcripts of structural genes.
Encode all the information necessary for the
synthesis of a polypeptide of protein.
Intermediate carrier of genetic information;
deliver genetic information to the cytoplasm.

Transfer RNA/ tRNA

tRNA carry correct amino acids to their
position along the mRNA template to be added
to the growing polypeptide chain.

The central dogma

DNA

RNA
Transcription

protein
Translation

The expression of genetic information stored in DNA

involves, first transcription into RNA and then
translation into the functional protein molecules, in
which the amino acid sequence is determined by the
nucleotide sequence of the DNA.

The central dogma

Ribosomal RNA/ rRNA

The central component of the ribosome.
Ribosome; factory for protein synthesis;
composed of ribosomal RNA and ribosomal
proteins (known as a Ribonucleoproteinor
RNP).
rRNA provides a mechanism for decoding
mRNA into amino acids.

Gene Expression
Transcription

RNA polymerase makes a copy of information in

the gene (complementary RNA) complementary
to one strands of DNA.
Translation
Occurs on ribosomes, messenger RNA decoded or
translated to determine the sequence of amino acid in
the protein being synthesized.

Gene Expression
Transcription

RNA polymerase makes a copy of information in

the gene (complementary RNA) complementary
to one strands of DNA.
Translation
Occurs on ribosomes, messenger RNA decoded or
translated to determine the sequence of amino acid in
the protein being synthesized.

From DNA to Protein

Ribosomes and Protein

Ribosome is a factory for protein synthesis.

Proteins are chain like polymers of a few or

many thousands of amino acids.
Proteins are the main functional chemicals in
the cell, carrying out many functions, for
example catalysis of the reactions involved in
metabolism.
Amino acids: (3-nucleotide RNA sequences)
(codon).

Gene expression in various cell types

1. Same genomic DNA
2. How then do different cells maintain very
different characteristics?
3. Genes are expressed in the cells.
4. Gene expression controls distinct identities of
cells via functional protein molecules.

notes
1*same genomic DNA: All cells in your body have the same
genomic DNA (up to a very small mutational error), ie. the
sequences of nucleotides within the chromosomes are
identical.
2*
3*The answer is that not all of the genes in the genome are
being transcribed and translated into proteins in every cell.
We say that genes which are transcribed & translated are
expressed in the cells.
4*

Videos
DNA
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rromYAt1Lfw&feature=
related
DNA 101
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOvMNOMRRm8&feat
ure=related
DNA 18 things :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bVk0twJYL6Y&feature=
related
Visualize DNA:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4PKjF7OumYo
DNA intro 28 mins lecture :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_-vZ_g7K6P0

Videos
DNA videos home:
http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/
Cell all 8 mins:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GigxU1UXZX
o&feature=related
DNA microarrays:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNsThMNjKh
M
microarrays:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ePFE7yg7Lv
M&feature=related

TISSUES ?

TISSUES:

 Replacing organs or tissues with lab-made

counterparts; engineered kidneys, livers and
hearts. Science fiction? Not any more -scientists are already successfully growing all
kinds of organs and tissues in the lab.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ofiLcTs7_Y
s
(2008)

 Organs ?

Organs systems ?

The human body has ? major organ systems

notes
Combinations of tissues that perform complex tasks are called
organs, and organs that function together form organ systems.
The human body has 11 major organ systems: integumentary,
endocrine, lymphatic, digestive, urinary, reproductive, circulatory,
respiratory, nervous, skeletal, and muscular.

 Circulatory System ?

 Circulatory System: The circulatory system

(Figure 3.17) delivers nutrients and hormones
throughout the body, removes waste products
from tissues, and provides a mechanism for
regulating temperature and removing the heat
generated by the metabolic activities of the
bodys internal organs.

Using Artificial Organs to Make a

Working Circulatory System
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=crGa0XDb
SBQ