English language parts of speech and grammar portion

Adjectives describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.

For example:The grey dog barked. (The adjective grey describes the noun "dog".
The good news is that the form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter if the noun being modified is male
or female, singular or plural, subject or object.
Some adjectives give us factual information about the noun - age, size colour etc (fact adjectives - can't be argued
with). Some adjectives show what somebody thinks about something or somebody - nice, horrid, beautiful etc
(opinion adjectives - not everyone may agree).
If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind, or how many, you need an adjective to be able to answer.
There are different types of adjectives in the English language:
1) Numeric: six, one hundred and one
2) Quantitative: more, all, some, half, more than enough
3) Qualitative: colour, size, smell etc.
4) Possessive: my, his, their, your
5) Interrogative: which, whose, what
6) Demonstrative: this, that, those, these
Adverb:
An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb.
Example :
The old man walked slowly .
Juli writes very carefully .
He works hard from dawn to night.
Type of Adverbs
Adverb of time
If a verb answers for question 'When' then the adverb shows the time of action.
Example :
He left the place a few minutes ago.
He will soon come back.
Adverb of Place
If a verb answers for question 'Where' then the adverb shows the place of action.
Example :
I met him in the theatre.
This is the place where the tree stood.
Adverb of Number
If a verb answers for question 'How often' then the adverb shows the number of the action.
Example :
The comet appears once in several years.
That poor man is always happy.
Adverb of Manner
If a verb answers for question 'How' or'In what manner' then it shows the condition of verb.
Example :
He was seriously injured.
Johny writes very carefully.
Adverb of Degree or Quantity
If a verb answers for question 'How much' or'In what' .
Example :
The sky is very cloudy.
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She sings pretty well.

Adverb of Reason
If a verb explains the reason for the action then called adverb of reason.
Example :
As he was not well.
Therefore he returned home.
Conjuction:
A conjunction is a word which joins together words or sentences.
Example :
And, as, but, before, after, if, whether, than, when, that, though, for, yet, why, unless, while, lest ..etc.
Types of Conjunction
Phrase Conjunctions
When phrase used as conjunction they are called Phrase Conjunction.
Example :
As soon as he saw his father,he threw the cigarette away.
She appeared on the scene as if she were a princess.
It seems as though it is going to rain.
The teacher as well as his student was injured.
This is fully correct as far as I am concerned.
I would not do that even if he gave thousands of rupees.
I worked hard so that I might get a first class.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
A conjunction that joins together sentences, clauses or words of equal rank,is called a Co-ordinating Conjunction.
Example :
and, but, for, also, or, nor, so, yet,either..or, neither..nor
The idol is made of bronze and the toy is made of wood.
Please,take coffee or tea.
Do or die.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A conjunction that joins a clause to the main clause in a sentence is called Subordinating Conjunctions.
Example :
after, before, because, if, whether, when, where, how,while, that, though,although, as, unless,till
He was absent because he was ill.
Strike when the iron is hot.
Some Conjunction Come In Pairs
He is either a begger or a theif.
She is neither my sister nor my niece.
Not only I like mangoes, but also apples.
Though he is poor, yet he helps the needy.
She is both, pretty and clever.
Whether they bring it or not is uncertain.
Milton was not a politician but a poet.
No sooner did I see him than I saluted him.
Scarely had the rain stopped when I went out.
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real
grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are
inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed
by an exclamation mark (!) when written. The table below shows some interjections with examples.
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Interjections like er and um are also known as "hesitation devices". They are extremely common in English. People
use them when they don't know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. You should learn to
recognize them when you hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.
Interjection
Meaning
Example
ah
expressing pleasure
"Ah, that feels good."
expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."
expressing resignation
"Ah well, it can't be heped."
expressing surprise
"Ah! I've won!"
alas
expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
dear
expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
expressing surprise
"Dear me! That's a surprise!"
eh
asking for repetition
"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
expressing enquiry
"What do you think of that, eh?"
expressing surprise
"Eh! Really?"
inviting agreement
"Let's go, eh?" er
expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
hello, hullo
expressing greeting
"Hello John. How are you today?"
expressing surprise
"Hello! My car's gone!" hey
calling attention
"Hey! look at that!"
expressing surprise, joyetc
"Hey! What a good idea!"
hi
expressing greeting
"Hi! What's new?"
hmm expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement
"Hmm. I'm not so sure."
oh, o expressing surprise
"Oh! You're here!"
expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."
expressing pleading
"Oh, please say 'yes'!" ouch expressing pain
"Ouch! That hurts!"
uh
expressing hesitation
"Uh...I don't know the answer to that." uh-huh
expressing agreement
"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."
um, umm
expressing hesitation
"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
well
expressing surprise
"WelI never!"
introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"
A verb is a word which tells us what a person or a thing is doing ; Verb shows an action.
Example :
The girl eats mangoes.
John is telling a story.
eat, tell, play, run, write, open, kill...
Type of Verb
Transitive Verb
A verb which has an object is called a Transitive verb. Some time transitive verb may have two objects.
Example :
The cow gives us milk.
The cow gives us -what?-- milk
To whom ? us
Intransitive Verb
A verb which has no object is called a Intransitive verb.
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Example :
He plays only on sundays.
He fought bravely.
Word used instead of a noun.
Example :
Harry is a good boy.He rises early in the morning.( 'He' is the pronoun used instead of Harry.)
him, he, she, it, my, mine, our, we, ours.. etc
Type of Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
PERSON
SINGULAR NUMBER PLURAL NUMBER
First Person
I
my
mine me
We
our
ours
us
Second Person
You
your
yours you
You
your
yours you
Third Person
Masculine Gender
Feminine Gender
Neuter Gender
He
She
It
his
her
hers
its
him
her
it
All Genders
they
they
they
their, theirs
their, theirs
their, theirs
them
them
them
First Person stands for the person speaking.
Second Person stands for the person spoken to.
Third Person stands for any one or anything.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used for asking questions.
Example :
Who are you ?
who,what,which,whom,whose.. etc
Relative Pronouns
Words such as who,what,which,that ..etc are called relative pronouns since they expresses relation between two
sentences or phrases.
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Example :
I saw an old man.He was too weak to walk.
I saw an old man who was too weak to walk.(who is the relative pronoun added to above sentence)
This is what I expected.
Word used as name of a person,place or thing.
Example :
Everest,London,Mumbai,New york
Type Of Nouns
Proper Noun
Word used as name of a particular person,place or thing.
Example :
Everest,London,Mumbai,New york
Common Noun
Name given in common to every person or thing of same class or kind.
Example :
boy,tree,horse,king,town
Collective Noun
Name of a group of person or things taken as a single whole.
Example :
crowd,army,team,family,assembly,committee
Abstract Noun
Name of quality, state or action of a person or thing.
Example :
Goodness,kindness,slavery,poverty,laughter,theft,childhood
Material Noun
Name of materials out of which things are made.
Example :
gold,wood,stone,iron,wool,bronze,clay.
Preposition:
Types
A preposition is a word placed before a Noun or Pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
Example :
The clock is on the wall.
The cow is grazing in the field.
He is angry with you.
Sample usage of some Prepositions
Between and Among
While saying about two person or thing we use Between and while saying about more than two person or thing we use
AMONG.
Example :
Two brothers shared the apple between themselves.
I sat between Ancy and Juli.
Beside and Besides
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Beside means by the side of.

Besides means in addition to.
Example :
My house is beside the river.
He plays football besides badminton.
By and With
When we say about a person who does the action we use BY.
When to say about some thing near by,or some thing along with weuse WITH.
Example :
A snake was killed by the boy.
I am writing with my pen.
In and At
IN is used along with countries, placec cities .. etc.
AT is used along with names of towns, small villages .. etc.
Example :
My brother lives in America.
The classes will begin at 10 A.M.
NOTE : Sometimes IN is also used to indicate 'Period of Time'.
He came in time.
On and Upon
When we say about some thing at rest we use ON.
When we say about some thing that is not at rest we use UPON.
Example :
The clock is on the wall.
The tiger sprang upon a deer.
Of
Used for belonging to, relating to, or connected with:
The secret of this game is that you cant ever win.
The highlight of the show is at the end.
The first page of the book describes the authors profile.
Dont touch it. Thats the bag of my friends sister.
I always dreamed of being rich and famous.
Used to indicate reference:
I got married in the summer of 2000.
This is a picture of my family.
I got a discount of 10 percent on the purchase.
Used to indicate an amount or number:
I drank three cups of milk.
A large number of people gathered to protest.
I had only four hours of sleep during the last two days.
He got a perfect score of 5 on his writing assignment.
To
Used to indicate the place, person, or thing that someone or something moves toward, or the direction of something:
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I am heading to the entrance of the building.

The package was mailed to Mr. Kim yesterday.
All of us went to the movie theater.
Please send it back to me.
Used to indicate a limit or an ending point:
The snow was piled up to the roof.
The stock prices rose up to 100 dollars.
Used to indicate relationship:
This letter is very important to your admission.
My answer to your question is in this envelop.
Do not respond to every little thing in your life.
Used to indicate a time or a period:
I work nine to six, Monday to Friday.
It is now 10 to five. (In other words, it is 4:50.)
For
Used to indicate the use of something:
This place is for exhibitions and shows.
I baked a cake for your birthday.
I put a note on the door for privacy.
She has been studying hard for the final exam.
Used to mean because of:
I am so happy for you.
We feel deeply sorry for your loss.
For this reason, Ive decided to quit this job.
Used to indicate time or duration:
Hes been famous for many decades.
I attended the university for one year only.
This is all I have for today.
A preposition is a word that links a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to some other part of the sentence.
Prepositions can be tricky for English learners. There is no definite rule or formula for choosing a preposition. In the
beginning stage of learning the language, you should try to identify a preposition when reading or listening in English
and recognize its usage.
to the office
at the desk
on the table
in an hour
about myself
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A preposition is used to show direction, location, or time, or to introduce an object.

Here are a few common prepositions and examples.
On
Used to express a surface of something:
I put an egg on the kitchen table.
The paper is on my desk.
Used to specify days and dates:
The garbage truck comes on Wednesdays.
I was born on the 14th day of June in 1988.
Used to indicate a device or machine, such as a phone or computer:
He is on the phone right now.
She has been on the computer since this morning.
My favorite movie will be on TV tonight.
Used to indicate a part of the body:
The stick hit me on my shoulder.
He kissed me on my cheek.
I wear a ring on my finger.
Used to indicate the state of something:
Everything in this store is on sale.
The building is on fire.
At
Used to point out specific time:
I will meet you at 12 p.m.
The bus will stop here at 5:45 p.m.
Used to indicate a place:
There is a party at the club house.
There were hundreds of people at the park.
We saw a baseball game at the stadium.
Used to indicate an email address:
Please email me at abc@defg.com.
Used to indicate an activity:
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He laughed at my acting.
I am good at drawing a portrait.
In
Used for unspecific times during a day, month, season, year:
She always reads newspapers in the morning.
In the summer, we have a rainy season for three weeks.
The new semester will start in March.
Used to indicate a location or place:
She looked me directly in the eyes.
I am currently staying in a hotel.
My hometown is Los Angeles, which is in California.
Used to indicate a shape, color, or size:
This painting is mostly in blue.
The students stood in a circle.
This jacket comes in four different sizes.
Used to express while doing something:
In preparing for the final report, we revised the tone three times.
A catch phrase needs to be impressive in marketing a product.
Used to indicate a belief, opinion, interest, or feeling:
I believe in the next life.
We are not interested in gambling.
With
Used to indicate being together or being involved:
I ordered a sandwich with a drink.
He was with his friend when he saw me.
She has been working with her sister at the nail shop.
The manager will be with you shortly.
Used to indicate "having":
I met a guy with green eyes.
Were you the one talking with an accent?
People with a lot of money are not always happy.
Used to indicate "using":
I wrote a letter with the pen you gave me.
This is the soup that I made with rice and barley.
He cut my hair with his gold scissors.
Used to indicate feeling:
I am emailing you with my sincere apology.
He came to the front stage with confidence.
Used to indicate agreement or understanding:
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Are you with me?

Yes, I am completely with you.
She agrees with me.
Over
Used to indicate movement from one place to another:
Come over to my house for dinner sometime.
Could you roll over?
They sent over a gift for his promotion.
Used to indicate movement downward:
The big tree fell over on the road.
Can you bend over and get the dish for me?
He pushed it over the edge.
Used to indicate more than an expected number or amount:
This amount is over our prediction.
Kids twelve and over can watch this movie.
The phone rang for over a minute.
Used to indicate a period of time:
I worked there over a year.
She did not sleep there over this past month.
By
Used to indicate proximity:
Can I sit by you?
He was standing by me.
The post office is by the bank.
Used to indicate the person that does something in a passive voice sentence:
The microwave was fixed by the mechanic.
The flowers were delivered by a postman.
The branch office was closed by the head office.
Used to indicate an action with a particular purpose:
You can pass the exam by preparing for it.
I expressed my feeling toward her by writing a letter.
She finally broke the record by pure effort.
Used to indicate a mean or method:
Please send this package to Russia by airmail.
I came here by subway.
___________________________________________
More grammer
Active and passive voice
Examples
Rules:
Only Transitive Verb has two voices - Active and Passive Voices
Subjects, Verb and Objects
Subjects - One who does an action.
Verb - Action is called verb.
Objects - One who is affected by the action of subject.
Example :
The teacher punished the boy.
Subject - teacher
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Verb - punished
Object - boy
The teacher punished the boy.
(Active Voice)
When this sentence is converted to passive voice the 'object' act as 'subject' and vice-versa.
The boy was punished by the teacher.
(Passive Voice)
Subject - teacher
Verb - punished
Object - teacher
Example :
The dog bit the man.
(Active Voice))
The man was bitten by the dog.
(Passive Voice))
I gave him a rupee.
(Active Voice))
A rupee was given to him by me.
(Passive Voice))
He was given a rupee by me.
(Passive Voice))
When Active Voice contains two object the passive voice can be written in 2 forms such as..
Example :
The teacher gave me two books.
(Active Voice))
Two books were given to me by the teacher.
(Passive Voice))
I was given two books by the teacher.
(Passive Voice))
Here 'two books'(Direct Object) and 'me'(Indirect Object) are the two objects.)
I gave him a rupee.
(Active Voice))
A rupee was given to him by me.
(Passive Voice)
He was given a rupee by me.
(Passive Voice))
If Active Voice contains 'Continous Form Of Verb(verb showing a continous action) then use 'being' with verb in
Passive Voice
Example :
Juli is writing a letter.
(Active Voice))
A letter is being written by juli.
(Passive Voice))
If Active Voice is in 'Perfect Tense' then use 'been' in Passive Voice
Example :
John has killed a snake.
(Active Voice))
A snake has been killed by John.
(Passive Voice))
If Active Voice is in 'Future Tense' then use 'been' in Passive Voice
Example :
He will have brought some oranges.
(Active Voice))
Some oranges will have been brought by him.
(Passive Voice))
Examples of Passive
Tense Subject Verb
Simple Present Active:
Passive:
A letter
Simple Past
Active:

Object
Rita
writes a letter.
is written
by Rita.
Rita
wrote a letter.
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Passive:
A letter
Present Perfect Active:
Passive:
A letter
Future IActive: Rita
Passive:
A letter
Examples of Passive

was written
by Rita.
Rita
has written
a letter.
has been written
by Rita.
will write
a letter.
will be written by Rita.

Tense Subject Verb Object

Present Progressive
Active: Rita
is writing
a letter.
Passive:
A letter is being written by Rita.
Past Progressive
Active: Rita
was writing
a letter.
Passive:
A letter was being written
by Rita.
Past Perfect
Active: Rita
had written
a letter.
Passive:
A letter had been written
by Rita.
Future II
Active: Rita
will have written
a letter.
Passive:
A letter will have been written by Rita.
Conditional I Active: Rita
would write
a letter.
Passive:
A letter would be written
by Rita.
Conditional II Active: Rita
would have written
a letter.
Passive:
A letter would have been written
by Rita.
Passive Sentences with Two Objects
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject,
the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus
on.
Subject Verb Object 1
Object 2
Active: Rita
wrote a letter to me.
Passive:
A letter was written
to me by Rita.
Passive:
I
was written
a letter by Rita.
Active/Passive Voice Rules Chart
The object of the verb takes the position of Subject.The Subject of the verb in the active voice becomes the object and
is usually preceeded by the preposition 'by'.The tense of the verb in the passive voice remains the same as in the active
voice.In the passive voice, third form of the verb is used.
Tense Rules
Present Indefinite Tense is/am/are + V3
Present Continuous Tense
is/am/are + being+V3;
Present Perfect Tense has/have + been + V3
Past Indefinite Tense was/were + V3
Past Continuous Tense was/were + being +V3
Past Perfect Tense
had + been + V3;
Future Indefinite Tense ;
will/shall + be + V3
Future Perfect Tense
will/shall + have+been + V3
Modal Verb: will, shall, would should, can, could, may, might,must,ought to + V1
Modal Verb + be + V3
Infinity: to + V1
to be + V3
I, We, He, She, They are changed into tome, us, him, her, them
Take care of singular and plural nature of nouns or pronouns. Verb/helping verb requires to be adjusted accordingly.
Interrogative sentences beginning with 'wh' words like what, why, when etc. thequestion word is retained in the
beginning of the sentence. An interrogative sentence in theactive voice remains an interrogative in the passive form.
An imperative sentence is a sentence showing order, or request. So, accordingly, in the passive voice, we say: You are
requested/ordered/advised + infinive with 'to'.
Sentences involving order/advice are preferably changed into passive by using the word'let' or 'should'. Please close
the door. You are requested to close the door. Save your soul. Your soul should be saved. Let your soul be saved. Do it.
Let it be done. It should be done. In some sentence the subject is understood type. Here the subject has to be
suppliedaccording to the context while changing them into active form. The thief was arrested. (by the police.)
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Preoposition attached with the verbs in the active form continue to be attached with themeven in the passive form.
Please listen to him. You are requested to listen to him. He turneddown my proposal. My proposal was tuned down by
him.k In the case of a verb having two objects in Active Voice, either of them can be retained inthe passive. Hari gave
me an apple. I was given an apple by Hari. An apple was given to me byHari.
Intransitive verbs do not have passive forms. I go to school. Go is intransitive verb. Sono passive form. What is done,
cannot be undone. What people do, they cannot undo.
Quasi Passive Verbs: The rose smells sweet. The rose is sweet when smelt. Quinine tastes bitter. Quinine is bitter when
tasted. Lemons taste sour. Lemons are sour when tasted.
With some verbs, preposition 'by' is not used. Like know (to), surprise (at), annoy (with),contain (in), vex (with),
please (with), displease (at), alarm (at), line (with), throng (with)
------------Articles
Intro
Type of article
Usage
The 3 articles in English are a, an and the.
The learner has to decide noun-by-noun which one of the articles to use.
The word a (which becomes an when the next word begins with a vowel - a, e, i, o, u) is called the indefinite article
because the noun it goes with is indefinite or general.
The meaning of the article a is similar to the number one, but one is stronger and gives more emphasis.
It is possible to say I have a book or I have one book, but the second sententence emphasizes that I do not have two or
three or some other number of books.
The word the is known as the definite article and indicates a specific thing. The difference between the sentences I sat
on a chair and I sat on the chair is that the second sentence refers to a particular, specific chair, not just any chair.
Many nouns, especially singular forms of countable nouns must have an article. In English, it is not possible to say I
sat on chair without an article, but a demonstrative or possessive adjective can be used instead of an article as in the
sentences I sat on that chair and I sat on his chair.
Indefinite Articles
'a or an' are indefinite articles and are used when to say about not a definite person, place or thing.
Example :
I saw a girl.(any girl --not definite)
He gave me an orange.
Definite Articles
'the' is called definite article and is used when to say about a definite person, place or thing.
Example :
I saw the girl who secured the first rank.(girl --is definite)
Usage Of Definite Articles
'the' is used before the following common noun.
Example : the sun, the moon, the planet, the sky, the earth
'the' is used before a particular person or thing already referred to.
Example : The boy whom I met yesterday.
The book that I gave you.
'the' is used before some books.
Example :
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The Ramayana
The Koran.
The Bible.
'the' is used before name of rivers,mountain,seas,oceans,islands..etc.
Example : The Ganges
The Nile.
The Laccadive.
'the' is used before a singular noun that represents the whole class.
Example : The cowis a domestic animal.
The rose smells sweet.
The parrotis a beautiful bird.
'the' is used before superlatives.
Example : The highest mountain in the world.
The best picture I have ever seen.
'the' is not used before proper noun.
Example : Mumbai is a major port in India.
Pacific is the deepest ocean.
Uncount nouns
You cannot say a/an with an uncount noun.
You cannot put a number in front of an uncount noun. (You cannot make an uncount noun plural.)
You use an uncount noun with no article if you mean that thing in general.
You use the with an uncount noun when you are talking about a particular example of that thing.
Count nouns
You can put a number in front of a count noun. (You can make a count noun plural.)
You can put both a/an and the in front of a count noun.
You must put an article** in front of a singular count noun.
You use a plural count noun with no article if you mean all or any of that thing.
You usually use a/an with a count noun the first time you say or write that noun.
You use the with count nouns:
the second and subsequent times you use the noun in a piece of speech or writing
when the listener knows what you are referring to (maybe because there is only one of that thing)
You use an (not a) when the next word (adverb, adjective, noun) starts with a vowel sound.
Note
The above rules apply whether there is or there is not an adjective in front of the noun.
Some nouns can be either count or uncount, depending on the context and meaning:
Do you have paper? I want to draw a picture. (uncount = a sheet of paper)
Can you get me a paper when you're at the shop? (count = a newspaper)
Uncount nouns are often preceded by phrases such as: a lot of .. (luck), a piece of .. (cake), a bottle of .. (milk), a grain
of .. (rice).
* Instead of an article, the noun can also be preceded by a determiner such as this, that, some, many or my, his, our,
etc
Following are some of the most important guidelines listed above, with example sentences:
You use an uncount noun with no article
if you mean all or any of that thing.
I need help!
I don't eat cheese.
Do you like music?
You use the with an uncount
noun when you are talking about
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a particular example of that thing.

Thanks for the help you gave me yesterday.
I didn't eat the cheese. It was green!
Did you like the music they played at the dance?
You usually use a/an with a count noun
the first time you say or write that noun. Can I borrow a pencil, please?
There's a cat in the garden!
Do you have an mp3 player?
You use the with count nouns the second
and subsequent times you use the noun,
or when the listener already knows what you
are referring to (maybe because there is
only one of that thing). Where's the pencil I lent you yesterday?
I think the cat belongs to the new neighbours.
I dropped the mp3 player and it broke.
Please shut the door!
You use a plural count noun with no
article if you mean all or any of that thing.
I don't like dogs.
Do they have children?
I don't need questions. Give me answers!
__________________
Auxillary verbs
Intro
Example question
Usage
Basically, auxiliary verbs are function words, a type of closed class which is constituted of words that have a
grammatical function as opposed to content words, which are an open class of lexical words. An auxiliary verb is used
to add functional or grammatical content to the information expressed by another verb, considered to be the main verb.
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs
Examples:
I am writing a book.
He has done the work.
We will be there in a minute.
Would you help me with this homework?
Can you open the door?
Did you visit New York last holiday?
Do you like chocolate?
They must get there on time.
The 23 auxiliary verbs
am
is
are
was
were
has
have had
do
does did
will
would
shall should
can
could
may
might must
Be
Been Being
Negative Statements and Questions
In many languages, changing a statement to a question is as easy as changing your inflection or punctuation. In
Spanish, for example, you can say, "Ella habla Ingls," or you can ask, "Ella habla Ingls?" The word order does not
change. In English, however, the statement is, "She speaks English," whereas the question changes to, "Does she
speak English?" English questions almost always use an auxiliary verb.
Negative statements in English also generally use an auxiliary verb. We can't just say, "They liked the soup?" We have
to rearrange a bit, adding in the past form of the auxiliary "do" to say, "Did they like the soup?"
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Do / does / did
Do is common for forming questions and making negatives.
Did is used for do and does in the past tense. Do and does is never used for the past.
In statements In questions
In negative sentences
I am 21.
Am I in the right place? I am not. (I aren't)
You are Indian. Are you my new boss? You are not. (you aren't)
We are waiting. Are we nearly there? We are not. (we aren't)
They are excited
Are they the best players on the team? They are not. (they aren't)
He/she is cool. Is he/she old enough to go to bars?
He/she is not. (he/she isn't)
Be = am / is / are
Be can be used as an auxiliary verb or the main verb in a sentence.
Is tells us that an action is happening now or is going to happen in the future.
Be is also used to make passives.
Are is used for they and we.
Was is used for the past tense of am and is.
Were is used for the past tense of you, we and they.
In statements In questions
In negative sentences
I do my homework.
Do I know you?I do not. (I don't)
You do the laundry.
Do you live here?
You do not. (you don't)
We do the washing up. Do we have time?
We do not. (we don't)
They do yoga. Do they come from Vietnam? They do not. (they don't)
He/she does the cleaning.
Does he/she drive to work?
He/she does not. (he/she doesn't)
Have = has / had
Have is used to make the present perfect tense (it is always followed by the past participle).
Has is used for the third person singular.
Had is used for past tenses especially the past perfect tense. It describes an action that began in the past and continues
into the present or that occurred in the recent past.
In statements In negative sentences
I have a dog. I have not. (I haven't/ I've not)
You have something on your shirt.
You have not. (you haven't/you've not)
We have seen it before. We have not. (we haven't/we've not)
They have called me three times.
They have not. (they haven't/they've not)
He/she has lived in America.
He/she has not (he/she hasn't)
Others
Other common auxiliary verbs are:
can, could, may, might, must, ought, should, and would.
These are also known as modal verbs. We use them to show obligation, possibility and necessity.
Progressive Verbs
In present progressive sentences, the verb expresses action that is in progress as the speaker says it. "I am typing" is an
example of present progressive. In it, the main verb is "type" while the auxiliary verb "be" is conjugated according to
the subject, "I."
We also use past and future progressives to explain what was or will be happening when some other event occurred or
will occur.
He was watching TV when the phone rang. Here, "was" is the auxiliary that helps us understand when the main verb
(watch) happened.
We'll be driving to Virginia during your party. The future progressive actually uses two auxiliary verbs (will and be) to
tell us that this action (drive) takes place in the future.
Passive Voice
If you can add the phrase, "by a purple monster" to the end of your verb phrase and still have a grammatically correct
sentence, you're probably using passive voice. Here are some examples:
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The chair was moved (by a purple monster) to the other side of the room.
I was hit in the head (by a purple monster) and knocked unconscious (by a purple monster).
It has been decided (by a purple monster) that the play will be canceled (by a purple monster).
There's nothing grammatically wrong with passive voice; it's an excellent use of the verb "be." It's just not very
exciting writing. It's more interesting to say:
A purple monster moved the chair across the room.
A purple monster hit me in the head and knocked me out.
A purple monster has decided to cancel the play. Take it up with him.
Perfect Tenses
The perfect tenses in English explain the order of things. When we use present perfect, we are explaining what has
happened up until now. Past perfect explains what had happened in the past before something else happened in the
past. And future perfect tells us what will have happened up to a certain point in the future.
All the perfect tenses use at least one auxiliary verb, "have."
I have visited Stockholm many times.
He had seen many cathedrals, but none so grand as that one.
The future perfect also uses "will."
We will have traveled to every country in the world after this trip.
And the progressive perfect tenses also use "be."
She has been living in Sweden for 10 years.
He had been touring Europe for 3 months.
We will have been flying for 31 hours by the time we get home.
________________
In the English language, there are two ways of conveying what someone else has said: direct/quoted speech and
indirect/ reported speech.
Direct/quoted speech, involves quoting the exact words uttered by the person, within inverted commas or quotation
marks. For example:She said, "I won't be coming home tonight"is an example of direct speech. Note that in this type
of speech, a comma is most often used before starting the exact quote within the inverter commas.
Indirect/reported speech, on the other hand, does not have to be within quotes or reported word-to-word. In fact,
unless one is relaying the exact words spoken, one should never use quotation marks. For example: She told us that
she wouldn't be coming home that night is an example of reported speech. Note that the verb tense necessarily changes
in reported speech. This is because when we report speech, we are talking, obviously, about something that was said in
the past. Hence, it becomes necessary to use the past tense of the verb.
DIRECT SPEECH
REPORTED SPEECH
He said, "I'm fine."
He said that he was fine.
He said, "I've been married for three years."
He said that he had been married for three years.
He said, "I went to the theatre yesterday."
He said that he had gone to the theatre the day before.
He said, "The show was already underway when the chief guest arrived." He said that the show was already underway
when the chief guest arrived. (no change in tense)
Another thing to note is that modal verbs (will, can, must, shall, may) also change, taking their past tense forms
(would, could, had to, should, might). This also means that would, could, should, might andought to do not change
forms when reported.
Direct and indirect speech
You can answer the question "What did he/she say?" in two ways:
by repeating the words spoken ( direct speech )
by reporting the words spoken ( indirect or reported speech ).
Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words
spoken between inverted commas ("....") and there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's
being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation
Examples:
She says "What time will you be home?"
She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! "
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"There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.

John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."
Reported Speech
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use
reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas
are not used.
Examples:
She said, "I saw him." ----- She said that she had seen him .
'That' may be omitted:
Examples:
She told him that she was happy.
She told him she was happy.
'Say' and 'tell':
Examples:
Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.
'Talk' and 'speak' are used:
- to describe the action of communicating:
Examples:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.
- with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.
Question forms and reported speech:
1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to
use 'do' or 'did' :
Examples:
"Where does Peter live?" She asked him where Peter lived .
2. Yes / no questions : This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether + clause :
Examples:
"Do you speak English?" He asked me if I spoke English .
"Are you British or American?" He asked me whether I was British or American.
"Is it raining?" She asked if it was raining .
"Have you got a computer?" He wanted to know whether I had a computer .
"Can you type?" She asked if I could type .
"Did you come by train?" He enquired whether I had come by train .
"Have you been to Bristol before?" She asked if I had been to Bristol before .
3. Question words :
This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word + clause. The clause
contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change.
Examples:
"What is your name?" he asked me. He asked me what my name was .
"How old is your mother?", he asked. He asked how old her mother was .
The policman said to the boy, "Where do you live?" The policeman asked the boy where he lived .
"What time does the train arrive?" she asked. She asked what time the train arrived .
"When can we have dinner?" she asked. She asked when they could have dinner .
Peter said to John, "Why are you so late?" Peter asked the John why he was so late .
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-------------------------Hopes and intentions

HOPES, INTENTIONS & PROMISES
When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by a that-clause or a toinfinitive:
Examples:
"I'll pay you the money tomorrow."
He promised to pay me the money the next day.
He promised that he would pay me the money the next day.
Other verbs used in this pattern include:
hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, swear .
Examples:
"I'll be back by lunchtime."
He promised to be back by lunchtime.
He promised that he would be back by lunchtime.
"We should arrive in London before nightfall."
They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall.
They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall.
"Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!"
He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
Time/place references change when using reported speech
Examples:
"I will see you here tomorrow ", she said. She said that she would see me there the next day .
The most common of these changes are shown below:
Today that day
"I saw him today ", she said.
She said that she had seen him that day .
"I saw him yesterday ", she said.
She said that she had seen him the day before .
"I met her the day before yesterday ", he said.
He said that he had met her two days before .
Tomorrow
the next/following day
"I'll see you tomorrow ", he said
He said that he would see me the next day.
The day after tomorrow in two days time/ two days later
"We'll come the day after tomorrow ", they said.
They said that they would come in two days time/ two days later .
Next week/month/year the following week/month/year
"I have an appointment next week ", she said.
She said that she had an appointment the following week .
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Last week/month/year the previous/week/month/year

"I was on holiday last week ", he told us.
He told us that he had been on holiday the previous week .
ago
before
"I saw her a week ago ," he said.
He said he had seen her a week before .
this (for time) that
"I'm getting a new car this week", she said.
She said she was getting a new car that week.
this/that (adjectives)
the
"Do you like this shirt?" he asked
He asked if I liked the shirt.
here
there
He said, "I live here ".
He told me he lived there .
Other changes:
In general, personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural, except when the speaker reports his own
words:
Examples:
I/me/my/mine, you/your/yours ------- him/his/her/hers
we/us/our/ours, you/your/yours ---- they/their/theirs:
He said: "I like your new car." --- He told her that he liked her new car.
I said: "I'm going to my friend's house." ---- I said that I was going to my friend's house.
-----------ORDERS, REQUESTS, SUGGESTIONS
1. When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' with a to-clause .
Examples:
He told me to go away.
The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause .
(The indirect object is the person spoken to.)
Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach,
forbid .
Examples:
a. The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!". The doctor told me to stop smoking .
"Get out of the car!" said the policeman. The policeman ordered him to get out of the car .
"Could you please be quiet," she said. She asked me to be quiet .
The man with the gun said to us, "Don't move!" The man with the gun warned us not to move .
2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern ask + for + object :
Examples
"Can I have an apple?", she asked. She asked for an apple
"Can I have the newspaper, please?" He asked for the newspaper .
"May I have a glass of water?" he said. He asked for a glass of water .
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"Sugar, please." She asked for the sugar .

"Could I have three kilos of onions?" He asked for three kilos of onions .
3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in these clauses:
She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?" She suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the
car. OR She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car.
Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request, propose .
Examples
"It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother. My mother suggested I see the dentist.
The dentist said, "I think you should use a different toothbrush". The dentist recommended that I should use a
different toothbrush.
My manager said, "I think we should examine the budget carefully at this meeting." My manager proposed that we
examine the budget carefully at the meeting.
"Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said. She suggested that I sleep overnight at her house.
________
Tense Changes When Using Reported Speech
Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech:
She said, "I am tired." She said that she was tired.
The changes are shown below:
Simple present
Simple past
"I always drink coffee", she said
She said that she always drank coffee.
Present continuous
Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he explained.
He explained that he was reading a book
Simple past
Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.
He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday
Present perfect
Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told me.
He told me that he had been to Spain
Past perfect
Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he explained.
He explained that he had just turned out the light.
Present perfect continuous
Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have been waiting for hours".
They complained that they had been waiting for hours.
Past continuous
Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris", they told me.
They told me that they had been living in Paris.
Future

Present conditional
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"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said

He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Future continuous
Conditional continuous
She said, " I'll be using the car next Friday".
She said that she would be using the car next Friday.
NOTE:
1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original statement was about
something that is still true, e.g.
He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.
2. These modal verbs do not change in reported speech:
might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g.
We explained that it could be difficult to find our house.
She said that she might bring a friend to the party.
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