Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Digital Representation of Information
Why Digital Communications?
Digital Representation of Analog Signals
Characterization of Communication Channels
Fundamental Limits in Digital Transmission
Line Coding
Modems and Digital Modulation
Properties of Media and Digital Transmission Systems
Error Detection and Correction
Digital Networks
z
Telephone
Questions of Interest
z
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Digital Representation of
Information
Text message
Data file
JPEG image
MPEG file
Stream
z Information that is
produced & transmitted
continuously
z
z
Real-time voice
Streaming video
Transmission Delay
z
z
z
z
z
z
L
R bps
L/R
tprop
d
c
Compression
z
z
Compression Ratio
#bits (original file) / #bits (compressed file)
Color Image
W
H
Color
image = H
Red
component
image
Green
component
image
Blue
component
image
+ H
+ H
Method
Format
Original
Compressed
(Ratio)
Text
Zip,
compress
ASCII
KbytesMbytes
(2-6)
Fax
CCITT
Group 3
A4 page
200x100
pixels/in2
256
kbytes
5-54 kbytes
(5-50)
JPEG
38.4
Mbytes
1-8 Mbytes
(5-30)
Color
Image
Stream Information
z
Th e s p ee ch s
g n al l e
v el
v a r ie s w i th
m(e)
Sample value
3 bits / sample
7/2
5/2
3/2
/2
Approximation
/2
3/2
5/2
7/2
CD Audio
z Ws = 22 kHertz 44000
samples/sec
z 16 bits/sample
z Rs=16 x 44000= 704 kbps
per audio channel
z MP3 uses more powerful
compression algorithms:
50 kbps per audio
channel
Video Signal
z
Frame resolution
z
z
z
30 fps
Video Frames
176
QCIF videoconferencing
at 30 frames/sec =
144
760,000 pixels/sec
720
Broadcast TV
480
at 30 frames/sec =
10.4 x 106 pixels/sec
1920
HDTV
at 30 frames/sec =
1080
67 x 106 pixels/sec
Method
Format
H.261
Original Compressed
176x144 or
352x288 pix
@10-30
fr/sec
MPEG 720x480 pix
2
@30 fr/sec
2-36
Mbps
64-1544
kbps
249
Mbps
2-6 Mbps
MPEG
2
1.6
Gbps
19-38 Mbps
1920x1080
@30 fr/sec
Transmission of Stream
Information
z
Constant bit-rate
z
z
Variable bit-rate
z
Chapter 3
Communication
Networks and Services
Why Digital Communications?
A Transmission System
Transmitter
Receiver
Communication channel
Transmitter
z Converts information into signal suitable for transmission
z Injects energy into communications medium or channel
z
z
Receiver
z Receives energy from medium
z Converts received signal into form suitable for delivery to user
z
z
Transmission Impairments
Transmitted
Signal
Received
Signal Receiver
Transmitter
Communication channel
Communication Channel
z Pair of copper wires
z Coaxial cable
z Radio
z Light in optical fiber
z Light in air
z Infrared
Transmission Impairments
z Signal attenuation
z Signal distortion
z Spurious noise
z Interference from other
signals
Analog Long-Distance
Communications
Transmission segment
Source
z
z
z
z
z
...
Repeater
Destination
Repeater
Distortion
Attenuation Received
Distortion
Attenuation
Received
Simple Receiver:
Was original
pulse positive or
negative?
Digital Long-Distance
Communications
Transmission segment
Source
z
z
z
z
z
z
Regenerator
...
Regenerator
Destination
+A
0
-A
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
Bandwidth of a Channel
X(t) = a cos(2ft)
z
z
Channel
Bandwidth Wc is range of
frequencies passed by channel
A(f)
Wc
Ideal low-pass
channel
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Signal
Signal + noise
Noise
High
SNR
t
No errors
Noise
Signal
Signal + noise
Low
SNR
t
SNR =
error
Example
z
Bit Rate
Observations
Telephone
twisted pair
33.6-56 kbps
Ethernet
twisted pair
ADSL twisted
pair
28 GHz radio
1.5-45 Mbps
5 km multipoint radio
Optical fiber
2.5-10 Gbps
1 wavelength
Optical fiber
>1600 Gbps
Many wavelengths
Examples of Channels
Channel
Telephone
voice channel
Copper pair
Coaxial cable
5 GHz radio
(IEEE 802.11)
Optical fiber
Bandwidth
Bit Rates
3 kHz
33 kbps
1 MHz
1-6 Mbps
500 MHz
(6 MHz channels)
300 MHz
(11 channels)
Many TeraHertz
30 Mbps/
channel
54 Mbps /
channel
40 Gbps /
wavelength
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Digital Representation of
Analog Signals
1.
2.
z
z
3.
z
z
z
x1(t)
10 10 1 0 1 0
...
x2(t)
11 1 1 0 000
...
...
...
t
1 ms
z
z
1 ms
Periodic Signals
z
DC
long-term
average
a2cos(22f0t + 2) +
+ akcos(2kf0t + k) +
fundamental
frequency f0=1/T
first harmonic
kth harmonic
10 10 1 0 1 0
...
x2(t)
11 1 1 0 000
...
...
...
T1 = 1 ms
T2 =0.25 ms
x1(t) = 0 +
cos(24000t)
4
cos(23(4000)t)
3
4
+
cos(25(4000)t) +
5
+
x2(t) = 0 +
cos(21000t)
4
cos(23(1000)t)
3
4
+
cos(25(1000)t) +
5
+
30
33
36
39
42
30
33
36
39
42
27
24
21
18
15
12
frequency (kHz)
Spectrum of x2(t)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
27
24
21
18
15
12
1.2
Spectrum of a signal:
magnitude of amplitudes as
a function of frequency
x1(t) varies faster in time &
has more high frequency
content than x2(t)
Bandwidth Ws is defined as
range of frequencies where
a signal has non-negligible
power, e.g. range of band
that contains 99% of total
signal power
Spectrum of x1(t)
frequency (kHz)
z
z
(noisy )
|p
(air stopped)
| ee
(periodic)
| t (stopped) | sh
(noisy)
X(f)
f
0
Ws
Sampling Theorem
Nyquist: Perfect reconstruction if sampling rate 1/T > 2Ws
(a)
x(t)
x(nT)
t
Sampler
(b)
x(nT)
x(t)
t
Interpolation
filter
2W samples / sec
Analog
source
Sampling
(A/D)
Quantization
Original x(t)
Bandwidth W
2W m bits/sec
Transmission
or storage
Approximation y(t)
Display
or
playout
Interpolation
filter
Pulse
generator
2W samples / sec
3.5
output y(nT)
2.5
1.5
4 3 2
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
input x(nT)
Quantization error:
noise = x(nT) y(nT)
3.5
3 bits / sample
Original signal
Sample value
7/2
5/2
3/2
/2
-/2
-3/2
-5/2
-7/2
Approximation
Quantizer Performance
M = 2m levels,
...
-V
input
...
x(nT)
e =
2
x2
2
dx =
12
1
Quantizer Performance
Figure of Merit:
Signal-to-Noise Ratio = Avg signal power / Avg noise power
Let x2 be the signal power, then
SNR =
x2
2
12
x
=
2/12 4V2/M2
= 3(
x
V
)2
M2
= 3(
SNR db = 6m - 7.27 dB
for V/x = 4.
x
V
)2 22m
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Characterization of
Communication Channels
Communications Channels
z
z
z
Communications Channel
Transmitter Transmitted
Received
Receiver
Signal
Signal
Communication channel
Signal Bandwidth
z In order to transfer data
faster, a signal has to vary
more quickly.
Channel Bandwidth
z A channel or medium has
an inherent limit on how fast
the signals it passes can
vary
z Limits how tightly input
pulses can be packed
Transmission Impairments
z Signal attenuation
z Signal distortion
z Spurious noise
z Interference from other
signals
z Limits accuracy of
measurements on received
signal
t
A(f) =
z
z
z
Aout
Ain
Amplitude Response
(f) = -2ft
1
0
Wc
1/ 2
f
Phase Response
(f) =
tan-1 2f
1
(1+42f2)1/2
0
-45o
-90o
1/ 2
f
Wc
z
Channel Distortion
x(t) =
z
z
ak cos (2fkt + k)
Channel
y(t)
1 0
0 0
...
0 0
1
...
1 ms
Let x(t) input to ideal lowpassfilter that has zero delay and
Wc = 1.5 kHz, 2.5 kHz, or 4.5 kHz
sin( )cos(21000t)
4
4
4
+
sin( 2 )cos(22000t) +
sin(3 )cos(23000t) +
4
4
x(t) = -0.5 +
z
z
z
Amplitude Distortion
0.625
0.75
0.875
0.625
0.75
0.875
0.75
0.875
0.5
0.375
0.25
0.125
0.5
0.375
0.25
(b) 2 Harmonics
0.625
0.5
0.375
0.25
0.125
(c) 4 Harmonics
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0.125
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
(a) 1 Harmonic
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
As the channel
bandwidth
increases, the
output of the
channel
resembles the
input more
closely
Time-domain Characterization
h(t)
Channel
0
td
-6T
-5T
-4T
-3T
-2T
T
-1-0.2
0
t
1T
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
7T
-0.4
z
z
+s(t)
1
+s(t-T)
0
-2 T
-1T
1T
-1
r(t)
2T
3T
4T
-s(t-2T)
2
1
0
-2T
-1T
0
-1
-2
1T
2T
3T
4T
A(f)
sin(t/T) cos(t/T)
t/T 1 (2t/T)2
(1 )Wc Wc
(1 + )Wc f
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Fundamental Limits in Digital
Transmission
z
z
2T
3T
4T
+A
-A
Transmitter
Filter
5T
Communication
Medium
Receiver
Filter
r(t)
Receiver
Received signal
Multilevel Signaling
z
Composite waveform
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-1
+A
+5A/7
+A/3
+3A/7
+A/7
-A/7
-A/3
-3A/7
Typical noise
-5A/7
-A
-A
Four signal levels
Noise distribution
z
z
z
x0
Pr[X(t)>x0 ] = ?
1
2
Pr[X(t)>x0 ] =
Area under
graph
x 2 2 2
x0
Probability of Error
z
z
z
Pr[X(t)> ]
1.00E+00
1.00E-01
1.00E-02
1.00E-03
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
1.00E-07
1.00E-08
1.00E-09
1.00E-10
1.00E-11
1.00E-12
8
/2
signal
noise
noise
signal + noise
virtually error-free
signal + noise
Low
SNR
error-prone
SNR =
Example
z
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Line Coding
z
z
1.2
NRZ
Bipolar
0.8
0.6
0.4
Manchester
0.2
fT
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
-0.2
0.2
0
0
pow er density
1.8
Unipolar NRZ
Polar NRZ
Unipolar NRZ
z
z
z
1 maps to +A pulse
0 maps to no pulse
High Average Power
0.5*A2 +0.5*02=A2/2
Long strings of A or 0
z Poor timing
z Low-frequency content
Simple
Polar NRZ
z
z
z
0.5*(A/2)2 +0.5*(-A/2)2=A2/4
z
Poor timing
Low-frequency content
Simple
Bipolar Code
1
Bipolar
Encoding
z
z
z
z
z
Manchester
Encoding
z
z
z
Simple to implement
Used in 10-Mbps Ethernet &
other LAN standards
z
z
z
z
z
z
Differential Coding
1
NRZ-inverted
(differential
encoding)
Differential
Manchester
encoding
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Modems and Digital
Modulation
Bandpass Channels
0
z
z
z
fc + Wc/2
fc Wc/2 fc
+1
Amplitude
Shift
Keying
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
-1
+1
Frequency
Shift
Keying
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
-1
Phase Modulation
Information
Phase
Shift
Keying
+1
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
-1
z
, i.e. phase is 0
, i.e. phase is
Ak
Yi(t) = Ak cos(2fct)
cos(2fct)
Transmitted signal
during kth interval
x
2cos(2fct)
Lowpass
Filter
(Smoother)
Xi(t)
Example of Modulation
1
Information
Baseband
Signal
+A
-A
Modulated
Signal
x(t)
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
+A
-A
A cos(2ft)
-A cos(2ft)
Example of Demodulation
A {1 + cos(4ft)} -A {1 + cos(4ft)}
After multiplication
at receiver
x(t) cos(2fct)
Baseband
signal discernable
after smoothing
Recovered
Information
+A
-A
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
+A
-A
If
Baseband signal x(t)
with bandwidth B Hz
then
B
Modulated signal
x(t)cos(2fct) has
bandwidth 2B Hz
f
fc-B
fc
fc+B
Yi(t) = Ak cos(2fct)
cos(2fct)
Bk
+
Yq(t) = Bk sin(2fct)
Y(t)
Transmitted
Signal
sin(2fct)
z
z
QAM Demodulation
Y(t)
x
2cos(2fct)
x
2sin(2fct)
Lowpass
filter
(smoother)
Ak
2cos2(2fct)+2Bk cos(2fct)sin(2fct)
= Ak {1 + cos(4fct)}+Bk {0 + sin(4fct)}
Lowpass
filter
(smoother)
smoothed to zero
Bk
Signal Constellations
z
z
Bk
(-A,A)
(A, A)
Ak
(-A,-A)
Ak
(A,-A)
Bk
Bk
Ak
Ak
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Properties of Media and Digital
Transmission Systems
Fundamental Issues in
Transmission Media
d meters
Communication channel
t=0
z
t = d/c
104
102
10
Gamma rays
X-rays
108
Optical
fiber
Ultraviolet light
Power and
telephone
Frequency (Hz)
Visible light
106
102 104
106
WiFi
Cell
phone
Infrared light
DSL
Microwave
radio
Analog
telephone
Broadcast
radio
Wired Media
z Signal energy contained &
guided within medium
z Spectrum can be re-used in
separate media (wires or
cables), more scalable
z Extremely high bandwidth
z Complex infrastructure:
ducts, conduits, poles, rightof-way
Attenuation
z
z
z
Twisted Pair
26 gauge
24 gauge
30
Attenuation (dB/mi)
Twisted pair
z Two insulated copper wires
arranged in a regular spiral
pattern to minimize
interference
z Various thicknesses, e.g.
0.016 inch (24 gauge)
z Low cost
z Telephone subscriber loop
from customer to CO
z Old trunk plant connecting
telephone COs
z Intra-building telephone
from wiring closet to
desktop
z In old installations, loading
coils added to improve
quality in 3 kHz band, but
more attenuation at higher
frequencies
24
22 gauge
18
19 gauge
12
6
f (kHz)
10
Lower
attenuation rate
analog telephone
100
1000
Higher
attenuation rate
for DSL
Standard
Data Rate
Distance
T-1
1.544 Mbps
DS2
6.312 Mbps
1/4 STS-1
1/2 STS-1
12.960
Mbps
25.920
Mbps
z
z
STS-1
51.840
Mbps
Ethernet LANs
z
z
z z z z z z
z
z
Coaxial Cable
35
0.7/2.9 mm
30
Attenuation (dB/km)
Twisted pair
z Cylindrical braided outer
conductor surrounds
insulated inner wire
conductor
z High interference immunity
z Higher bandwidth than
twisted pair
z Hundreds of MHz
z Cable TV distribution
z Long distance telephone
transmission
z Original Ethernet LAN
medium
1.2/4.4 mm
25
20
15
10
2.6/9.5 mm
5
0.1
1.0
10
100
f (MHz)
Upstream
750
MHz
550 MHz
500 MHz
54 MHz
42 MHz
5 MHz
Downstream
Head
end
Upstream fiber
Fiber
node
Fiber
Downstream fiber
Coaxial
distribution
plant
= Bidirectional
split-band
amplifier
Fiber
node
Fiber
Optical Fiber
Electrical
signal
Modulator
Optical fiber
Receiver
Electrical
signal
Optical
source
z
Cladding
Jacket
Core
Total Internal Reflection in optical fiber
z
z
z
Rays on different paths interfere causing dispersion & limiting bit rate
Single mode: Very thin core supports only one mode (path)
z
Disadvantages
z New types of optical signal
impairments & dispersion
z Polarization dependence
z Wavelength dependence
z Limited bend radius
z If physical arc of cable
too high, light lost or
wont reflect
z Will break
z Difficult to splice
z Mechanical vibration
becomes signal noise
50
Loss (dB/km)
10
5
Infrared absorption
1
0.5
Rayleigh scattering
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.8
850 nm
Low-cost LEDs
LANs
1.0
1.2
1.4
1300 nm
Metropolitan Area
Networks
Short Haul
1.6
1.8
Wavelength (m)
1550 nm
Long Distance Networks
Long Haul
v
1 +
v
/ 1
12
1 + / 1
Example: 1 = 1450 nm
1 + =1650 nm:
2(108)m/s 200nm
B=
19 THz
(1450 nm)2
100
50
10
Loss (dB/km)
5
1
0.5
0.1
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
z
z
z
z
1 2 .
optical
mux
optical
fiber
optical
demux
1560
1550
1540
Coarse WDM
z Few wavelengths 4-8
with very wide spacing
z Low-cost, simple
Dense WDM
z Many tightly-packed
wavelengths
z ITU Grid: 0.8 nm
separation for 10Gbps
signals
z 0.4 nm for 2.5 Gbps
z
z
z
R
R
Regenerator
z
z
z
DWDM
multiplexer
Optical Amplifiers
z
z
OA
Optical
amplifier
OA
OA
OA
Radio Transmission
z
z
z
z
Radio Spectrum
Frequency (Hz)
104
105
106
108
107
109
1011
1010
1012
FM radio and TV
Wireless cable
AM radio
Cellular
and PCS
MF
103
HF
102
VHF
101
UHF
1
SHF
10-1
EHF
10-2
10-3
Wavelength (meters)
Omni-directional applications
Point-to-Point applications
Examples
Cellular Phone
z Allocated spectrum
z First generation:
z 800, 900 MHz
z Initially analog voice
z Second generation:
z 1800-1900 MHz
z Digital voice, messaging
Wireless LAN
z Unlicenced ISM spectrum
z Industrial, Scientific, Medical
z 902-928 MHz, 2.400-2.4835
GHz, 5.725-5.850 GHz
z IEEE 802.11 LAN standard
z 11-54 Mbps
Point-to-Multipoint Systems
z Directional antennas at
microwave frequencies
z High-speed digital
communications between sites
z High-speed Internet Access
Radio backbone links for rural
areas
Satellite Communications
z Geostationary satellite @ 36000
km above equator
z Relays microwave signals from
uplink frequency to downlink
frequency
z Long distance telephone
z Satellite TV broadcast
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Error Detection and Correction
Error Control
z
z
z
z
z
Key Idea
z
z
z
z
User
Encoder
information
Channel
Channel
output
Pattern
checking
Deliver user
information or
set error alarm
z
z
b3+ + bk modulo 2
z
z
z
z
# of 1s =5, odd
Error detected
# of 1s =4, even
Error not detected
Information bits
Recalculate
check bits
k bits
Calculate
check bits
Channel
Sent
check
bits
n k bits
Received
check bits
Compare
Information
accepted if
check bits
match
z
z
z
z
z
n 2
n
p (1 p)n-2 +
2
4
p4(1 p)n-4 +
P[undetectable error] =
32
32
(10-3)2 (1 10-3)30 +
(10-3)4 (1 10-3)28
2
4
o o
o
o
x x
x o o
x
x
o
x
x
o
o
o o o
Poor
distance
properties
x = codewords
o = noncodewords
o
x o
o
x
o
o
o
o
o
o
x o x
Good
distance
properties
Error-detecting capability
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
Two
1 0 0 1 0 0 errors
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 Three
errors
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
One error
1 0 0 0 1 0
1, 2, or 3 errors
can always be
detected; Not all
patterns >4 errors
can be detected
Four errors
(undetectable)
z
z
Internet Checksum
z
Checksum Calculation
The checksum bL is calculated as follows:
z Treating each 16-bit word as an integer, find
x = b0 + b1 + b2+ ...+ bL-1 modulo 216-1
z The checksum is then given by:
bL = - x modulo 216-1
Thus, the headers must satisfy the following pattern:
0 = b0 + b1 + b2+ ...+ bL-1 + bL modulo 216-1
z The checksum calculation is carried out in software
using ones complement arithmetic
Polynomial Codes
z
z
z
z
Addition:
(x7 + x6 + 1) + (x6 + x5) = x7 + x6 + x6 + x5 + 1
= x7 +(1+1)x6 + x5 + 1
= x7 +x5 + 1 since 1+1=0 mod2
Multiplication:
(x + 1) (x2 + x + 1) = x(x2 + x + 1) + 1(x2 + x + 1)
= x3 + x2 + x) + (x2 + x + 1)
= x3 + 1
34
35 ) 1222
105
divisor
17 2
140
32
z
quotient
dividend
remainder
Polynomial
Division
divisor
x3 + x2 + x
= q(x) quotient
x3 + x + 1 ) x6 + x5
x6 +
x4 + x3
dividend
x5 + x4 + x3
x5 +
x3 + x2
x4 +
x4 +
x2
x2 + x
x
= r(x) remainder
Polynomial Coding
z
q(x)
xn-ki(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)
g(x) ) xn-k i(x)
r(x)
Define the codeword polynomial of degree n 1
k bits
n-k bits
Polynomial example: k = 4, nk = 3
Generator polynomial: g(x)= x3 + x + 1
Information: (1,1,0,0)
i(x) = x3 + x2
Encoding: x3i(x) = x6 + x5
x3 + x2 + x
x3 + x + 1 ) x6 + x5
x6 +
1110
1011 ) 1100000
1011
x4 + x3
x5 + x4 + x3
x5 +
x3 + x2
x4 +
x4 +
1110
1011
x2
x2 + x
x
Transmitted codeword:
b(x) = x6 + x5 + x
b = (1,1,0,0,0,1,0)
1010
1011
010
Shift-Register Implementation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Division Circuit
Encoder for g(x) = x3 + x + 1
0,0,0,i0,i1,i2,i3
Clock
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
g0 = 1
Input
1 = i3
1 = i2
0 = i1
0 = i0
0
0
0
Check bits:
g1 = 1
Reg 0
Reg 0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
r0 = 0
r(x) = x
g3 = 1
Reg 1
Reg 1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
r1 = 1
Reg 2
Reg 2
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
r2 = 0
b(x)
(Receiver)
R(x)=b(x)+e(x)
z
z
z
z
CRC-8:
= x8 + x2 + x + 1
CRC-16:
= x16 + x15 + x2 + 1
= (x + 1)(x15 + x + 1)
Bisync
CCITT-16:
= x16 + x12 + x5 + 1
ATM
CCITT-32:
Hamming Codes
z
z
z
m
3
4
5
6
n = 2m1 k = nm
7
4
15
11
31
26
57
63
m/n
3/7
4/15
5/31
6/63
m = 3 Hamming Code
z
z
+ b3 + b4
b6 = b1 + b2
b7 =
z
z
+ b4
+ b2 + b3 + b4
Codeword
Weight
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7
w(b)
b1
b2
b3
b4
+ b3 + b4 + b5
0 = b6 + b6 = b1 + b2
0 = b7 + b7 =
z
In matrix form:
+ b4
+ b6
+ b2 + b3 + b4
+ b7
b1
b2
= 1011100
b3
= 1101010
b4 = H bt = 0
= 0111001
b5
b6
b7
1011100
s=He= 1101010
0111001
1011100
s=He= 1101010
0111001
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
= 0
1
0
1
= 1 + 0 =
1
0
1
1
1
1
0 = 1 +
0
0
0
0
0
1 +
1
1
1
1
1
0 = 0
1
z
z
b1
o
Distance 3
o
b2
o
Set of ntuples
within
distance 1
of b2
R (Receiver)
e Error pattern
z
z
z
No errors in
transmission
(1p)7
Undetectable
errors
7p3
s=0
13p
Correctable
errors
7p(13p)
3p
Uncorrectable
errors
21p2
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
RS-232 Asynchronous Data
Transmission
z
z
(a)
14
(b)
DTE
25
Ground (G)
20
20
22
22
DCE
Synchronization
z
Synchronization of
clocks in transmitters
and receivers.
z
Data
T
Example: assume 1
and 0 are represented
by V volts and 0 volts
respectively
z
Correct reception
Data
Incorrect reception due
T
to incorrect clock (slower
clock)
S
1
Clock
0
Clock
Synchronization (contd)
z
z
Asynchronous transmission
Synchronous transmission
1
Data
T
S
Clock
Asynchronous Transmission
z
Start
bit
3T/2
Stop
bit
Synchronous Transmission
z
z
z
z
Voltage
time