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5.1
MITOSIS
5.1.1
What is Mitosis?
Mitosis is a division of the nuclear to produce two new daughter cells containing
chromosomes identical to the parent cell.
5.1.2
Significant of Mitosis.
1.
Growth:
Mitosis increases the number of cells in all living organisms, thus allowing growth
and development in living organisms.
2.
Repair and replacement:
Mitosis allows dead or damaged cells to be repaired, replaced and generated.
3.
Asexual reproduction:
Mitotic cell division forms the basic of asexual reproduction, in which the
daughter cells produced are genetically identical to the parent cell.
4.
Regeneration
Some animal are able to regenerate whole pats of the body such as starfish
5.1.3
1.
Two types of cells in a sexually reproducing organism:
(a) Somatic cell
all body cells except the reproductive cells, which formed through mitosis
(b) Reproductive cell
reproductive cells or gametes, which formed through meiosis
2.
Chromosomes consist of DNA molecules, which carried genes that
determine the individual
characteristics of an organism.
3.
The number of chromosomes present in the nuclear of each cell is constant
for the species
the two
have the same
referred to as the
homologous
2.
The gametes
number of
set of unpaired
chromosomal
haploid (n).
for example: the nucleus of a typical human reproductive cell / gamete has
23 chromosomes or
n = 23.
5.1.1
The Cell Cycle
1.
The cell cycle is the period that extends from the time a new cell is
produced until the time the
cell completes a cell division.
2.
The cell cycle can be divided into two major phases:
(i)
Interphase (G1, S and G2)
(ii)
Mitotic cell division ( M phase)
1.
The Interphase
accounts for 90% of the cell cycle
is the stage for cells to grow larger and prepare for cell division
occurs gradually and continuously for 8 to 24 hours
the interphase is divided into three 3 shorter stages of subphases:
(i)
G1 (gap or growth phase 1)
(ii)
S (DNA synthesis)
(iii)
G2 (gap or growth phase 2)
During interphase:
Each pair of centriole will later migrate towards the opposite poles of the
cell and help in the
formation of the spindle fibres.
Interphase
Events
G1
Synthesis of DNA
G2 (gap or growth
phase 2)
1.
The M phase
Phases
PROPHASE
METAPHASE
.
In animal cells, the centrioles duplicate
Events
.
During prophase, the chromosomes in the
nucleus condense
and become more tightly coiled.
.
The chromosomes appear shorter and thicker and
are visible
under the light microscope.
.
Each chromosome now consists of a pair of sister
chromatids
joined together at the centromere.
.
In the cytoplasm, the spindle fibres begin to
form and extend
between the centrioles.
.
Each pair of centrioles then migrates to lie at the
opposite poles
of the cell.
.
The chromatids are attached to the fibres of the
spindle by their
centromeres.
.
In most plant cells, the spindle forms without the
presence of
centrioles.
.
At the end of prophase, the nucleolus disappears
and the
nuclear membrane disintegrates.
ANAPHASE
centromere.
.
The sister chromatids are pulled apart to the
opposite poles by
the shortening of the spindle fibres that connect
the
chromosomes to the poles.
.
Once separated, the chromatids are referred to
as daughter
chromosomes.
.
have
TELOPHASE
CYTOKINESIS
into two
daughter cells.
In plant cell:
.
cytokinesis in plant cells is markedly different A
cleavage furrow
does not form. Instead, membrane-encJosed
vesicles gather at
a plant cell's equator between the two nucle
.
The vesicles fuse to form a cell plate (Figure
5.3(a).
.
The cell plate grows outwards until its edges fuse
with the
plasma membrane of the parent cell (Figure
5.3(b)).
.
New cell walls and plasma membranes are
formed from the
contents of the cell plate, which eventually
divide the cell into
two daughter cells (Figure 5.3(c)).
.
At the end of cytokinesis, cellulose fibres are
produced by the
cells to strengthen the new cell walls.
SIMILARITIES
.Cytoplasm and cell membranes are necessary for cytokinesis in both
plants and animals
. Two daughter cells produced after cytokinesis
DIFFERENCES
Aspects
Animal cells
Plant cells
Presence
Animal cells have centriole
Plant cells do not have
of
centrioles
Centriole
Forming of
cell plate
5.1.1
cell:
5.1.1
No
Yes
Cancer cells can intrude on and spread to other tissues which then lead to
the malfunctionof
the tissues and ultimately death.
- Cancer can be caused by many factor.
(a) damage to the DNA
(b) changes in genes (mutation) that control cell division
(c) ionising radiation, for example ultraviolet rays and gamma rays
(d) certain chemical compounds like tar in tobacco smoke
(e) carcinogenic (canser-causing) compound such as formaldehyde
8
5.1.3
The application of knowledge on mitosis in cloning and the
tissue culture technique.
1. Animal Cloning:
(i) What is cloning?
Cloning is a process of producing clones or genetically identical organisms
through asexual production.
(ii) What is animal cloning?
Animal cloning involves transfer of the nucleus from a somatic cell to an ovum
with nucleus removed.
(iii) The outline of animal cloning by using the example of the cloned sheep
Dolly. (How is animal cloning carried out?)
An animal is doned using a nucleus obtained torn an adult tissue Dolly, the
sheep, is genetically identical to the somatic cell donor.
Tissue culture is the growth of tissues of living organisms in a suitable and
sterile culture
medium, containing nutrients and growth hormones.
(ii)
Write down the outline of the tissue culture technique. (How is the tissue
culture technique
carried out?)
1
Small pieces of a plant's leaf, shoot,
bud. stem or root tissues are cut out.
These cut out plant tissues are called
explants.
2
Alternatively, enzymes are used to
digest the cell walls of tissues, for
example, the mesophyll tissue from a
leaf.
This results in naked cells without cell
walls called protoplasts
3
The explants or protoplasts are
sterilised and then placed in a glass
container which contains a nutrient
solution
with
a
fixed
chemical
composition. A culture medium or
growth medium normally consists of a
complex mixture of glucose, amino
acids, minerals and other substances
required for the growth of the tissues.
The culture medium and the
apparatus used must be in sterile
conditions
and
free
from
microorganisms which can contaminate
the tissue culture.
The pH and temperature of the
culture medium also need to be
maintained at optimum levels.
4
The explants or protoplasts begin to
divide by mitosis.
Cell division produces aggregates
of cells.
The aggregate of cells develop into a
callus; an undifferentiated mass of
tissue.
5
The callus develops into a somatic
embryo.
10
pests.
such as cows
slaughtered.
after
they
had
been
5 (a) Cloning and tissue culture techniques 6. New clones may undergo natural
5.2
MEIOSIS
5.2.1
What is Meiosis?
Significant of Meiosis.
1.
Sexual reproduction:
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid (n) gametes during
fertilization.
14
5.2
1.
Meiosis consists of two separate nuclear divisions:
(a) Meiosis I (propahse I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I)
(b) Meiosis II (propahse II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II)
2.
Meiosis I begins with a single diploid parent cell. At the end of meiosis II,
four haploid daughter
cells are produced, each genetically different from the others and from the
parent cell.
Phases
Events
Chromosomes are not clearly
visible.
Replication of DNA and
Duplication
of chromosomes occur.
Chromosomes condense and
become
shorter, thicker and visible
under light
microscope.
Chromosomes duplicate into
two
chromatids.
Homologous chromosomes
come
together to form pairs of
bivalents
through synapsis.
Non-sister chromatids
exchange
segment of DNA (Crossing-over
occurs).
The point where crosing-over
occurs is
chiasmata.
Crosing over result in new
combination
of genes on chromosomes.
At the end of prophase 1, the
nucleolus
and nuclear membrane
disappear.
The centrioles move to the
opposite
poles of the cells.
INTERPHASE
PROPHASE I
15
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE 1
CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis occurs
simultaneously with
telophase 1, resulting in two
haploid
daughter cells.
PROPHASE II
METAPHSE II
ANAPHASE II
Centromeres divide.
Sister chromatids separate
16
into
individual chromosmes.
Each individual chromosome
moves to
the opposite poles of the cells.
TELOPHASE II and CYTOKINESIS
5.3
Comparing and contrasting
(a) Meiosis I and Meiosis II
SIMILARITIES
Phase
Prophase
DIFFERENCES
Meiosis I
17
Meiosis II
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Feature
Type of cell that undergo
the process
DIFFERENCES
Mitosis
Behavior of homologous
chromosomes during
prophase
Chiasmata
18
Meiosis
Crossing over
Behavior of homologous
chromosomes during
metaphase
Number of nuclear divisions
per DNA replication
Number of daughter cells
produced at the end of the
process
Chromosomal number the
daughter cells
Genetic content
Genetic variation
Purpose
Significant
19