RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a comprehensive data collection plan whose purpose is to

answer research questions and test research hypothesis.
Thus, designs are detailed prescriptions for solving problems. Problem-solving
in communication may assume either a scientific or a humanistic orientation
Scientific inquiry emphasizes the counting and measuring of data, whereas humanism
often uses reasoned argument to unravel the peculiarities of human communication
processes. Whether scientific or humanistic, all research designs accomplish two
objectives: they specify the elements or units of analysis to be explored and they
delineate the observational conditions under which the elements will be studded.
The elements are required to resolve a research problem; elements may be
individual and group communicators, or they may consist of the communicative:
outputs of individuals and groups. The term "observational conditions" covers all the
activities researchers must perform to answer research questions and test hypotheses
For example;, the researcher must decide whether a given research problem can best
be resolved by traditional empiricism or by a design that blends scientific and
humanistic perspective's. Additionally, researchers must determine whether their
data should be gathered in a structured laboratory environment or in a naturalistic
field setting In general, the specifying of observational cc editions means deciding in
advance of a study exactly what data collection plan is needed to respond to the re-
search problem.

Types of Research Design

Any one research design can be characterized in numerous ways, but the
following eight pairs of classification scheme s are particularly important
(1) Quantitative or qualitative research.
(2) Interpretive or functional research.
(3) Experimental or naturalistic research.
(4) Laboratory or field research.
(5) Participant or non-participant research.
(6) Overt or unobtrusive research.
(7) Cross-sectional or longitudinal research.
(8) Basic or applied research.

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 When fashioning a comprehensive research plan, the researcher should put
together a "package" design combining in a consistent way the characteristics of one
of the two alternatives posed by each of these contrasting approaches. Thus, one's
final research design can be classified on all eight dimensions.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Mass media research, like all research, can be qualitative or quantitative. The
only difference between qualitative and quantitative research is the style of
questioning. Qualitative research uses flexible questioning; quantitative uses
standardized questions. Assuming that sample sizes are large enough and that the
samples are adequately selected, the results from both methods can be generalized to
the population from which the sample was drawn.

Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves several methods of data collection, such as focus
groups, field observation, in-depth interviews, and case studies. In all of these
methods, the questioning approach is varied. In other words, although the researcher
enters the project with a specific set of questions, follow-up questions are developed
as needed. The variables in qualitative research may or may not be measured or
quantified.
In some cases, qualitative research has certain advantages. The methods allow
a researcher to view behavior in a natural setting without the artificiality that
sometimes surrounds experimental or survey research. In addition, qualitative
techniques can increase a researcher's depth of understanding of the phenomenon
under investigation. This is especially true when the phenomenon has not been
investigated previously. Finally, qualitative methods are flexible and allow the re-
searcher to pursue new areas of interest. A questionnaire is unlikely to provide data
about questions that were not asked, but a person conducting a field observation or
focus group might discover facets of a subject that were not considered before the
study began.
There are, however, some disadvantages associated with qualitative methods.
First, sample sizes are sometimes too small (sometimes as small as one) to allow the
researcher to generalize the data beyond the sample selected for the particular study.

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For this reason, qualitative research is often the preliminary step to further
investigation rather than the final phase of a project. The information collected from
qualitative methods is often used to prepare a more elaborate quantitative analysis,
although the qualitative data may in fact constitute all the information needed for a
particular study.
Reliability of the data can also be a problem, since single observers are
describing unique events. Because a person doing qualitative research must become
closely involved with the respondents, it is possible to lose objectivity when
collecting data. A researcher who becomes too close to the study may lose the
necessary professional detachment.
Finally, if qualitative research is not properly planned, the project may
produce nothing of value. Qualitative research appears to be easy to conduct, but
projects must be carefully planned to ensure that they focus on key issues.

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research also involves several methods of data collection, such as
telephone surveys, mail surveys, and Internet surveys. In these methods, the
questioning is static or standardized all respondents are asked the same questions.
In the past some researchers claimed that the difference between qualitative
and quantitative research related to only two things:
1. Qualitative research uses smaller samples of subjects or respondents.
2. Because of the small sample size, results from qualitative research could
not be generalized to the population from which the samples were drawn.
While some qualitative research may be affected by these two points, the fact
is that sample sizes in both qualitative and quantitative can be the same.
Quantitative research requires that the variables under consideration be
measured. This form of research is concerned with how often a variable is present and
generally uses numbers to communicate this amount.
Quantitative research has certain advantages. One is that the use of numbers
allows greater precision in reporting results. For example, the Violence Index
(Gerbner, Gross, Morgan dc Signorielli, 1980), a quantitative measuring device,
makes it possible to report the exact increase or decrease in violence from one
television season to another, whereas qualitative research could report only whether

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there was more or less violence.
For the past several years, some friction has existed in the mass media field
and in other disciplines between those who favor quantitative methods and those who
prefer qualitative methods. Most researchers have now come to realize that both
methods are important in understanding any phenomenon. In fact, the term
triangulation, commonly used by marine navigators, frequently comes up in
conversations about communication research. If a ship picks up signals from only one
navigational aid, it is impossible to know the vessel's precise location. However, if
signals from more than one source are detected, elementary geometry can be used to
pinpoint the ship's location. In this book, the term triangulation refers to the use of
both qualitative methods and quantitative methods to fully understand the nature of a
research problem.
Although most of this book is concerned with skills relevant to quantitative
research, we do not imply that quantitative research is in any sense better than
qualitative research.
It is not. Each approach has value and the decision to use one or the other
depends on the goals of the research.

Methods of Data Collection in Quantitative Research

Mail Surveys
Mail surveys involve sending self-administered questionnaires to a sample of
respondents. Stamped reply envelopes are enclosed to encourage respondents to send
their completed questionnaires back to the researcher. Mail surveys are popular in
some types of businesses because they can secure a lot of information without
spending a lot of time and money. However, novice researchers must understand that
mail surveys are usually difficult to conduct because most respondents simply throw
the questionnaire in the trash can. In research terms, the response rate for mail surveys
is very low usually under 40%. The general stages of a mail survey are discussed
next. Although the steps are listed in numerical sequence, many of them are often
done in a different order or even simultaneously.

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Telephone Surveys
Telephone surveys and personal interviews use trained interviewers who ask
questions orally and record the responses, usually on a computer terminal. The
respondents generally do not see the actual questionnaire. Since telephone and
personal interviewing techniques have certain similarities, much of what follows
applies to both.
Telephone surveys fill a middle ground between mail surveys and personal
interviews. They offer more control and higher response rates than most mail surveys,
but they are limited in the types of questions that can be asked. Telephone interviews
are generally more expensive than mail surveys but less expensive than face-to-face
interviews. Because of these factors, telephone surveys seem to represent a
compromise between the other two techniques, and this may account for their
enormous popularity in mass media research.

Personal Interviews
Personal interviews usually involve inviting a respondent to a field service
location or a research office (called a one-on-one interview). Sometimes interviews
are conducted at a person's place of work or at home. There are two basic types of
interviews structured and unstructured. In a structured interview, standardized
questions are asked in a predetermined order; relatively little freedom is given to
interviewers. In an unstructured interview, broad questions are asked that allow
interviewers freedom to determine what further questions to ask to obtain the required
information. Structured interviews are easy to tabulate and analyze, but they do not
achieve the depth or expanse of unstructured interviews. Conversely, the unstructured
type elicits more detail but takes a great deal of time to score and analyze.

Internet Surveys
During the late 1990s, researchers naturally capitalized on the popularity of
the Internet, and collecting questionnaire data via the Internet is now commonplace.
The process is very simple: A respondent is recruited by telephone, letter, or email
and is sent, via email, a questionnaire to complete. When finished, the respondent
simply transmits the questionnaire back to the research company or the business that
is conducting the study.

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Methods of Data Collection in Qualitative Research
Field Observations
Field observation was rarely used in mass media research before 1980.
Cooper, Potter, and Dupagne (1994) found that about 2% of all published studies
from 1965 to 1989 relied on observation. Recently, however, field observations have
become more common in the research literature (Anderson 1987; Lindlof 1987, 1991,
1995).
Field observation is useful for collecting data and for generating hypotheses
and theories. Like all qualitative techniques, it is concerned more with description and
explanation than with measurement and quantification.

Focus Groups
The focus group, or group interviewing, is a research strategy for
understanding audience attitudes and behavior. From 6 to 12 people are interviewed
simultaneously, with a moderator leading the respondents in a relatively unstructured
discussion about the focal topic. The identifying characteristic of the focus group is
controlled group discussion, which is used to gather preliminary information for a
research project, to help develop questionnaire items for survey research, to
understand the reasons behind a particular phenomenon, to see how a group of people
interpret a certain phenomenon, or to test preliminary ideas or plans.

Intensive Interviews
Intensive interviews, or in-depth interviews, are essentially a hybrid of the
one-on-one interview approach. Intensive interviews are unique for these reasons:
• They generally use smaller samples.
• They provide detailed background about the reasons why respondents give
specific answers. Elaborate data concerning respondents' opinions, values,
motivations, recollections, experiences, and feelings are obtained.
• Intensive interviews allow for lengthy observation of respondents'
nonverbal responses.
• They are usually very long. Unlike personal interviews used in survey
research that may last only a few minutes, an intensive interview may last
several hours and may take more than one session.

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 • Intensive interviews are customized to individual respondents. In a
personal interview, all respondents are usually asked the same questions.
Intensive interviews allow interviewers to form questions based on each
respondent's answers.
• They can be influenced by the interview climate. To a greater extent than
with personal interviews, the success of intensive interviews depends on
the rapport established between the interviewer and the respondent.

Case Studies
The case study method is another common qualitative research technique.
Simply put, a case study uses as many data sources as possible to systematically
investigate individuals, groups, organizations, or events. Case studies are conducted
when a researcher needs to understand or explain a phenomenon. They are frequently
used in medicine, anthropology, clinical psychology, management science, and
history. Sigmund Freud wrote case studies of his patients; economists wrote case
studies of the cable TV industry for the FCC; and the list goes on and on.
Merriam (1988) lists four essential characteristics of case study research:
1. Particularistic. This means that the case study focuses on a particular situation,
event, program, or phenomenon, making it a good method for studying practical,
real-life problems.
2. Descriptive. The final product of a case study is a detailed description of the topic
under study.
3. Heuristic. A case study helps people to understand what's being studied. New
interpretations, new perspectives, new meaning, and fresh insights are all goals of
a case study.
4. Inductive. Most case studies depend on inductive reasoning. Principles and
generalizations emerge from an examination of the data. Many case studies
attempt to discover new relationships rather than verify existing hypotheses.

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 SAMPLING
General Definitions
1. A selection taken from a larger group (the "population") so that you can
examine it to find out something about the larger group.
2. Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the
population. So that a study of the sample and an understanding of its
properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such
properties or character tics to the population elements

Mary John Smith says “Sampling is a process of Choosing from a

population some smaller group that represents the populations important
characteristics”.
Sampling is an important aspect of data collection The sampling process
comprises several stages:
• Defining the population of concern
• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure
• Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
• Determining the sample size
• Implementing the sampling plan
• Sampling and data collecting
• Reviewing the sampling process
Population definition
Successful statistical practice is based on focused problem definition. In
sampling, this includes defining the population from which our sample is drawn. A
population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one
wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather
information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a
representative sample (or subset) of that population.
Sampling frame which has the property that we can identify every single
element and include any in our sample. The most straightforward type of frame is a
list of elements of the population (preferably the entire population) with appropriate

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contact information. For example, in an opinion poll, possible sampling frames
include:
• Electoral register
• Telephone directory

Probability and nonprobability sampling

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population
has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability
can be accurately determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to
produce unbiased estimates of population totals, by weighting sampled units
according to their probability of selection.
Example: We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given
street. We visit each household in that street, identify all adults living there, and
randomly select one adult from each household. (For example, we can allocate each
person a random number, generated from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and
select the person with the highest number in each household). We then interview the
selected person and find their income. People living on their own are certain to be
selected, so we simply add their income to our estimate of the total. But a person
living in a household of two adults has only a one-in-two chance of selection. To
reflect this, when we come to such a household, we would count the selected person's
income twice towards the total. (In effect, the person who is selected from that
household is taken as representing the person
who isn't selected.)

Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample ('SRS') of a given size, all such subsets of the
frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal
probability of selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any
given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and
similarly for triples, and so on). This minimises bias and simplifies analysis of results.
In particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good

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indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to
estimate the accuracy of results.
Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to
some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the
selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population
size/sample size). It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in
the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the
list. A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone
directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type of
probability sampling. It is easy to implement and the stratification induced can make
it efficient, if the variable by which the list is ordered is correlated with the variable of
interest. 'Every 10th' sampling is especially useful for efficient sampling from
databases.

Stratified sampling
Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can
be organized by these categories into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled
as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly
selected[3]. There are several potential benefits to stratified sampling.
First, dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can enable
researchers to draw inferences about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more
generalized random sample.
Second, utilizing a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient
statistical estimates (provided that strata are selected based upon relevance to the
criterion in question, instead of availability of the samples). Even if a stratified
sampling approach does not lead to increased statistical efficiency, such a tactic will
not result in less efficiency than would simple random sampling, provided that each
stratum is proportional to the group’s size in the population.
Third, it is sometimes the case that data are more readily available for
individual, pre-existing strata within a population than for the overall population; in

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such cases, using a stratified sampling approach may be more convenient than
aggregating data across groups (though this may potentially be at odds with the
previously noted importance of utilizing criterion-relevant strata).
Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different
sampling approaches can be applied to different strata, potentially enabling
researchers to use the approach best suited (or most cost-effective) for each identified
subgroup within the population

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' or 'multistage
sampling': in the first stage a sample of areas is chosen; in the second stage a sample
of respondents within those areas is selected. Multistage sampling Multistage
sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units
are embedded one in the other. The first stage consists of constructing the clusters that
will be used to sample from. In the second stage, a sample of primary units is
randomly selected from each cluster (rather than using all units contained in all
selected clusters). In following stages, in each of those selected clusters, additional
samples of units are selected, and so on. All ultimate units (individuals, for instance)
selected at the last step of this procedure are then surveyed.

Nonprobability sampling
It is any sampling method where some elements of the population have no
chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage
(''undercovered'), or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined.
It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of
interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of
sampling errors. These conditions give rise to exclusion bias, placing limits on how
much information a sample can provide about the population. Information about the
relationship between sample and population is limited, making it difficult to
extrapolate from the sample to the population.
Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first
person to answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a

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nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g.
an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to
answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer
calls) and it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.

Types of non probability sampling

Nonprobability Sampling includes: Accidental Sampling, Quota Sampling
and Purposive Sampling. In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability
design into a nonprobability design if the characteristics of nonresponse are not well
understood, since nonresponse effectively modifies each element's probability of
being sampled.

Quota sampling
In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive
sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects
or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an
interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45
and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability
sampling. In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random. For example
interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful

Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling (sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling) is
a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that
part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected
because it is readily available and convenient. The researcher using such a sample
cannot scientifically make generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough

Snowball sampling
It is a technique for developing a research sample where existing study
subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances. Thus the sample

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group appears to grow like a rolling snowball. As the sample builds up, enough data is
gathered to be useful for research. This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations which are difficult for researchers to access; example populations would
be drug users or prostitutes

Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling

The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited number of
people that have expertise in the area being researched 1. Purposive Sampling
A purposive sample is one which is selected by the researcher subjectively.
The researcher attempts to obtain sample that appears to him/her to be representative
of the population and will usually try to ensure that a range from one extreme to the
other is included.
Often used in political polling - districts chosen because their pattern has in
the past provided good idea of outcomes for whole electorate.

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References

1. Wimmer, R.D. (1995). Comparison of CATI and non-CATI interviewing.

Unpublished company paper.

2. Walizer, M.H., & Wienir, P.L. (1978). Research methods and analysis:
Searching for relationships. New York: Harper & Row.

3. Chenail R.J. (1995). Presenting qualitative data. Qualitative Report, 2(3), 1-12.

4. Gieber, W. (1956). Across the desk: A study of 16 telegraph editors.

Journalism Quarterly, 33, 423-432.

5. Lindlof, T. R. (1991). The qualitative study of media audiences. Journal of

Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 335(1), 23-42.

6. Glenn, No. (1977) Cobort analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

7. Huesmann, L. R., & L.D. (1986) Television and the aggressive child.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

8. Mary J. S., (1980) Contemporary communication research methods

Wadsworth Publishing Company Belmont, California.

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