Fundamentals of the

Nervous System and

Nervous Tissue

Organization of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord
Integration and command center
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Paired spinal and cranial nerves
Carries messages to and from the spinal cord
and brain

Nervous System

The master controlling and communicating

system of the body

Functions
Sensory input monitoring stimuli occurring inside
and outside the body

Integration interpretation of sensory input

Motor output response to stimuli by activating
effector organs

Nervous System

Figure 11.1

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

Two Functional Divisions

Sensory (afferent) division

Sensory afferent fibers carry impulses from skin, skeletal

muscles, and joints to the brain
Visceral afferent fibers transmit impulses from visceral organs to
the brain

Motor (efferent) division

Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs

Motor Division: Two Main Parts

Somatic nervous system

Conscious control of skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

Divisions sympathetic and parasympathetic

Neuron Classification

Functional:
Sensory (afferent) transmit impulses
toward the CNS

Motor (efferent) carry impulses away from

the CNS

Interneurons (association neurons) shuttle

signals through CNS pathways

Histology of Nerve Tissue

The two principal cell types of the nervous

system are:

Neurons excitable cells that transmit

electrical signals

Supporting cells cells that surround

and wrap neurons

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Structural units of the nervous system

Composed of a body, axon, and dendrites

Long-lived, amitotic, and have a high metabolic rate

Their plasma membrane functions in:

Electrical signaling
Cell-to-cell signaling during development

A Typical Neuron Overview

Dendrites
Cell Body
Axon
Terminal

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Figure 11.4b

Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or

Soma)
Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus
Is the major biosynthetic center
Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes
Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature)
Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER)
Contains an axon hillock cone-shaped area from which
axons arise

Processes

Armlike extensions from the soma

Called tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS
There are two types: axons and dendrites

Dendrites of Motor Neurons

Short, tapering, and diffusely branched processes

They are the receptive, or input regions of the neuron
Electrical signals are conveyed as graded potentials (not
action potentials)

Axons: Structure
Slender processes of uniform diameter arising from the
hillock

Long axons are called nerve fibers

Usually there is only one unbranched axon per neuron
Rare branches, if present, are called axon collaterals
Axonal terminal branched terminus of an axon

Axons: Function
Generate and transmit action potentials
Secrete neurotransmitters from the axonal terminals
Movement along axons occurs in two ways

Anterograde toward axonal terminal

Retrograde away from axonal terminal

Myelin Sheath
Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath around
most long axons

It functions to:

Protect the axon

Electrically insulate fibers from one another
Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission

Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma:

Formation
Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS
A Schwann cell:

Envelopes an axon in a trough

Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane

Has concentric layers of membrane that make up the myelin
sheath

Neurilemma remaining nucleus and cytoplasm of a

Schwann cell

Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma:

Formation

Figure 11.5a-c

Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral

Nodes)
Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells
They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge

Unmyelinated Axons

A Schwann cell surrounds nerve fibers but coiling does not take
place

Axons of the CNS

Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present

Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes
Nodes of Ranvier are widely spaced
There is no neurilemma

Conduction Velocities of Axons

Conduction velocities vary widely among neurons

Rate of impulse propagation is determined by:
Axon diameter the larger the diameter, the faster
the impulse

Presence of a myelin sheath myelination

dramatically increases impulse speed

Conduction velocities

The speed with which an action potential travels

depends on 2 factors:

Diameter of axon the larger the faster

Degree of myelination
Myelinated faster
Saltatory conduction

Saltatory Conduction
Current passes through a myelinated axon only at the
nodes of Ranvier

Voltage-gated Na+ channels are concentrated at these

nodes

Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes and

jump from one node to the next

Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated axons

Saltatory Conduction

Figure 11.16

Supporting Cells: Neuroglia

The supporting cells (neuroglia or glial cells):

Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons

Segregate and insulate neurons
Guide young neurons to the proper connections
Promote health and growth

Glial Cell Functions

Support neuron bodies, form myelin sheaths

Barriers between compartments
Scavenger/defense & metabolic assistance

Glial Cell Functions

Astrocytes
Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells
They cling to neurons and their synaptic endings, and

cover capillaries
Functionally, they:

Support and brace neurons

Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies
Guide migration of young neurons
Control the chemical environment

Astrocytes

Figure 11.3a

Microglia and Ependymal Cells

Microglia small, ovoid cells with spiny processes

Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons

Ependymal cells range in shape from squamous to

columnar

They line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column

Microglia and Ependymal Cells

Figure 11.3b, c

Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells,

and Satellite Cells
Oligodendrocytes branched cells that wrap CNS nerve fibers
Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) surround fibers of the PNS
Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies with ganglia

Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells,

and Satellite Cells

Figure 11.3d, e

Neuron Classification

Structural:

Multipolar three or more processes

Bipolar two processes (axon and dendrite)
Unipolar single, short process

Comparison of Structural Classes of

Neurons

Table 11.1.1

Comparison of Structural Classes of

Neurons

Table 11.1.2

Comparison of Structural Classes of

Neurons

Table 11.1.3

Diverse Neuron Forms and Functions

Pseudounipolar
Bipolar
Anaxionic
MultipolarCNS
Multipolarefferent

Diverse Neuron Forms and Functions

Figure 8-3: Anatomic and functional categories of neurons

THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

If we measure voltage between the inside of a neuron and the

outside we find that the neuron is more negative inside than
outside with a potential of about 70 mV.

Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)

The potential difference (70 mV) across the membrane of a
resting neuron

It is generated by different concentrations of Na+, K+, Cl, and

protein anions (A)

Ionic differences are the consequence of:

Differential permeability of the neurilemma to Na+ and K+

Operation of the sodium-potassium pump

Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)

Figure 11.8

Gated Channels
1. Voltage-gated channels
Are open/closed by changes in membrane potential

a.
b.

Activation gate of Na+ channel

Inactivation gate of Na+ channel

2. Chemically-gated channels (Ligand-gated channels)

Are open/close by hormones, 2nd messengers, neurotransmitter
3. Mechanically-gated channels
Respond to stretching / other mechanical deformation
4. Thermally-gated channels (respond to local changes in
temperature)

Electrical Signals:
Ionic Concentrations and Potentials
Nernst & Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK) Equations
predict
Membrane potential
Cell concentration gradients
[Na+, Cl- & Ca2+] higher in ECF
[K+] higher ICF
Depolarization causes electrical signal
Gated channels control permeability

The Nernst equation

The Nernst equation provides a quantitative measure of the
equality that exists between chemical and electrical gradients
and is the starting point for understanding the basis of the
membrane potential.

Electrical Signals:
Ionic Concentrations and Potentials

Table 8-2: Ion Concentrations and Equilibrium Potentials

The Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz
equation
The Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation calculates an
estimated membrane potential that reflects the relative
contributions of the chemical concentration gradients
and relative membrane permeability for K+, Na+ and Cl-.

Goldman Equation

Membrane Potentials: Signals

Used to integrate, send, and receive information

Membrane potential changes are produced by:

Changes in membrane permeability to ions

Alterations of ion concentrations across the membrane

Types of signals graded potentials and action potentials

Changes in Membrane Potential

Changes are caused by three events

Depolarization the inside of the membrane becomes less

negative

Repolarization the membrane returns to its resting membrane

potential
Hyperpolarization the inside of the membrane becomes more
negative than the resting potential

Changes in Membrane Potential

Figure 11.9

Basic forms of electrical signals

1. Graded Potential
local changes in membrane potential occur in varying
degrees of strength

short-distance signals /lose-strength over distance

slower than AP
2. Action Potential (AP)
Brief, rapid, large changes in membrane potential
long distance signals/signal does not diminish over
distance

Graded Potentials
Incoming signals

Vary in strength
Lose strength over distance
Are slower than action potentials (AP)

Subthreshold

Travels to trigger zone

Too weak
No generation of AP

Suprathreshold generate AP

Graded Potentials

Trigger Zone: Cell Integration and

Initiation of AP

Trigger Zone: Cell Integration and Initiation of AP

Action Potential Stages: Overview

"All or none"
Signal does not diminish over distance

Action Potential Stages: Overview

Membrane & Channel Changes

during an Action Potential
Initiation
Depolarization
Signal peak
Repolarization

Action Potentials (APs)

A brief reversal of membrane potential with a total
amplitude of 100 mV

Action potentials are only generated by muscle cells and

neurons

They do not decrease in strength over distance

They are the principal means of neural communication
An action potential in the axon of a neuron is a nerve
impulse

Action Potential: Resting State

Na+ and K+ channels are closed
Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+
Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates

Activation gates
closed in the resting
state
Inactivation gates
open in the resting
state

Figure 11.12.1

Action Potential: Depolarization

Phase
Na+ permeability increases; membrane potential reverses
Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed
Threshold a critical level of depolarization
(-55 to -50 mV)

At threshold,
depolarization
becomes
self-generating

Figure 11.12.2

Action Potential: Repolarization

Phase

Sodium inactivation gates close

Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to resting levels
As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open
K+ exits the cell and
internal negativity
of the resting neuron
is restored

Figure 11.12.3

Action Potential: Hyperpolarization

Potassium gates remain open, causing an excessive efflux
of K+

This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the membrane

(undershoot)

The neuron is
insensitive to
stimulus and
depolarization
during this time

Figure 11.12.4

Membrane & Channel Changes

during an Action Potential

Regulating the AP

Positive feedback loop

Absolute refractory period
Relative refractory period

Regulating the AP

Figure 8-11: Ion movements during the action potential

Regulating the AP

Figure 8-12: Refractory periods

Frequency of Action Potentials

Firing rate

"Wave" of APs

Proportional neurotransmitter (NT) release

Stronger GP initiates more APs & more NT

Frequency of Action Potentials

Figure 8-13: Coding for stimulus intensity

Conduction of Action Potentials

Kinetic energy

Depolarizes ahead

Drives AP to terminal

Conduction of Action Potentials

Figure 8-14a: Conduction of action potentials

Conduction of Action Potentials

Figure 8-14b: Conduction of action potentials

Conduction of Action Potentials

Figure 8-14c: Conduction of action potentials

Phases of the Action Potential

1 resting state
2 depolarization
phase

3 repolarization phase
4 hyperpolarization

Propagation of an Action Potential

(Time = 0ms)
Na+ influx causes a patch of the axonal membrane to
depolarize

Positive ions in the axoplasm move toward the polarized

(negative) portion of the membrane

Sodium gates are shown as closing, open, or closed

Propagation of an Action Potential

(Time = 0ms)

Figure 11.13a

Propagation of an Action Potential

(Time = 1ms)
Ions of the extracellular fluid move toward the area of
greatest negative charge

A current is created that depolarizes the adjacent

membrane in a forward direction

The impulse propagates away from its point of origin

Propagation of an Action Potential

(Time = 1ms)

Figure 11.13b

Propagation of an Action Potential

(Time = 2ms)

The action potential moves away from the stimulus

Where sodium gates are closing, potassium gates are
open and create a current flow

Propagation of an Action Potential

(Time = 2ms)

Figure 11.13c

THE PROPAGATION OF AN
ACTION POTENTIAL

Threshold and Action Potentials

Threshold membrane is depolarized by 15 to 20 mV
Established by the total amount of current flowing

through the membrane

Weak (subthreshold) stimuli are not relayed into action
potentials
Strong (threshold) stimuli are relayed into action
potentials
All-or-none phenomenon action potentials either
happen completely, or not at all

Coding for Stimulus Intensity

All action potentials are alike and are independent of
stimulus intensity

Strong stimuli can generate an action potential more

often than weaker stimuli

The CNS determines stimulus intensity by the frequency

of impulse transmission

Coding for Stimulus Intensity

Upward arrows stimulus applied
Downward arrows stimulus stopped

Figure 11.14

Coding for Stimulus Intensity

Length of arrows strength of stimulus
Action potentials vertical lines

Figure 11.14

Absolute Refractory Period

Time from the opening of the Na+ activation gates until
the closing of inactivation gates

The absolute refractory period:

Prevents the neuron from generating an action potential

Ensures that each action potential is separate
Enforces one-way transmission of nerve impulses

Relative Refractory Period

Begins at the end of absoulute refractory period and

continues until the membrane potential returns to the
resting level

An action potential can be elicited during this period

Accomodation
Occurs when the cell membrane is held at a depolarized
level such that the threshold potential is passed without
firing an action potential

Occurs because depolarization closes inactivation on the

Na channels

Hyperkalemia, skeletal muscle membrane are

depolarized by the high serum K+ concentration.
Membran potential is closer to threshold, AP do not occur
because inactivation gates on Na channels are closed by
depolarization causing muscle weakness.

Absolute Refractory Period

Figure 11.15

Synapses
A junction that mediates information transfer from one
neuron:

To another neuron
To an effector cell

Presynaptic neuron conducts impulses toward the

synapse

Postsynaptic neuron transmits impulses away from the

synapse

Types of Synapses
Axodendritic synapses between the axon of one neuron
and the dendrite of another

Axosomatic synapses between the axon of one neuron

and the soma of another

Other types of synapses include:

Axoaxonic (axon to axon)

Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)
Dendrosomatic (dendrites to soma)

Synapses

Figure 11.17

Cell to Cell Conduction: the Synapse

Electrical synapses: gap junctions

Very fast conduction

Example: cardiac muscle

Pre synaptic terminal

Chemical synapses

Synthesis of Neurotransmitters
Ca2+ releases Neurotransmitters

Synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic cell: Neurotransmitter receptors

Chemical Synapses
Specialized for the release and reception of neurotransmitters
Typically composed of two parts:

Axonal terminal of the presynaptic neuron, which contains synaptic

vesicles
Receptor region on the dendrite(s) or soma of the postsynaptic neuron

Synaptic Cleft
Fluid-filled space separating the presynaptic and
postsynaptic neurons

Prevents nerve impulses from directly passing from one

neuron to the next

Transmission across the synaptic cleft:

Is a chemical event (as opposed to an electrical one)

Ensures unidirectional communication between neurons

Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer

Nerve impulses reach the axonal terminal of the
presynaptic neuron and open Ca2+ channels

Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft via

exocytosis

Neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to

receptors on the postsynaptic neuron

Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes, causing

an excitatory or inhibitory effect

Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer

Figure 11.19

Synapse Mechanism

Figure 8-20: Events at the synapse

Synaptic Delay

Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse across the

synapse, and bind to receptors

Synaptic delay time needed to do this (0.3-5.0 ms)

Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step of neural
transmission

Postsynaptic Potentials
Neurotransmitter receptors mediate changes in
membrane potential according to:

The amount of neurotransmitter released

The amount of time the neurotransmitter is bound to receptors

The two types of postsynaptic potentials are:

EPSP excitatory postsynaptic potentials

IPSP inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials

(EPSPs)
EPSPs are graded potentials that can initiate an action
potential in an axon

Use only chemically gated channels

Na+ and K+ flow in opposite directions at the same time

Postsynaptic membranes do not generate action

potentials

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials

Figure 11.20a

Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs

Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor at inhibitory synapses:

Causes the membrane to become more permeable to potassium and

chloride ions
Leaves the charge on the inner surface negative
Reduces the postsynaptic neurons ability to produce an action potential

Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs

Figure 11.20b

Summation
A single EPSP cannot induce an action potential
EPSPs must summate temporally or spatially to induce an action
potential

IPSPs can also summate with EPSPs, canceling each other out

Type of Summation
Spatial summation postsynaptic neuron is stimulated by a
large number of terminals at the same time

Temporal summation presynaptic neurons transmit impulses in

rapid-fire order

Summation

Figure 11.21

Termination of Neurotransmitter
Effects
Neurotransmitter bound to a postsynaptic neuron:
Produces a continuous postsynaptic effect
Blocks reception of additional messages
Must be removed from its receptor
Removal of neurotransmitters occurs when they:
Are degraded by enzymes
Are reuptake by astrocytes or the presynaptic terminals
Diffuse from the synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals used for neuronal communication

50 different neurotransmitters have been identified
Classified chemically and functionally

Chemical Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Biogenic amines
Amino acids
Peptides
Novel messengers: ATP and dissolved gases NO and CO

Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine
First neurotransmitter identified, and best understood
Released at the neuromuscular junction
Synthesized and enclosed in synaptic vesicles
Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Released by:

All neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle

Some neurons in the autonomic nervous system

Acetylcholine synthesis

Figure 8-21: Synthesis and recycling of acetylcholine at the synapse

Neurotransmitters: Biogenic
Amines
Include:

Catecholamines dopamine, norepinephrine (NE), and

epinephrine

Indolamines serotonin and histamine

Broadly distributed in the brain

Play roles in emotional behaviors and our biological clock

Neurotransmitters: Amino Acids

Include:

GABA Gamma ()-aminobutyric acid

Glycine

Aspartate
Glutamate

Found only in the CNS

Neurotransmitters: Peptides
Include:

Substance P mediator of pain signals

Beta endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins

Act as natural opiates, reducing our perception of pain

Bind to the same receptors as opiates and morphine
Gut-brain peptides somatostatin, and cholecystokinin

Neurotransmitters: Novel
Messengers
ATP

Is found in both the CNS and PNS

Produces excitatory or inhibitory responses depending on
receptor type
Induces Ca2+ wave propagation in astrocytes
Provokes pain sensation

Neurotransmitters: Novel
Messengers
Nitric oxide (NO)

Activates the intracellular receptor guanylyl cyclase

Is involved in learning and memory

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a main regulator of cGMP in the

brain

Functional Classification of
Neurotransmitters
Two classifications: excitatory and inhibitory

Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarizations

(e.g., glutamate)
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarizations (e.g.,
GABA and glycine)

Neurocrines

Table 8-4-1: Major Neurocrines

Neurocrines

Table 8-4-2: Major Neurocrines

Functional Classification of
Neurotransmitters
Some neurotransmitters have both excitatory and
inhibitory effects

Determined by the receptor type of the postsynaptic neuron

Example: acetylcholine

Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions with skeletal muscle

Inhibitory in cardiac muscle

Neurotransmitter Receptor
Mechanisms

Direct: neurotransmitters that open ion channels

Promote rapid responses

Examples: ACh and amino acids

Indirect: neurotransmitters that act through second messengers

Promote long-lasting effects

Examples: biogenic amines, peptides, and dissolved gases

Channel-Linked Receptors
Composed of integral membrane protein
Mediate direct neurotransmitter action
Action is immediate, brief, simple, and highly localized
Ligand binds the receptor, and ions enter the cells
Excitatory receptors depolarize membranes
Inhibitory receptors hyperpolarize membranes

Channel-Linked Receptors

Figure 11.23a

G Protein-Linked Receptors

Responses are indirect, slow, complex, prolonged, and

often diffuse

These receptors are transmembrane protein complexes

Examples: muscarinic ACh receptors, neuropeptides, and
those that bind biogenic amines

G Protein-Linked Receptors:
Mechanism
Neurotransmitter binds to G protein-linked receptor
G protein is activated and GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP
The activated G protein complex activates adenylate
cyclase

Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the formation of cAMP from

ATP

cAMP, a second messenger, brings about various cellular

responses

G Protein-Linked Receptors:
Mechanism

Figure 11.23b

G Protein-Linked Receptors: Effects

G protein-linked receptors activate intracellular second

messengers including Ca2+, cGMP, diacylglycerol, as well

as cAMP

Second messengers:

Open or close ion channels

Activate kinase enzymes
Phosphorylate channel proteins
Activate genes and induce protein synthesis

Sensory Receptors

Sensory Receptors
Structures specialized to respond to stimuli
Eyes light
Ears sound waves

Activation of sensory receptors results in depolarizations

that trigger impulses to the CNS

The realization of these stimuli, sensation and

perception, occur in the brain

Receptor Classification by Stimulus

Type

Mechanoreceptors respond to touch, pressure, vibration,

stretch, and itch
Thermoreceptors sensitive to changes in temperature
Photoreceptors respond to light energy (e.g., retina)

Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals (e.g., smell, taste,

changes in blood chemistry)
Nociceptors sensitive to pain-causing stimuli

Wetness perception?

Receptor Class by Location:

Exteroceptors
Respond to stimuli arising outside the body
Found near the body surface
Sensitive to touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
Include the special sense organs

Receptor Class by Location:

Interoceptors

Respond to stimuli arising within the body

Found in internal viscera and blood vessels
Sensitive to chemical changes, stretch, and temperature
changes

Receptor Class by Location:

Proprioceptors

Respond to degree of stretch of the organs they occupy

Found in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, and
connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles

Constantly advise the brain of ones movements

Receptor Classification by
Structural Complexity
Receptors are structurally classified as either simple or
complex

Complex receptors are special sense organs

Most receptors are simple and include encapsulated and
unencapsulated varieties

Simple Receptors: Unencapsulated

Free dendritic nerve endings

Respond chiefly to temperature and pain

Merkel (tactile) discs

Hair follicle receptors

Sensory Receptor Types

Figure 10-1: Sensory receptors

Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Meissners corpuscles (tactile corpuscles)
Pacinian corpuscles (lamellated corpuscles)
Ruffinis corpuscles
Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs
Joint kinesthetic receptors

Simple Receptors: Unencapsulated

Table 13.1.1

Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.2

Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.3

Simple Receptors: Encapsulated

Table 13.1.4

Conversion of receptor potential

into AP

From Sensation to Perception

Survival depends upon sensation and perception
Sensation is the awareness of changes in the internal and
external environment

Perception is the conscious interpretation of those stimuli

Organization of the Somatosensory

System
Input comes from exteroceptors, proprioceptors, and
interoceptors

The three main levels of neural integration in the

somatosensory system are:

Receptor level the sensor receptors

Circuit level ascending pathways
Perceptual level neuronal circuits in the cerebral cortex

Somatic Pathways
Receptor

Threshold
Action potential

Primary medulla
Secondary thalamus
Tertiary cortex

Receptive field
Multiple levels

Sensory neurons
Integration

Processing at the Receptor Level

The receptor must have specificity for the stimulus
energy

The receptors receptive field must be stimulated

Stimulus energy must be converted into a graded
potential/receptor potential

A generator potential in the associated sensory neuron

must reach threshold

Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

Some receptors can diminish the extent of depolarization
despite sustained stimulus strength

Adaptation occurs when sensory receptors are subjected

to an unchanging stimulus

Receptor membranes become less responsive

Receptor potentials decline in frequency or stop

Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

Receptors responding to pressure, touch, and smell adapt
quickly (Phasic receptors)

Receptors responding slowly include Merkels discs,

Ruffinis corpuscles, and interoceptors that respond to
chemical levels in the blood (Tonic receptors)

Pain receptors and proprioceptors do not exhibit

adaptation (Tonic receptors)

Processing at the Circuit Level

Chains of three neurons (first-, second-, and third-order) conduct

sensory impulses upward to the brain

First-order neurons soma reside in dorsal root or cranial

ganglia, and conduct impulses from the skin to the spinal cord or
brain stem

Second-order neurons soma reside in the dorsal horn of the

spinal cord or medullary nuclei and transmit impulses to the
thalamus or cerebellum

Third-order neurons located in the thalamus and conduct

impulses to the somatosensory cortex of the cerebrum

Somatic Pathways

Figure 10-9: Sensory pathways cross the bodys midline

Processing at the Perceptual Level

The thalamus projects fibers to:

The somatosensory cortex

Sensory association areas

The result is an internal, conscious image of the stimulus

Main Aspects of Sensory Perception

Perceptual detection detecting that a stimulus has

occurred and requires summation

Magnitude estimation how much of a stimulus is acting

Spatial discrimination identifying the site or pattern of
the stimulus

Main Aspects of Sensory Perception

Feature abstraction used to identify a substance that
has specific texture or shape

Quality discrimination the ability to identify

submodalities of a sensation (e.g., sweet or sour tastes)

Pattern recognition ability to recognize patterns in

stimuli (e.g., melody, familiar face)

Sensory Modality
Location

Lateral inhibition
Receptive field size

Intensity
Duration
Tonic receptors (Adapt slowly/not adapt at all)
Phasic receptors (rapidly adapts)

Receptive field size

Figure 10-3: Two-point discrimination

Lateral inhibition

Figure 10-6: Lateral inhibition

Pain

An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience which

we primarily associate with tissue damage or describe in
terms of such damage, or both

Pain

1.

Transduksi
stimulus aktivitas listrik

2.

Transmisi
penyaluran impuls mell neuron sensoris

3. Modulasi
interaksi dengan analgesik endogen

4.

Persepsi
kesadaran terhadap nyeri reaksi

Nociceptors
Free nerve ending
Respond to strong noxious stimulus that may
damage tissue

Modulated by local chemicals

Substance P is secreted by primary sensory neurons

Mediate inflammatory response

Inflammatory pain

Nociceptors Pathways
Reflexive protective response

Integrated in spinal cord

Withdrawal reflex

Ascending pathway to cerebral cortex

Becomes conscious sensation

Nociceptors

Pain receptors

Subjective perception
Fast pain

Sharp and localizedby A fibers

Slow pain

More diffuseby C fibers

Somatosensory Nerve Fibers

Peripheral sensitization to pain:

CGRP

CGRP

Neospinothalamic tract
Penjalaran nyeri cepat
Serabut cepat A
Stimuli mekanik/suhu akut/ terlokalisir
Sistem penjalaran nyeri rangkap
Nyeri tajam oleh A akan diikuti oleh C
Nyeri cepat memberi info ada suatu kerusakan, nyeri lambat

bertambah hebat
Serabut A berakhir pada lamina I pd kornu dorsalis MS
merangsang second order neuron mengirim sinyal naik ke otak
menyilang kemudian melanjut dlm kolumna anterolateralis

 Tempat berakhir
- Berakhir di retikularis batang otak (sebagian kecil)
- Sebagian besar di thalamus (nukleus VPL dan VPI)
korteks somatosensorik

Dapat dilokalisir lebih pasti

Paleospinothalamic tract
Penjalaran nyeri lambat
Serabut tipe lambat (serabut C)
Stimuli nyeri, mekanik dan suhu (diffus/sulit dilokalisir)
Serabut C berakhir di lamina II dan III kornu dorsalis
(substansia gelatinosa) lamina IV dan VIII ada yg
menyilang dan tidak menyilang di decussatio pyramidum
bersinaps di....

1. formatio retikularis, periakuaduktus grisea (tr. Spinoreticularis)

2. tektum (tr. Spinotectalis)

3. tr. Spinothalamicus bersinaps korteks sensoris kedua hemisfer

Mengaktifkan batang otak utk inhibisi pada MS

Dapat menimbulkan persepsi nyeri namun kemampuan
melokalisir buruk /area luas

Sistem Analgesia
Sistem analgesia : kemampuan otak utk menekan impuls
nyeri dengan mengaktifkan sistem pengatur nyeri
1. Area periakuaduktus grisea dan periventrikular
(mesensefalon dan bag atas pons), meneruskan ke
2. Nukleus rafe magnus dan retikularis
paragigantoselularis (bag bawah pons dan bag atas
MO), dijalarkan ke
3. Kompleks penghambat rasa nyeri di dlm radiks
dorsalis MS

 Ujung serabut saraf mensekresi serotonin

neuron lokal MS mensekresi enkefalin

Enkefalin menghambat saluran Ca

dalam membran presinaps pada serabut A
dan C pelepasan transmiter terhambat

 Ujung2 serabut yg berakhir di radiks dorsalis mensekresi

serotonin neuron lokal MS mensekresi enkefalin

Enkefalin hambatan pada serabut tipe A

dan C
dengan menghambat saluran Ca pada presinaps

Analgetik Endogen
Opioid endogen : Endorphin dan enkefalin (metenkefalin, leu-enkefalin, dinorfin)

Decreases the grade in which nociception reaches the

higher brain

Ditangkap oleh reseptor opioid sehingga menekan impuls

nyeri yang masuk

The Gate-Control Theory of Pain

Figure 10-12a

The Gate-Control Theory of Pain

Figure 10-12b

The Gate-Control Theory of Pain

Figure 10-12c

Reflexes

Reflexes
A reflex is a rapid, predictable motor response to a
stimulus

Reflexes may:

Be inborn (intrinsic) or learned (acquired)

Involve peripheral nerves and the spinal cord
Involve higher brain centers as well

Reflex Arc
There are five components of a reflex arc

Receptor site of stimulus

Sensory neuron transmits the afferent impulse to the CNS
Integration center either monosynaptic or polysynaptic region
within the CNS
Motor neuron conducts efferent impulses from the integration
center to an effector
Effector muscle fiber or gland that responds to the efferent
impulse

Reflex Arc

Spinal cord
(in cross-section)
Stimulus
2 Sensory neuron
1

3 Integration

center

Receptor
4 Motor neuron

Skin

5 Effector

Interneuron

Figure 13.14

Stretch Reflex
Stretching the muscle activates the muscle spindle
Excited motor neurons of the spindle cause the stretched

muscle to contract
Afferent impulses from the spindle result in inhibition of
the antagonist
Example: patellar reflex

Tapping the patellar tendon stretches the quadriceps and starts

the reflex action
The quadriceps contract and the antagonistic hamstrings relax

Stretch Reflex

Figure 13.17

Flexor/Withdrawal and Crossed Extensor

Reflexes

The flexor reflex is initiated by a painful stimulus (actual

or perceived) that causes automatic withdrawal of the
threatened body part

The crossed extensor reflex has two parts

The stimulated side is withdrawn

The contralateral side is extended

Withdrawal and Crossed Extensor Reflexes

Figure 13.19

Superficial Reflexes
Initiated by gentle cutaneous stimulation
Example:

Plantar reflex is initiated by stimulating the lateral aspect of the

sole of the foot
The response is downward flexion of the toes
Indirectly tests for proper corticospinal tract functioning
Babinskis sign: abnormal plantar reflex indicating corticospinal
damage where the great toe dorsiflexes and the smaller toes fan
laterally

THANK YOU