UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Critical Factors Influencing Employment of Disabled Persons

in Malaysia

PRABHA RAMAKRISHNAN
MPA (UDC)

International Graduate School of Business

Division of Business and Enterprise
University of South Australia
Submitted on this 12th of May in the year 2007
for the partial requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration

OF .SOU1H AUSTRALIA
L4BRAftY

DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

PORTFOLIO/DISSERTATION SUBMISSION
SUPERVISOR APPROVAL DECLARATION

Candidate Name:

Prabha Ramakrishnan

UniSA Candidate ID Number:

00112659G

Dear Sir

To the best of my knowledge, the portfolio contains all of the candidate's own work
completed under my supervision, and is worthy of examination.
I have approved for submission the portfolio that is being submitted for examination.

February 2007

Signature: Principal Supervisor

Date

Dr. Leo Ann Mean

Name

ShehSW

21 February 2007

Signature: Associate Supervisor

Date

Dr. Sheh Seow Wah

Name

Supported by:

Kolar
Chair, IGSB Doctoral Academic Review Committee
Dr.

II

Date

SIGNED DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the DBA degree is my
own work and that all contributions from any other persons or sources are properly and
duly cited. I further declare that it does not constitute any previous work whether
published or otherwise. In making this declaration I understand and acknowledge any
breaches of the declaration constitute academic misconduct, which may result in my
expulsion from the program and/or exclusion from the award of the degree.

PRABHA RAMAKRISI-[NAN
MPA (University of DC, USA)
BEng (Manipal Institute of Technology, India)

May 12, 2007

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DISSERTATION SUBMISSION: SUPERVTSOR APPROVAL DECLARATION

ii

SIGNED DECLARATION

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iv

LIST OF FIGURES

xii

LIST OF TABLES

xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES

xvii

ABSTRACT

xviii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1

Overview of the Study

1.2

Background of Disability

1.3

Profile of Malaysia

(a)

Geography

(b)

Demographics

(c)

Labour Force

(d)

Government

1.4

About Disability in Malaysia

1.5

About Disability in the Future

11

1.6

Problem Statement

12

1 .7

Research Objectives

13

1.8

SignificanceandNeed

15

1.9

Assumptions

16

1.10

Operational Definitions

17

iv

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

22

2.1

Introduction

22

2.2

Talented Disability: the Power Within

25

2.3

Understanding the Concept of Disability

26

2.3.1

Definition of Disability and its Implications

27

(a)

Nagi's Definition

27

(b)

ADA Definition

28

(c)

WHO Disability Definitions and Classifications

28

(i)

International Classification of Impairments,

Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH)

(ii)

International Classification of [mpairments,

Activities and Participation (ICIDH-2)

(iii)

(e)
2.3.2

31

International Classification of Functioning, Disability

and Health (ICF)

(d)

28

33

Definitions of disability found in the disability laws of Australia,

Cambodia, China, India, Japan and Thailand

35

Definition and Classification of Disability in Malaysia

37

Implications of Models of Disability

39

(a)

Individual / Medical Model of Disability

39

(b)

Social Model of Disability

41

2.4

Understanding the Meaning of Work

43

2.5

Employment: Regional and Local Issues

46

(a)

Economic Trends

48

(b)

Employment Trends

49

(c)

2.6

Employment Options

54

(i)

Open or Competitive Employment

54

(ii)

Sheltered Employment

55

(iii)

Supported Employment

55

(iv)

Social Enterprise Employment

56

Other Issues Related to Disability in Malaysia

57

(a)

Malaysian Disability Legislation and employment.

57

(b)

Government Incentives towards Employment of Disabled People

59

(c)

Some Management Limitations

60

2.7

Organizational Commitment to Employment of Disabled Persons

61

2.7.1

Relationship between Disability and Hiring Decisions

61

2.7.2

Disability Training

63

(a)

Training of Disabled Employees

65

(b)

Training of Non-Disabled Employees

66

(c)

The Employer's Role in Training of Employees

67

2.8

Understanding Attitude towards Disabled Workers

68

2.8.1

The Role of Culture within Society.

70

2.8.2

(a)

Worldviews

71

(b)

Human Rights

72

Role of Organisational Culture

73

(a)

Business Values

74

(b)

Corporate Responsibility

74

(c)

The Changing Attributes of Work.

75

2.9

Understanding Policies on Disability

75

2.9.1

Malaysian Disability Policies

79

2.9.2

Polices Affecting Accommodation

82

vi

2.9.3

Shortcomings of Policies

87

2.10

Use of Enabling Technology at the Workplace

88

2. 11

Barriers to Employment of Disabled People in Malaysia

92

2.12

Summary

93

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

95

3.1

Introduction

95

3.2

Population

95

3.3

Sampling Method

96

3.4

Instrumentation

97

3.5

Adaptation of the Questionnaire.

97

3.6

Description of Instrument

98

3.7

Survey Method

99

3.8

Data Collection Method

100

3.9

Establishing the Goodness of Measures

101

(a)

Reliability

101

(b)

Validity

102

3.10

Pilot test

3.11

Data Collection Procedures

104

3.12

Research Design and Analysis

105

3.13

Research Questions

106

3.14

Hypotheses

106

3.15

Theoretical Framework

107

3.16

Data Analysis Method

109

3.17

Summary

112

vii

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS OF DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

114

4.1

Introduction

114

4.2

Demographic Characteristics

114

4.2.1

Analysis of Respondents' Profile

114

4.2.2

4.3

(a)

Functions Responsible for in the Current Job held by Respondents

11 5

(b)

Employee Reporting: Main Office or Branch Office

116

(c)

Number of Years in Current Position

116

(d)

Disability Experiences of the Respondent

117

Company Profile

118

(a)

Types of Industries that Responded to the Survey

(b)

Categories of Irregular Workers Employed by Respondent

11 8

Organisations

121

(c)

Work Benefits Available to Employees

122

(d)

Size of Workforce

123

(e)

Number of Disabled Employees in Respondent Companies

124

Analysis of Disability Issues

125

(a)

Policy for Hiring Disabled Workers

(b)

Designated Department or Individual to Deal with

(c)

126

Disabled Employees

126

Recruitment of Disabled Applicants

127

(i)

Practices to Recruit Disabled Applicants

127

(ii)

Mode of Advertisement Used for Recruitment

128

(d)

Training of Employees on Disability issues

129

(e)

Accessibility to Offices

131

(f)

Bearer of Costs of Accommodation

132

(g)

Barriers to Employment of the Disabled People

133

viii

4.4

Analysis of Research Questions

(a)

138

Research Question 1: What is the organization's perception

towards its commitment to employment of disabled people?

(b)

Research Question 2: What is the organization's perception

on attitude towards disabled workers?

(c)

139

142

Research Question 3: What is the organization's perception

towards disability policies intended for providing employment
to disabled persons?

(d)

145

Research Question 4: What is the current level of employment

opportunities for the disabled people?

147

4.5

Testing of Hypotheses

148

4.5.1:

Hypothesis 1

148

4.5.2:

Hypothesis 2

150

4.5.3:

Hypothesis 3

152

4.6

Summary of Findings

153

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1

5.1.1

156

A Review and Implications of Factors Influencing Employment

Opportunities of Disabled People in Malaysia

156

An Assessment of Research Objectives

156

(a)

Research Objective 1: To examine organizations'

perceptions toward their commitment to employment
of disabled people

(b)

157

Research Objective 2: To investigate organizations'

perceptions on their attitude towards disabled workers

ix

157

(c)

Research Objective 3: To explore organizations' perceptions

towards disability policies intended for providing
employment to disabled persons

(d)

1 58

Research Objective 4: To examine the current level of

employment opportunities for the disabled persons

(e)

158

Research Objective 5: To determine the association

between organisational policies and employment
opportunities for the disabled people

(1)

158

Research Objective 6: To determine the association

between organisational commitment and employment
opportunities for the disabled people

(g)

159

Research Objective 7: To determine the association

between the attitude towards disabled employees and
employment opportunities for the disabled people

159

5.1.2

Implications Drawn from the Assessment of Research Objectives

160

5.1.3

An Assessment of Disability Training and Recruitment of

Disabled Workers

5.1.4

162

(a)

Training of Employees for Disability Issues

162

(b)

Recruitment of Disabled Applicants

162

A Comparative Assessment of Barriers to the Employment of

Disabled People: perspectives of respondents in Malaysia and the USA

163

(a)

A Comparison of Perspectives

163

(b)

Overcoming Barriers: A Malaysian Perspective

172

5.2

Limitations of the Study

175

5.3

Recommendations

177

5.3.1

Recommendations for Employment of Disabled People

178

5.3.2

Recommendations for Future Research

180

References

183

Appendices

1 98

xi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1:

Map of Malaysia

Figure 2.1:

The Disablement Phenomena within the ICIDH Framework

30

Figure 2.2:

Interactions within ICIDH-2 Dimensions

31

Figure 2.3:

Interaction between elements of the ICF

33

Figure 3.1:

Theoretical Framework of Employment Opportunities

for the Disabled People

Figure 4.1:

108

Functions Responsible for in the Current Job Held by

Respondents: percent and associated number of respondents

Figure 4.2:

Respondents' Number of Years in Current Position:

percentage and associated number of respondents

Figure 4.3:

124

Training for Accommodation Procedures:

Percentage of Companies and associated Number of Companies

Figure 4.7:

123

Size of Workforce: percentage of companies and associated

number of companies.

Figure 4.6:

118

Work Benefits Provided: percentage of companies

and associated number of companies.

Figure 4.5:

117

Respondents' Experience with Disability:

percent and associated number of respondents

Figure 4.4:

115

130

Training for Disability Awareness: Percentage of Companies

and associated Number of Companies

13 1

Figure 4.8:

Accessibility to Offices

132

Figure 4.9:

Bearer of Cost for Accommodation

133

xii

Figure 5.!:

Comparative Analysis of Perceptions of Malaysian Respondent

Organisations, and American Organisations towards Barriers to
Disability Employment

167

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1:

Malaysian Labour Force by Sector (Year 2000)

Table 2.1:

Classification of Disabled People in Malaysia

37

Table 2.2:

Summary of Economic Trends: 1980-2000

49

Table 2.3:

Summary of Unemployment, Underemployment, and

Employment Trends, 1997 2000

Table 2.4:

50

Ratio between Information Handling and Goods Handling

categories of Employment

51

Table 2.5:

Ratio between Services and Industry Employment

51

Table 2.6:

Worldwide Employment in the Industrial and Service Sector

52

Table 2.7:

Distribution of Registered Disabilities in Malaysia (2000)

58

Table 2.8:

Types of Reasonable Accommodation

83

Table 3.1:

Sections of the Questionnaire

99

Table 3.2:

Summary of the Reliability Index

102

Table 3.3:

Data Analysis Matrix for Research Questions

110

Table 4. 1:

Types of Industries

119

Table 4.2:

Categories of Irregular Workers

121

Table 4.3:

Number of Disabled Employees in Respondent Companies

125

Table 4.4:

Policy for Hiring Disabled Workers

126

Table: 4.5:

Designated Department or Individual to deal with

Disabled Employees

127

Table 4.6:

Practices to Recruit Disabled Applicants

127

Table 4.7:

Ranking of Barriers to Employment of Disabled

People in Malaysia

134

xiv

Table 4.8:

One-sample t-test for comparison of scores between mean and

Median for Organisational Commitment

Table 4.9:

One-sample t-test for the elements of Organisational

Commitment

Table 4. 10:

139

140

Independent sample t-test for subgroup analysis of

Organisational Commitment

141

Table 4.11:

One-sample t-test analysis for the variable Attitude

Table 4.12:

Independent-sample t-test: Subgroup analysis for the

variable Attitude

143

Table 4.13:

One-sample t-test for analysis of the variable Policy

146

Table 4. 14:

Independent-sample t-test: Subgroup analysis for the

variable Policy

Table 4.15:

146

One-sample t-test: analysis of Employment Opportunities

for Disabled People

Table 4.16:

147

Independentsample t-test: Subgroup analysis for Employment

Opportunities of Disabled People.

Table 4.17:

Independent sample t-test comparing level of employment

opportunity with Organisational Commitment

Table 4. 18:

149

Independent sample t-test comparing level of

employment opportunity with attitude towards disabled workers

Table 4.20:

149

Independent sample t-test comparing level of

employment opportunity with training and recruitment

Table 4.19:

148

150

Independent sample t-test comparing level of employment

opportunity with perception of co-workers and the need
for supervision

151

xv

Table 4.21:

Independent sample t-test comparing level of employment

opportunity with Organisational Policy

Table 5.1:

Ranking of Barriers to Employment of Disabled People by RespondentOrganisations in Malaysia

Table 5.2:

152

164

Results of Bruyere's Research on Barriers to Employment of

Disabled People in the USA

Table 5.3:

Comparison of Erriployment Barriers for Disabled Persons

xvi

166

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A:

Information Sheet

198

Appendix B:

Questionnaire

199

Appendix C:

Setting up of Standardised Values for

Graphical Representation of Table 5.3

206

Introduction to Models of Disability

207

Appendix D:

xvii

ABSTRACT

CRITICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING EMPLOYMENT OF DISABLED PERSONS IN

MALAYSIA

This study examines key factors that affect opportunities for employment of disabled people in
Malaysia. Four factors are covered by the study; these are namely, the organisational commitment
to employment of disabled people, attitude towards disabled workers, the organisational policies
on disability, and the employment opportunities for the disabled people. The first three factors

constitute the independent variables, and the last one, the dependent variable. For further
understanding of these factors, the independent variables were each additionally split into related
elements. The first variable organisational commitment to employment of disabled people
consists of two elements: recruitment of disabled people, and employee training for disabilityrelated issues. The second variable attitude towards disabled workers is composed of three

elements: co-workers' perception of disabled workers, management's perception of work

attendance of disabled workers, and management's perception on the need for supervision. The
third variable organisational policies on disability is composed of only one element which is
the organisational policies on employment of disabled people. Overall, these three independent
variables significantly explain the variance in the dependent variable, i.e. employment
opportunities for the disabled persons.

The findings of this study show that the organisational commitment to the employment of
disabled people is fairly favourable. This is indicated by a higher organizational commitment by
companies that employ disabled workers; it is also shown by a higher emphasis for training
employees towards disability issues. However, there is no significant difference in the recruitment
of disabled workers between organisations that employ no disabled persons and those that employ
disabled persons.
The overall attitude towards employment of disabled people is not actually favourable, although

the co-workers perception of disabled staff is fairly favourable. While the organisational
perception on the need for supervision of disabled employees is somewhat favourable, the
organisations that currently employ disabled persons are of the opinion that greater supervision is
needed.

The general perception on the current organisational policy for employment of disabled persons is
not really favourable, although organisations that employ disabled people perceive themselves to
have a more favourable policy.

Findings on the barriers to employment of disabled people indicate that Malaysian organisations

perceive the lack of related experience in managing disability issues as the most significant
barrier. Other barriers, in descending order, are the lack of education on disability topics, lack of

required skill and training, cost of supervision of disabled workers, attitude towards and
stereotyping of disabled workers, lack of knowledge about accommodation issues, cost of training
for disabled employees, and the cost of accommodation for the disabled workers.

Although the Malaysian government has provided incentives to the private sector and set quota

for the public sector to improve the employment rate of disabled persons, overall research
findings show that disability employment and opportunities for such employment is low in
Malaysia.

xviii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Completion of this dissertation to the exacting requirements of UniSA was not only a challenging
task but a captivating story as well. Behind the story quietly stands an equally enchanting group
of personalities whose guidance, encouragement and perseverance helped me steer this study to

the finishing point.

Dr. Leo Ann Mean and Dr. Sheh Seow Wah were my supervisors; their involvement in terms of
astute observations, guidance and affability were critical to the success of this academic
endeavour. I am grateful for their supervision and mentoring. My gratitude also goes out to Dr.
Leonard Yong who marshalled us into the first DBA class and infused us with so much
enthusiasm that it drove out all lingering fears. My appreciation goes as well to Dr. Barry Elsey,
the DBA Program Panel Leader, for his frank views and pragmatic guidance during the DBA
course.

My deep gratitude to Naga (Dr. Nagarajah Lee) a university colleague and a friend who sacrificed
his busy schedules to exchange ideas with me: I remember vividly a discussion that extended to a

full day. My sincere thanks also go to Lim (Dr. Lim Choon Yang) who as a course-mate and
friend was always there to share his time and exchange thoughts with me. I appreciate the effort
taken by both of them to read and comment on my drafts. Another person to whom I owe many
thanks is Mr. Francis Johan, a legal officer and president of the Disabled Person's Society in
Kuching, for his briefing on disability in Malaysia. Thanks also to Dr. Rumesh of lTD Penang for
his prompt and courteous attention to the needs of my DBA course.

My thanks reach out to other important persons too: Pauline and Danny of LTD Penang, Sylvia of

CRAUN, Elizabeth Caroline Augustine, Baiwinder Singh, and Dr. Simon Botley of UiTM
Sarawak. I also wish to record my thanks to Malaysian CARE, an NGO for their assistance in
some data collection.

My gratitude and thanks also extend to all those who have in some ways helped in making this
research a success.

My son Anil's emphatic but quiet support from Kuala Lumpur is much appreciated. My mother's
words of encouragement from Trivandrum will always be remembered.
I dedicate this study to my wife Latha, a woman of medicine whose healing touch always kept me
going the extra mile even in times of crisis. Her confidence in me and her patience garnered the
needed motivation for me to complete this study.

I now look with happiness at a new world of what I know, and yet with some sadness of what I
have come to know.

xix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1

Overview of the study

The primary concern of this study

is

to determine the factors that influence the

employment opportunities of disabled people in Malaysia. While not denying the fact that
there are numerous factors contributing to the employment of disabled people, and that the
phenomenon of disability is further complicated by different categories of disabilities, this
study is

a targeted inquiry into the influence of three factors on the employment

opportunities of disabled people. These factors are: (a) the organisational commitment to

employment of disabled people, (b) attitude towards disabled workers, and (c)
organisational policies on disability.
Interdisciplinary literature with regard to disability studies is also presented in the

dissertation with the purpose of providing deeper and better understanding of the complex
concept of disability. There is no attempt in this study to use the interdisciplinary literature

for the creation of a cross disciplinary work that might combine specific knowledge from

diverse fields of disability with employment opportunities of disabled people. The

assessment of employment opportunities for the disabled people is conducted independent
of the type of disability possessed by them.

Employment plays an essential role in life; it provides work, which is central to our lives.

Work equips an individual with an identity and a place in society (Szymanski et al. 2003,
p. 1). This dissertation investigates some major factors that affect employment of disabled

people in Malaysia. Three factors that the study examines, as stated above, are (a) the

organisational commitment to employment of disabled people, (b) attitude towards

disabled workers, and (c) organisational policies on disability.

Equal employment opportunities for disabled persons would not only help them move

readily into jobs, but also permit them to participate in society and share its myriad
benefits. Marks (2001, p. x of preface) points out:
Disability is a major issue faced by our society. Debates over the provision of
benefits and services, legislation preventing discrimination and questions of how to

foster social inclusion present some of the most pressing contemporary policy
concerns and issues.

Employment helps disabled people to better integrate with society thereby minimising their
chances of experiencing the daunting conditions of social exclusion and alienation.

This research was conducted using survey method, and the questionnaires were distributed
to human resource personnel in various sectors of industries. Even though the scope of the

study covered the whole of Malaysia, i.e. West Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia) and East
Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak in the island of Borneo), due to a relatively small response
rate from organisations, which is a common phenomenon in mail questionnaires (Sekaran

2003), the findings and discussion offered will mainly be focused on the surveyed
organisations. Despite the fact that there may be limitations for statistical inferences, the
responding organisations share features that are similar to other Malaysian organisations in

general. Thus, the findings of this study do reflect, to a satisfactory extent, the scenario
under investigation.

1.2

Background of Disability

The International Labour Organisation reveals through an ILO report (Perry 2004) that
disability is a universal phenomenon with an estimated 600 million disabled people

globally; 386 million of them are of working age. According to the web-based Disability

World (Disability World 2002), a report from the United Nation Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (IJNESCAP) indicates that nearly two-thirds of the
world's disabled people live in South and Southeast Asia under conditions of poverty and

discrimination. En this region live some 400 million disabled people, constituting about

67% of the world's disabled population and 10% of the global population (BBC Global

Disability Campaign 1999). About 238 million of them are of working age (Perry 2004),
yet disability restricts their access to education and employment (IJNESCAP 2002). This

further complicates matters, since work of a decent quality is critical for breaking away
from the vicious cycle of marginalization, poverty and social exclusion (ILO.org 2004).

Empathy and equity should preferably rise above sympathy when dealing with disability
issues; as Ismail (2003) points out, due thought should be given, with a human touch, for
assisting disabled people to participate in society and to enjoy equal opportunities. Such a

situation would enable them to contribute towards the process of nation building and

development of the economy. He hopes that '...the National Welfare Policy and the
Malaysia's vision of establishing a Caring and Sharing Society through the coordinated
efforts involving government agencies, voluntary organisations and the society at large

would enable the disabled community to enjoy the same rights and privileges as any
normal citizen of the country' (Ismail 2003, p.

5). The

problem, however, is that the

'disabled people have inhabited a cultural, political and intellectual world from whose
making they have been excluded and in which they have been relevant only as problems'

(Abberley 1999, p.15). Scientific knowledge, including sociology, has been used to

buttress and validate this exclusion. Abberley (1999) supports a new sociology of
disablement that will challenge this 'questionable objectivity and truth' and 'replace it with

knowledge that arises from the position of the oppressed and seeks to understand that
oppression' (Abberley 1999, p.15).

One of the ways to understand disablement from the viewpoint of disabled people is to
explore the various models of disability. The disability models include the Social Model of
Disability, which focuses on social and environmental barriers that repress some impaired
people; the Phenomenology Model, which address interpersonal and experiential aspects of

disability; the Post-Structuralism Model, which focuses on discourses which constitute

disability; and the Psychoanalysis Model, which addresses intra-psychic experiences of

and defences against disability.

Although these models are conventionally seen as

mutually incompatible or opposing, Marks (2001,

p.

1)

believe that they 'offer

complementary and interesting ways of understanding the structures and meanings

associated with disability in contemporary British and the North American society'.

Currently, the latest model of disability in the sociological literature is the social model

(Barnes, Mercer and Shakespeare 1999). This model of disability originated from the
disabled people themselves; they developed and articulated the social model of

disablement. As a new paradigm, this model viewed disability originating not from
individual limitations but from the existing social organisation's failure to empower

society in providing appropriate services and satisfactory fulfilment of the needs of

disabled people (Oliver 1990). Thus, creation of disablement and the curtailment of
opportunities to work are now seen in different dimensions. Knowledge of the social
model of disability among human resource personnel may be an advantage to disabled job-

candidates and disabled employees the understanding has the potential to reduce
discrimination, improve job accommodation, and improve access for disabled employees

at the workplace. Additional literature on disability models, particularly of the social

model and the medical model, is found in Appendix D.

While the subject of interrelationship between disability models and employment models

pose another interesting study, this thesis is a focused inquiry into the influence of three

organisational factors (organisational commitment to employment of disabled people,

organisational attitude towards disabled workers, and organisational policies on disability)
in the employment of disabled persons in Malaysia.

A brief introduction to the background of Malaysia is presented in the next section.

1.3

Profile of Malaysia

The profile of Malaysia is depicted through four parts

force, and the government.

geography, demographics, labour

(a)

Geography

Malaysia is located in South East Asia with its primary peninsula bordering Thailand and
Indonesia. East Malaysia is on the island of Borneo and it has its borders with Brunei and

Indonesian Borneo. Malaysia was formed in 1963 through a federation of the former

British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and the East Malaysian states of Sabah and
Sarawak on the northern coast of Borneo. Subsequently, Singapore withdrew from the
federation to give the present composition of Peninsular Malaysia, .Sabah and Sarawak as

components of Malaysia. The country is divided into 13 States and 3 Federal Territories
(APCD-Country Profile 2005).

f
01

fl Y
ISLANDS

:\

'4--

South China Sea

Town

L1!plfl(J

Ipori

Tav.au

KIALA
LUMPUR
,

.Xt

eo

INDONESIA
0

Figure 1.1.

CO

Map of Malaysia

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image: My-map.png, 2006

(b)

Demographics

Asia-Pacific Development Centre for Disability (APCD) reports that according to the
Malaysian national census of the year 2000, approximately 94.1% of the population were
Malaysian citizens of which 65.1% were of Bumiputera (people of the land) origin, while

those of Chinese origin and Indian origin comprised 26.0% and 7.7% respectively.

Sarawak's predominant ethnic group comprised 30.1% Ibans, while Chinese and Malays
comprised 26.7% and 23.0% respectively. Sabah is largely comprised of the ethnic group

Kadazan Dusun (18.4%) followed by the Bajas and Malay groups of 17.3% and 15.3%
respectively.

Religious affiliations, as recorded in the 2000 census, revealed that the most widely
professed religion was Islam totalling 60.4% of the population, while Buddhism comprised
19.2%, Christianity at 9.1%, Hinduism at 6.3%, and forms of Chinese religions were 2.6%.

The official language of the country is Bahasa Melayu; however English and Chinese
dialects are also used in business and administration. In the eastern Malaysian states of
Sarawak and Sabah, several indigenous languages such as Iban, Bidayuh and Kadazan are
also spoken.

The latest Malaysian census (2000) showed the total population of Malaysia was 23.27

million people. It was 18.38 million people in 1991, thereby giving an average annual
population growth rate of 2.6% over the 10-year period. The median age was 23.6 years
compared to 21.9 of the 1991 census. Over 33% of the population was below 15 years old,
while only 3.9% of the population was over 65 years old. The urban population grew from

50.7% in 1991 to 62.0%. Current estimate of the population of Malaysia, according to the
Department of Statistics Malaysia is 26.38 million as

0f4th1

quarter of 2005 (Department of

Statistics Malaysia 2006). The population of disabled people is estimated to be 1.8 million

(Dermawan 2003). This figure concurs with Lee's (2002) report of the number of disabled
people in Malaysia. However Infosoc Malaysia 2002 e-Forum Report (Zimli and Marzuki,

2003) shows that the number of disabled persons in Malaysia is approximately 0.42% of
the total population. An earlier survey, in 1958, reported that the disabled population was

an estimated 1% of the population. According to Zimli and Marzuki (2003, page 2):
"However, both these theories of statistics have not been verified and its reliability can be

debated on". They further add that, in Malaysia, the correct number of disabled people is
unknown due to the difficulty in obtaining statistics, especially since cultural factors inhibit
parents from registering their disabled children.

The disabled people are known as Orang Kurang Upaya (OKU) in the Malaysian national

language. They are also referred to as Persons With Disabilities (PWD), (APCD-Country
Profile 2005). Literature survey reveals that the terms "disabled people", and "persons with

disability" are used interchangeably in Malaysia. Such a phenomenon is also observed in

literature emanating from the USA. However, the term "disabled people" is extensively
used in disability literature originating from the UK. In this thesis, the term generally used
is "disabled people" due to its parsimony in reference to social connotations and disability.

(c)

Labour Force

Asia Pacific Development Centre on Disability (APCD-Country Profile 2005) reports that

the total labour force (employed as well as unemployed) of age from 15 to 64 totalled 9.4

million in 2000, representing a 2.9% annual increase over the ten year period. The
expansion in the labour force is attributed to two reasons: the increase in the working age

population and the rise in participation of the labour force from 66% to 68% during the
corresponding period.

The rising levels of education and expanding employment opportunities have drawn an

increased number of women to actively participate in the economy. The female labour
participation rate was 49% in 2000 while the rate for males was 86%.

The labour force by sector for the year 2000 (refer Table 1.1) indicates that 48% of the
labour is concentrated in the services sector, higher than that of the manufacturing sector
which is at 24%. The agricultural sector has 20 % of the labour.

According to the Department of Statistics Malaysia (2006), the unemployment rate has

fallen since 2000 to 3.8%, with an increased labour force of 10,498,000.6, and an
unemployed figure of 397,000.6

(31d

quarter of 2005).

Table 1 .1:

Malaysian Labour Force by Sector (Year 2000)

Sector

Total (in 000's)

Percent (%)

Agriculture

1,799.9

20.0

Mining

42.3

0.5

Manufacturing

2,143.9

23.9

Construction

664.4

7.4

Services

4,335.8

48.2

Total

8,986.3

100.0

Labour Force

9,364.5

Unemployed:

378.2

Unemployment Rate:

4.0%

Source: Adapted from Table 2, APCD Country Profile Malaysia (2005):

http.//www. apcdproject. org/country profile, malaysia/malaysia_intro. html

(d)

Government

The Government of Malaysia is headed by the Paramount Ruler and a Parliament

consisting of a non-elected upper house and an elected lower house. Four States do not
maintain a monarchy, but they maintain Governors, who are appointed by the Government.

The Paramount Ruler is Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin ibni Almarhum Tuanku Syed Putra
Jamalullail, the Raja of Perlis since December 2001. The head of Government is the Prime

Minister (Abdullah bin Ahmad Badawi from October 2003). The Cabinet is appointed by

the Prime Minister from members of Parliament with consent of the Paramount Ruler
(APCD-Country profile-Malaysia 2005).

1.4

About Disability in Malaysia

Malaysia has developed various policies and programmes to improve the quality of life of
disabled persons throughout the International Year of Disabled Persons (1981), UN World

Programme of Action and Decade of Disabled Persons (1983-1992), and the United
Nations Decade of Disabled Persons (1993-2002). One landmark in the expansion of social

welfare in Malaysia was the proclamation of the National Welfare Policy in 1990. The

policy pledged to create a society that upheld the spirit of self-reliance, equalized
opportunities for the less fortunate, and cultivated a caring culture. This policy also
identified disabled persons as a group to be given special attention (UNESCAP 2002).
Progress in improving the disability environment in Malaysia continues through the current
United Nations Decade of Disabled Persons (2003-2012).

A review of literature and observations show that while the Malaysian people and society

are a caring lot, the predicament of the disabled people seems to be a somewhat distant
concern. "The sad thing is although we have fought so hard and for so long, we only get
small victories," says Bathmavathi Krishnan (Koay 2004, p.2), a disabled spokeswoman,

who hopes that disabled people will be included in the national development plans. She

also hopes that budget allocations are given beyond social welfare sectors into areas of
education, health and other relevant interests, instead of being left out of programmes and
marginalized. Lee (New Straits Times, 18 December 2000, p.2) draws attention to the fact

that disabled people and their special needs require respect and fair treatment as human

beings, but too often their right to training, employment, job development and social
amenities are overlooked or ignored.

In contrast, displaying concern for the disabled population's need for employment
opportunities, the National Unity and Social Development Minister, Siti Zaharah

Sulaiman, (Daily Express, 11 December 2000, p. 3) encouraged all concerned parties to

strive harder to ensure that more disabled people are employed in the public sector.
According to her, the Malaysian government is targeting 8000 jobs within the civil service
which employs 800,000 people. Abdullah Badawi (New Sunday Times, 16 March 2003, p.

2) also reminded the public to open up job opportunities for the disabled people so that
they too many contribute to nation building.

Currently, the employment rate for persons with disability is very low. 'The disabled
people are relying on the goodwill of employers to secure a job, sadly, the majority of

disabled remain unemployed', says Mettilda John (Pang 2003) of Dignity and Services, a
non-profit Malaysian outfit aimed at helping disabled persons.

While the Malaysian government is aware of this disfranchised part of society, and has
enacted a few pieces of legislation together with public policies to address the disabled
people's basic welfare and employment, perhaps more needs to be done in terms of legal

protection and enforcement of disability policies. Such actions may help draw disabled
persons into the mainstream of society. The first step may already be underway: a report by

Peng (2002) states that the Ministry of National Unity and Social Development Malaysia

proposed to table a bill titled the Persons with Disabilities Act drafted by the National

Advisory and Consultative Council on the Disabled. The main thrust of this act is to
prevent discrimination against disabled people and afford them equal rights and
opportunities. The act would likely be a social catalyst in tapping into the hidden potential

of the disabled people so that they too can make significant contributions to nation
building.

As for rehabilitation of disabled people, the Social Welfare Department Malaysia has
introduced more than 255 Community Rehabilitation Centres (CRC) around the country;
these centres emphasize rehabilitation within the local community (Borneo Post, 9 October
2002).

Terminologies such as "less fortunate", kurang upaya (less-than-able), terancat akal

(mentally-retarded) are often used to describe the disabled people in official annals when
describing persons with disabilities. These words discriminate against the disabled people

as they focus on their limitations rather than their potential (Pang 2003). In general, the
attitude towards disability may need a positive transformation in Malaysia.

However, there seems to be increasing concern for disability issues by the Malaysian

government; for example, the Prime Minister has ordered that all buildings be made
friendly to the disabled people (Foong 2003). In Sarawak, the office building housing the

10

Welfare Department offices are being built with total access and other complementary
design features to welcome disabled people (Sarawak Tribune, 25 February 2004, P. 2).

The government budget for the year 2005 provided higher tax relief and gave assistance for
disabled children to attend Community Rehabilitation classes where a separate support was
also given for food (Badawi 2004).

1.5

About Disability in the Future

In the not-too-distant future, the disability environment may drastically change due to a
myriad of factors being shaped by innovation in science and technology. To name a few,

the advent of biotechnology; robotics and mind-machine interfaces will possibly

revolutionize the field of disability. While these technologies may not radically redefine
the term 'disability', it could bring about changes in the lifestyles of disabled people. The

resulting opportunities may improve social equity through education, employment and
other factors.

However, the degree of welcome expected from the disabled people for

innovate solutions derived from say, stem cefls, RFIDs, or thought-control is too early to

predict. These issues may be mired in ethical, moral, legislative and social dimensions,
including the differing worldviews of disabled people. For example, Frazee (1998) argues
that:

Disability activists and theorists have emphatically asserted that disability is a

social phenomenon, rather than a biological one. Biotechnology's vigorous focus

upon disability prevention by genetic methods ignores the deeply embedded and
pervasive social, economic and political determinants of disability disadvantage.
Disability isn't something you have, it is something that happens when one group
of people create barriers by designing the world only for their style of living.

Frazee raises the question of social capability of these technologies to remove barriers that
promote social exclusion of disabled people. Apart from technology, it is also probable that

social policies and government legislation could play an important part in defining the
future of disabled persons.

11

'

Does

the future have the power to open the mind's eye for perceiving and reconciling

disability as a natural state of the world? Only time will tell. Nonetheless, looking at the

incremental but progressive achievements in both social and technological fields of

disability, the future of the disabled people seems cautiously optimistic.

1.6

Problem Statement

A total of 126,194 disabled people have registered with the Social Welfare Department
Malaysia up to June 2003, according to a report in the Borneo Post (26 June 2004, p. 12)

However, only about 5,000 of them are being employed in the private sector, this
represents only 3.96% of the registered disabled population in the country. These statistics,

according to the Minister of Human Resources, Fong Chan Onn, were not encouraging,
despite the fact that the government had in 2001 published the "Guidelines on employing

the disabled" with an additional provision of "Double Tax Deductions" for companies
employing the disabled people, in addition to a number of other tax deduction incentives.

The measures do not seem to produce the expected momentum towards achieving the

government's recommendation of at least 1% of jobs in the private sector be kept for

disabled people (Fong 2004).

In general, the reaction of the private sector towards employment of disabled people may

be due to misperception about people with disabilities. Hooi (2000a,

p.

4) quotes

Bathmavathi Krishnan, a senior disabled librarian in Kuala Lumpur: 'Most employers are
reluctant to employ the disabled because of concerns regarding safety regulations, the need

to modify premises such as installing ramps, disabled-friendly toilets and extra medical
costs'. Mariah Abdul Rahman (Hooi 2000a, p. 4) a web-lab manager in MIMOS Bhd, cites

prejudice and the fear of uncertainty among employers as the main reasons why people
with disabilities find it difficult to seek employment; she explains:
The employer feels uncertain as to how to treat the disabled. Should they be treated

in a different way from the rest? How can they communicate with the rest? Do
they need special equipment and facilities?

12

In this era of globalization and digitization where competitive pressures of the new
economy spill over into the lives of the rich, poor and disabled people, the need for a
decent job is even more fundamental to a life of dignified existence: "The work that we do

has a crucial impact on our social and material well-being, in terms of income, class,
status, influence, social relationships and

personal identity" (Barnes, Mercer &

Shakespeare 1999, p.1 10). A recent survey by International Disability Network reported in

the New Straits Times (12 August 2005, p. 42) reveals that disabled people in Asia
generally lack educational and job opportunities. Therefore, more need to be done to
provide disabled people the prospects to fully participate in education and work. The
employment of the disabled people in sufficient numbers is an indication of a society
coming of age; as Nader (2002) points out succinctly, a society that has more justice is a
society that requires less charity.

This study investigates three factors that affect opportunities for the employment of
disabled people in Malaysia. The factors are: (a) the organisational commitment to
employment of disabled people, (b) attitude towards disabled workers, and (c)
organisational policies on disability.

1.7

Research Objectives

The objective of this study is to assess perceptions of participating organisations on three

factors, namely, the commitment to the employment of disabled people, organisational

attitude towards disabled worker, and the organisational policy on employment of disabled

people. The assessment determines whether these organisational aspects contribute to the
employment opportunities for disabled people in Malaysia. The research objectives were
derived from the theoretical framework.

The theoretical framework of the research consists of three independent variables and one
dependent variable.

13

The three independent variables that influence the dependent variable are:

the organisational commitment to employment of disabled person; it is composed

(a)

of two elements: (i) recruitment of disabled people and (ii) employee training for
disability-related issues,

the organisational attitude towards disabled workers;

(b)

it

is composed of three

elements: (i) co-workers' perception of disabled workers (ii) management

perception of work-attendance of disabled workers and (iii) management

perception on the need for supervision of disabled employees, and

the organisational policy on disability which consist of one element

(c)

the

organisational policies on employment of disabled people.

The dependent variable is the employment opportunities for disabled people. This variable
was assessed by comparison between two sub-groups of organisations where one group
employed disabled workers while the other group did not employ any disabled people. To
further explore the employment opportunities, a closer look at barriers to employment of
disabled people was done, since these barriers can be considered as inverse reflections of
employment opportunities. The selected employment barriers were:
o

Lack of required skill and training for disabled people,

Cost of training for disabled employees,

Attitude towards and stereotyping of disabled workers,

Cost of supervision of disabled workers,

Lack of knowledge about accommodation issues,

Cost of accommodation for disabled workers,

Lack of related experience in managing disability issues, and

Lack of education on disability topics.

Thus, findings on the levels of barriers and their rankings contribute to further appraisal of
employment opportunities for disabled people.

14

The research objectives are:

I.

To examine organisations' perception towards their commitment to employment

of disabled people.

2.

To investigate organisations' perception on their attitude towards disabled workers.

3.

To explore organisations' perception towards disability policies intended for

providing employment to disabled persons

4.

To examine the current level of employment opportunities for disabled persons.

5.

To determine the association between organisational policies and employment

opportunities for disabled people.

6.

To

determine

the

association

between

organisational

commitment

and

employment opportunities for disabled people.

7.

To determine the association between the attitude towards disabled employees

and employment opportunities for disabled people.

1.8

Significance and Need

Successful outcomes to some of the disability needs of disabled people have been achieved

by stakeholders of disability side by side with disabled people (Koay 2004). To illustrate

the point, Chow (2003) reports that the Mayor of Kuala Lumpur, the capital city of
Malaysia, upon attending a "Han Raya" celebration (a Muslim function) organized by the

Malaysian Association for the Blind, realised that the City Hall had not given much
thought to the needs of blind people. Soon afterwards, the sidewalks of Brickfields, where

the celebration was held, were paved with special yellow lines to guide vision-impaired
persons (Koay 2004). While this was a welcome gesture from the City Hall, the National

Unity and Social Development Ministry Malaysia is yet (February 2006) to table at the
Parliament the draft-legislation titled Persons with Disabilities Act. This legislation was
specifically drafted to prevent discrimination and to provide equal rights and opportunities
for disabled people.

15

The above scenario points to a few of the many complex factors affecting inclusion of
disabled people into mainstream society to improve their likelihood of employment.

As

this research is concerned with the employment opportunities of disabled people in

Malaysia, it is hoped that the findings of this study would reveal sufficient parameters to
help stakeholders (government policy makers, NGOs, corporate bodies, small and medium

sized business, and the public in general) in reviewing, planning, implementing, and
monitoring, required measures to provide gainful employment for disabled people.

A survey of the area of disability revealed that there is a dearth of literature in the field of

employment opportunities for disabled persons in Malaysia. It appears that this field of
study has not been investigated in a thorough manner; therefore, this research also hopes to
add its share of knowledge to the realm of disability.

Overall, it is hoped that the findings of this study will contribute its share to stimulate

understanding, discussion and action in the field of disability employment to encourage

social inclusion of disabled people through the process of employment.

1.9

Assumptions

(i)

Disabled persons possess equal degree of willingness to work as their non-disabled

counterparts. Fersh and Thomas (Barrett 1999, p. 2) reveal in their study that
employees with disabilities show lOw turnover rates, low absenteeism and high
motivation to prove themselves at work.

(ii)

There are a large variety of jobs available that match the abilities of disabled
persons. The Malaysian government has opened up 1% of jobs in the public sector
for disabled people and is advocating that the private sector adopts a similar stand.

(iii)

Disabled persons, if given the opportunity to work, will achieve performance

quality comparable to the non-disabled workers. Gregg Vanderheiden (Anthes
1998) of University of Wisconsin's Trace Research and Development Center, who

16

explores ways to make computing I communications technology accessible to all,

concedes that people with some disabilities are physically slower at work compared

to those without disabilities. His contention, however, is that the competition is not

all about quantity but about quality. He feels that quality and reliability are so
valuable that employers are willing to reconcile with lesser volume.

(vi)

Disabled persons desire to participate and contribute to society; for example,

Barnes, Thornton & Campbell (1998, p. 6) note that:
Organisations of disabled people have moved into a service-providing role

in the area of employment, and a number of small businesses run by

disabled people offer consultancy and training to employing organisations
and to disabled people.

1.10

Operational Definitions:

The operational definitions listed below were adapted from a number of sources, notably,
the online glossaries maintained by Harvard University in Cambridge, MA 02138 (Harvard

Glossary 2006), University of Washington in Seattle, WA 98195-5670 (UOW Glossary

2006), and the University of Wisconsin-Stout in Menomonie, WI 54751 (Stout Glossary
2006).

Access: The ability of a person with a disability to approach, enter, and use an employer's

facilities easily, particularly such areas as its personnel office, work site, programs,
services, benefits, privileges, employment, and public areas.

Accessible: In the case of a facility, readily usable by a particular individual; in the case of

a program or activity, presented or provided in such a way that a particular individual can
participate, with or without auxiliary aid(s); in the case of electronic resources, accessible
with or without adaptive computer technology.

17

Accommodation: Any change or adjustment to a job or work environment that permits a

qualified applicant or employee with a disability to participate in the job application

process, to perform the essential functions of a job, or to enjoy the benefits and privileges
of employment equal to those enjoyed by employees without disabilities.

Adaptive Equipment: Devices that allow an individual to access their environment.

Examples of these include wheelchairs, adaptive seating, and specialized desks and tables.

ADA: Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 - A comprehensive American federal law

that prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment, public services,

public accommodations and services operated by private entities, and telecommunications.

Title I undertakes to eliminate barriers to employment and encourage equal access to the
workplace.

Assistive Technology (Device).

Any items, piece of equipment, or product systems,

whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified or customized, that are used to

increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

(Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act, 1988)

Augmentative Communication. Electronic and non-electronic devices such as gestures,

sign

language,

symbols,

synthesized

speech,

dedicated

communication

aids

or

microcomputers that provide a means for expressive and receptive communication for
persons without speech. Also known as Augmentative and Alternative Communication
(ACC).

Braille: A system of raised dots, which are felt with fingers (letters of the alphabet,
numbers and other necessary signs are made up from the various combinations of these
dots).

DDA: The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA) was introduced with a view to
ending the discrimination faced by disabled people. The DDA gives disabled people rights

18

in a number of areas including employment, access to goods, facilities and services, and
the management, buying or renting, of property.

Disability: Physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life
activities; a record of such an impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment
(Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).

Independent Living Services: Services tailored to the specific needs of a person with
disabilities, including assistive technology, independent living skills training and/or

connection to community - based support services.

Independent Living Skills (ILS): Services that develop and maintain the community
living skills and community integration of a person. Independent Living Skills (ILS) are
provided in the home of a person or in the community.

Impairment: Any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical

structure or function; it can be the result of disease, injury, malnutrition, or birth defect.

Input Device: A method of activating or sending information to a computer or other

electronic device. Keyboards, mice, and trackballs are common computer input devices.

Job Modification: A process in which a target job is altered to meet the needs of a
particular worker.

This is accomplished through environmental adaptations, adaptive

equipment and devices, or job process modification.

OKU: Orang Kurang Upaya (Malay language reference to disabled people)

PWD: Person with Disability (Term used in Malaysia)

RFID: (Radio Frequency Identification), RFID systems typically consist of a tag that

contains information identifying an item or specifying a condition or state. A reader

communicates with the tag and reads the information programmed into its memory.

19

Screen Reader: Voice output technology used by people with visual or cognitive
impairments. Hardware and software combinations produce synthesized voice output for
the text displayed on the computer screen and the keystrokes entered on the keyboard.

Sip and Puff Switch: A dual switch that is activated by sipping and puffing on an
apparatus resembling a drinking straw.

Speech Synthesizer: An electronic device that converts text characters into artificial
speech. Speech synthesizers most frequently use pronunciation rules for translating text to

speech. The quality of synthetic speech ranges from close to lifelike to robotic sounding
speech found in lower end speech synthesizers.

Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI): Program in the United States under RSDI
that provides cash payments to individuals who have a disability, have worked a certain
number of quarters, or had a parent or spouse that worked a certain number of quarters and
paid Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA).

Semi-Independent Living Services (SILS): Services that include training and assistance

in managing money, preparing meals, shopping, personal appearance and hygiene and
other activities needed to maintain and improve the capacity to live in the community of an
adult with mental retardation.

Social Security Administration (SSA): Federal agency in the United States that plays an
important role in disability determination and providing economic relief to citizens.

Survivors and Disability Insurance (RSDI) and Supplemental Social Security Income
(SSI) programs: These two major programs in the United States provide cash benefits to
individuals who meet the SSA definition of disability. Disability under Social Security is

based on the existence of a severe medical impairment(s) that prevents the person from
participating in substantial gainful work.

20

Stem Cells: These cells have the potential to develop into many different cell types in the
body. Serving as a sort of repair system for the body, they can theoretically divide without
limit to replenish other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive.

Telework: Also known as telecommuting, provides for working at home or a satellite

office, or a telework center near home instead of working at the main office or place of
business.

Transportation Aids: Items that enable independence in personal transportation such as

car-toppers for cars and vans, hand controls, child restraint systems, and modifications to
ensure vehicle access.

Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) Services: Wide range of services and job training
available to assist persons with disabilities in preparing for and engaging in gainful
employment.

Voice Recognition System: An access system designed to replace the standard keyboard
as the method if input. The system is "trained" to recognize utterances that are spoken into

a microphone. The utterances are translated into computer commands or sequences of

alphanumeric characters and used to operate the computer and software.

21

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1

Introduction

The United Nations International Year of Disabled Persons (IYPD) in 1981 brought about

significant attention among the global community towards disability issues (Price &
Takamine 2003, P. 115). A year later, IYPD was followed by the UN World Programme of

Action (WPA) concerning disabled persons, and in 1983 was launched the United Nations
Decade of Disabled Persons, from 1983-1992 (O'Reilly 2003). These proclamations of the

Unites Nations achieved an increase in global awareness of disability (Price & Takamine

2003, p. 116). During the Decade of Disabled Persons, in 1990, the National Welfare
Policy of Malaysia was set up. The mandate of the welfare policy was to cultivate a caring
culture that emphasised equal opportunities and self-reliance.

At the end of the UN Decade of Disabled Persons, a new decade was announced

the

Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons (1993 to 2002). It came into being from a
declaration by the governments of the Asian and Pacific region at a meeting convened by
the United Nation's Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
in 1992. This regional initiative focused on the integration of disabled people into society
and into all mainstream development programmes; the aim was to achieve the objectives of

full participation and equality of disabled people (UNESCAP-Decade of Disabled Persons

2002). The Decade of the Disabled Persons did not stop in 2002. The second phase of the

Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons came in the wake of the "Draft Biwako
Millennium Framework" in 2002 when ESCAP adopted the Biwako resolution with two

major objectives: (a) promoting an inclusive, barrier-free and rights-based society for
people with disabilities in the Asian and Pacific region in the twenty-first century, and (b)

extending the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, for another decade 20032012 (LJNESCAP-Biwako 2002). The Decade initiative by the UN is primarily aimed at

(a) creating opportunities for the full participation in society by disabled people, (b)

22

creating equality for disabled people

in

developmental process, (c) encouraging

Government Ministries, NGOs and other stakeholders to achieve the objectives of the
Decade (Price & Takamine 2003, p. 116). Malaysia has formed 10 technical working
groups to examine the priority areas identified under the Biwako Millennium Framework,

and seek solutions to related needs and issues. For rural areas, Malaysia has set up
community-based rehabilitation (CBR) to reach out to a larger number of disabled people

(UN General Assembly 2005). The Disabled Persons International (DPI) is concerned
about the predominantly medical aspect of CBR. DPI is of the opinion that a change is
required for CBR to reflect a human rights approach based on an Independent Living (IL)

concept (Sinnaswamy 2006). Various [IN initiatives, including the Biwako Millennium
Framework, were responsible for developments that have created growing awareness by

disabled people of challenges that confront them, and "the attention of policy makers is
shifting from the mere provision of charitable services to recognizing and protecting their
basic rights to dignity and self-respect" (Sinnaswamy 2006, p. 9)

More than three years have passed since the end of the first phase of the Asian Pacific
Decade of Disabled Persons (1993-2002) but during its course Malaysia had taken some
significant strides into the world of disability by enacting various policies and programmes

to bring meaningful lives to disabled Malaysians.

According to the United Nations

Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Malaysia had identified
disabled persons 'as a special target group to be given due attention' (LTNESCAP-Decade

of Disabled Persons 2002,

p. 1).

Ismail (2003) adds that Malaysia has shown its

commitment at improving the quality of life among its disabled population by signing the
Proclamation on Full Participation and Equality of People with Disabilities in the Asia and

Pacific Region on May 16, 1994. Moreover, on February 25, 1998 the Cabinet had
approved the establishment of the National Coordinating Body known as the National

Advisory and Consultative Council for People with Disabilities to replace the earlier

National Implementation Committee for the Well-being of the Disabled, which was
formed on August 30, 1990.

23

During an economic briefing to the Penang state government in 2001, it was reported that

the Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia on November 9, 2001 launched a Code Of

Practices for the Employment of Disabled Persons in the Private Sector. Announcements

were also made for plans of establishing an insurance scheme for disabled persons and a
databank for employment of disabled people in the private sector. In addition, a provision
of "Double Tax Deductions" for companies employing disabled individuals, and a number
of other tax deductions incentives were mentioned.

A legal draft called the Disabled Persons Act 2002 had been framed and submitted to the

Malaysian Government for endorsement (Koay 2004). The Malaysian civil service
employs between 600 and 800 disabled persons whereas the private sector has about 3,000

disabled workers (Suffian 2001). From statistics available up to June 2003, a total of
126,194 disabled people have registered with the Welfare Department Malaysia (Fong
2004).

Malaysia's progress in the on-going second phase of the Asian and Pacific Decade of
Disabled Persons (2003-20 12) is documented in other appropriate sections of this chapter.

As evidenced from literature review, there appears to be an increase in disability awareness

and in measures to bring about more opportunities for social inclusion, and employment
prospects. Price and Takamine (2003, p. 11 6) point out that however, the awareness may

not always transform into action. Therefore, for the majority of disabled people, '...the

struggle to obtain and survive in a home of one's own, to secure the basis of physical
integration, can be hard enough without then going on to engage in further struggle to get
into education or to find and hold down a job' (Davis 1990, p. 8).

In spite of the difficulties faced by disabled persons in their daily life and environment,

literature indicates that they possess and display talent, vigour, and determination
essential qualities that precede success in any activity.

24

2.2

Talented Disability: the Power Within

The disabled people seem ready to share their pool of talent for the society if afforded the

chance; for example, Ghormley (2001) studied the possibility of self-employment among

disabled people, especially in the context of Internet-related business, in the USA. Her
findings strongly indicate that "given an opportunity, disabled persons can be valuable

contributors to workforce productivity". Furthermore, findings indicated that in the

medical transcription business, disabled workers actually exceeded the non-disabled
workers in productivity.

In Malaysia, an on-line employment agency (JobStreet.com Malaysia 2005), carries

excerpts of talented disabled persons; for example, Mah Hassan Haji Omar is the first
Malaysian to be called to the Malaysian Bar in 1988. Ho Koon Wei is Malaysia's first deaf

linguistics expert and Subramanium Ramiah, a blind scholar, holds a Diploma in

Electronic Engineering.

Disabled people have achieved successes over what had seemed insurmountable obstacles;

take the cases of Erick Weihenmayer and Professor Stephen Hawking. Weihenmayer is a

blind mountaineer. TIME magazine (2001) under the title: "Blind Faith" carried on its
cover a picture of the blind mountain climber, Erik Weihenmayer, on the slopes Everest
during his successful bid to reach the summit. As for Stephen Hawking, he is one of the
world's most influential and well-known scientists. In fact, he says that his disability gives
him more time to think. He achieved success in spite of being diagnosed with a debilitating
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis or Lou Gehrig's Disease (Davis 1997).

In many instances disability evolves compensatory functionalities. Gartner and Lipsky

(1999) states that in congenitally deaf people, some of the auditory parts of the brain are

reallocated for visual use; similarly, in blind people who read Braille, the reading finger
has an exceptionally large representation in the tactile parts of the cerebral cortex, thus, the

loss of a sense seems to have a compensatory enhancement of other senses. As West

(1997, p. 12) states:

25

Some people are so accustomed to a linear view of intelligence and potential that

they find it almost impossible to believe that certain persons may find advanced
subject matter easy while find some elementary subject matter quite difficult. Yet,

among some of the most brilliant and creative minds, this general pattern is
precisely what we do find.

A number of disabled persons may find this situation to be advantageous. West explains
this aspect by taking the case of thinkers who are disabled, creative, and visual. Although

they may experience some learning difficulties in areas such as mechanical operations of
mathematics, however:
As computer visualization techniques are increasingly employed to analyse vast

and complex systems, they find themselves far better adapted to seeing new
patterns than those with greater academic skills but weaker visual capabilities.
(West 1997, p. 12).

The possibility exists therefore, that disabled persons may find themselves far better suited
for learning from simulations of reality.

Talents aside, the concept of disability was once mired in dimensions of politics, culture
and spirituality, but now the concept appears to have begun its ascend above ignorance and

myths. Since the early 1980's disabled people have assumed 'an increasingly visible and
important lobby' (Marks 1999, p.13)

2.3

Understanding the Concept of Disability

A number of aspects of disability are discussed here to provide a clearer understanding of

the concept of disability. The definitions of disability are explored first, ranging from
international to Malaysian. The discussion then turns to the classification frameworks of
disability by the World health Organisation (WHO).

A lucid understanding of the concepts of disability

vital for decision makers to

determine eligibility of disabled people for social security benefits, accommodation
is

assistance at the workplace, and creation of employment opportunities for disabled

persons.

26

2.3.1

Definition of Disability and its Implications

A discussion of various definitions of the terms "disability" and "disabled person" is

examined here to produce a clearer, holistic picture of disability and its various elements.

(a)

Nagi's Definition

Nagi (cited in Burkhauser & Daly 1998, p.19) defines disability from three areas:

(i)

pathology: the presence of a physical or mental malfunction and br the

interruption of normal processes;

(ii)

impairment: physiological, anatomical, or mental losses or abnormalities

that limit a person's capacities and level of functioning;

(iii)

disability: inability or limitations in performing roles and tasks that are

socially expected.

However, according to (Burkhauser & Houtenville 2003, p.54), 'Nagi's definition

is

controversial because of the, relative importance it places on socioeconomic environment in

determining how pathology results

in

impairment that leads to disability.'

Less

controversial though, is his recognition that disability is a dynamic process in which an

individual's pathology interacts with the socioeconomic environment. Brodwin, Parker and

DeLaGarza (2003) add that the Nagi definition is much broader than that used by the
Social Security Administration (SSA) in America, to determine eligibility for both Social

Security Disability Income (SSDI) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits. In

both the above programs, benefits are reserved to those who are unable to perform any

substantial gainful activity due to a specific set of medical listings (a combination of

pathology and functional measures) or a combination of specific medical listings and
vocational characteristics that envisage low work capacity.

27

(b)

ADA Definition

Another definition of a disabled person is from the Americans with Disability Act (ADA).

The act defines a disabled person as: 'a person who has a physical or mental impairment
that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a record of such an impairment,
or is regarded as having such an impairment'. The ADA of 1990 prohibits discrimination,

on basis of disability, in the areas of employment, state and local government services,

transportation, public accommodations and telecommunications. The ADA definition

assures that a much larger group of people with disabilities are guaranteed access to work
than was previously possible under earlier policies (Burkhauser & 1-loutenville 2003).

The World Health Organisation (WHO), in its quest for defining disability, has classified

disability into three classifications. The first one is the International Classification of
Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH), the second is the International

Classification of Impairments, Activities and Participation (ICIDH-2), and the third is the

International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). The ICF is the
latest one, and it supersedes the previous two international classifications.

(c)

WHO Disability Definitions and Classifications

The World Health Organisation (WHO) produced its first International Classification of
Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH) to counter criticism that it approached

disability without considering social factors and the disadvantages faced by disabled
people (Barnes & Mercer 2003).

(i)

International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps

(ICIDH)

Metts (2000, p.2) explains that 'the ICIDH was a breakthrough for disability

policy and research because it was the first system to recognize the
influences of personal, social and environmental factors on people with

28

disabilities. ICIDH supported rehabilitation to reduce functional limitations

(i.e. disabilities), and supported social policy to alter environmental

contexts (e.g. cultures, institutions and natural and built environments),

thereby affecting the social and economic opportunities afforded to people
with disabilities.'

In the ICIDH, disablement encompassed three separate elements but they

were interrelated: impairments, disabilities and handicaps. A disability was

defined as 'a restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the

manner or within the range considered normal for a human being' (Barnes
& Mercer 2003, p. 13). Disabilities were seen as a result of impairments
which were

defined

as

losses

physiological or anatomical

or

abnormalities of psychological,

structure or function. Impairments and

disabilities were both seen to be interrelated to handicaps which were

defined as disadvantages that limit or prevent the fulfilment of a role

considered to be normal depending on age, sex and social and cultural
factors (Barnes & Mercer 2003). The conceptual framework of disablement
in the original ICIDH is shown in Figure 2.1.
The interrelationship between the

elements of ICIDH

is

succinctly

explained by Metts (2000, p. 2): '...an impairment (caused by a disease or

disorder) may result in a disability which, in turn, may lead to a handicap,

as is the case when polio (a disease) results in paralysis (an impairment)

which limits a person's mobility (a disability), which, in turn, limits the
person's ability to find employment (a handicap). It is also possible for an
impairment which does not result in a disability to still lead to a handicap,
as is the case when a facial disfigurement (an impairment) limits a person's
ability to socially interact (a handicap), even though it does not result in a
functional limitation (a disability)'.

29

Figure 2.1.

The Disablement Phenomena within the ICIDH Framework

Source: Adaptec/from World Health Organisation, ICIDH-2, Ii (Metts 2000)

Despite the wide acceptance of ICIDH among social scientists, disabled

people's organisations were provoked into criticism for three reasons: (a)
ICIDH overtly depended on medical definitions and generally disregarded

the impact of social criteria, (b) the medical and associated rehabilitative
and educational interventions took a dominant role because impairment was
defined as the cause of both disability and handicap and (c) ICIDH failed to
recognise the degree of impact caused by disabling barriers in the context of

social, economical and cultural aspects. (Barnes and Mercer, 2003). Due to

this prevalent dissatisfaction of disabled people, and their organisations,

WHO in 1999 revised its classification scheme to (IC[DH-2).

30

(ii)

International Classification of Impairments, Activities and Participation

(IC I DH-2)

The ICIDH-2 (International Classification of Impairments, Activities and

Participation) was a version produced during the revision process of ICIDH.

The acronym ICIDH-2 has since been abandoned and replaced with ICF
(International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health) by the
World Health Organisation (Grimby & Smedby 2001, p. 193). ICF will be
discussed in the next section. However, knowledge of ICIDH-2 helps in the
transition to ICF.

Figure 2.2 shows ICIDH-2 which is comprised of three dimensions: (a)

body

structures and functions

i.e.

"impairments" of function

and

"impairments" of structure, (b) personal activities, i.e. "disabilities", and (c)

participation in society, i.e. "handicaps".

Figure 2.2:

Interactions within ICIDH-2 Dimensions

Source: Adaptedfrom World Health Organisation, ICIDH-2, 12 (Metts 2000)

31

Under ICIDH-2, the WHO (1997) defines "impairment" as a loss or

abnormality of body structure, or of physiological or psychological
function; "activity" is defined as the nature and extent of functioning at the
level of the person; and "participation" is defined as the nature and extent of

a person's involvement

in life situations

in relation to impairments,

activities, health conditions and contextual factors. ICIDH-2 recognizes that

activity restrictions and limitations on participation are influenced by

environmental factors and personal factors. Environmental factors include
natural and built environments, cultures, institutions and prevailing attitudes

about disabled people. Personal factors include gender, age, education,

social background and life experience.

En summary, the salient points of the ICIDH-2

are that (a) it is

possible to have impairments without having activity limitations for

example, a disfigurement in leprosy may produce no activity limitations,
(b) have activity limitations without evident impairments for example,
experiencing poor performance in daily activities due to a disease, (c) have

limited participation without impairments or activity limitations for

example, experiencing discrimination due to HIV or past mental illness, and

(d) experience a degree of influence in a reverse direction as in cases of

experiencing muscle atrophy due to inactivity or a loss of social skills due
to institutionalization (Metts 2000, p.3).

The ICIDH-2's approach to disability seen as consequences of disease was

subjected to further rethinking; and in May 2001, the WHO approved the
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) for

use in describing functioning and disability (Grimby & Smedby 2001, p.

193).

32

(iii)

International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)

ICF was approved in 2001 and it replaces ICIDH-2 (Grimby & Smedby
2001, p. 193). 'The ICF defines functioning and disability as multidimensional concepts relating to:
o

The body functions and structures of people,

The activities

people do and the

life areas in

which they

participate, and
o

The factors in the environment that affect these experiences'

(ICF Australia 2004, p. 2)

In the ICF, a person's functioning or disability is envisaged as a dynamic

interaction between health conditions and environmental and personal

factors (Figure 2.3)

Figure 2.3:

Interaction between Elements of the ICF

Source: WHO 2001, International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health ([CF Australia
2004)

33

The definitions of the elements of the ICF are stated here from the Australian
Institute of Health and Welfare (ICF Australia 2004):

Body functions are the physiological functions of body systems (including

psychological functions).

Body structures are anatomical parts of the body, such as organs, limbs and
their components.

Impairments are problems

in

body function and structure, such

as

significant deviation or loss.

o

Activity is the execution of a task or action by an individual.

Participation is involvement in a life situation.

Activity limitations are difficulties an individual may have in performing

activities.

Participation restrictions are problems an individual may experience in

involvement in life situations.

Environmental factors make up the physical, social and attitudinal

environment in which people live and conduct their lives.

In the area of disability, ICF is optimistic in offering support for the

development of better policies and services to meet the needs of disabled
people due to its common framework and language. Moreover, it combines
the attributes of the major models of disability, and therefore, provides a
framework to work with information related to disability and functioning.
(ICF Australia 2004)

Definitions of disability in legislation from countries surrounding Malaysia are noted

below as a useful reference in application of definitions.

34

(d)

Definitions of disability found in the disability laws of Australia, Cambodia,

China, India, Japan and Thailand (ILO Ability Asia 2003)

Australia:

Persons with a disability are classified as being persons whose disability is

firstly '...attributab!e to an intellectual, psychiatric, sensory or physical

impairment or a combination of such impairments...' and secondly, the
disability '...be permanent or likely to be permanent...' and results in '...a
substantially reduced capacity of the person for communication, learning or
mobility; and the need for continuing support services...' are covered by the

Act. (Disability Services Act 1986 Part II 8). Disability in relation to a

person is defined in the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 as: total loss of
the person's bodily or mental functions, or total or partial loss of part of the
body, or the presence in the body of organisms causing disease or illness, or

the presence in the body of organisms capable of causing disease or illness,

or the malfunction, malformation or disfigurement of a part of the person's

body or a disorder or malfunction that results in the person learning

differently from a person without the disorder or malfunction or a disorder,

illness or disease that affects a person's thought processes, perception of

reality, emotions or judgment or that results in disturbed behaviour and

includes a disability that presently exists, or previously existed but no

longer exists or may exist in the future or is imputed to the person.

Cambodia:

A person with a disability is defined as '...any citizen who lacks any

physical organ or capacity or suffers any mental impairment, which causes

decent restriction on his/her daily life or activities such as loss of limbs,

quadriplegia, visual or hearing impairment or mental handicap' (Article 2,
Draft Law on the Rights of People with Disabilities).
China:

The Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled

Persons 1990 defines both "disabled person" and "disabled persons". A

"disabled person" is defined as a '... person who suffers from abnormalities

35

or loss of a certain organ or function, psychologically or physiologically, or

in anatomical structure and has lost wholly or in part the ability to perform
an activity in the way considered normal...'. The term "disabled persons't is

defined as those persons '...with visual, hearing, speech or physical

disabilities, intellectual disability, mental disorder, multiple disabilities

and/or other disabilities...' (Article 2)

Fiji:

The Act defines "disabled persons" as '...persons, who as a result of

physical, mental or sensory impairment are restricted or lacking in ability to

perform an activity in the manner considered normal for human beings...'

(Fiji National Council for Disabled Persons Act 1994 Article 2)

India:

Within the Act, "Person with disability" is defined as a person suffering

from not less than forty per cent of any disability as certified by a medical
authority. (The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of
Rights and Full Participation) Act 1995 Chapter 1 Section 2 (i)). In addition,

the definition of disability is divided into seven groups: blindness, low

vision, leprosy-cured, hearing impairment, locomotor disability, mental

retardation and mental illness. With the exception of blindness, each of

these has a specific definition in the Act.

Japan:

The term "Disabled persons" is defined as referring to '...persons whose

daily life or life in society is substantially limited over the long term due to

a physical disability, mental retardation or mental disability...'. The

Japanese Law for Employment Promotion initially defined disabled persons

as referring solely to persons with a physical disability but later extended

this to include persons with a mental impairment.

Thailand:

The Act defines a disabled person as '...a person with physical, intellectual
or psychological abnormality or impairment...'. (Rehabilitation of Disabled
Persons

Act

A.D.

Ministerial

1991).

36

Regulation 2

establishes

classification system for type of disability (Ministerial Regulation No.2

B.E. 2537 (1994))

Although Malaysia does not have a comprehensive disability legislation, it is somewhat

compensated by a number of guidelines, policies and legislation. The discussion below

looks at the disability definitions and their classifications in Malaysia.
(e)

Definition and Classification of Disability in Malaysia

The Department of Social Welfare and the Ministry of Health base their definition of a
disabled person on the World Health Organisation's (WHO) definition, (Country Paper:
Malaysia 2003):
Any person unable to ensure by himself wholly or partly, the necessities of a
normal individual and or social life, as a result of deficiency either congenital or

not, in his physical or mental capabilities, which may have happened before or
after childbirth.

The Department of Social Welfare Malaysia has classified disabled people into six
categories (JKM 2006) as shown Table 2.1

Table 2.1: Classification of Disabled People in Malaysia.

Category

Description

Hearing Disability

Inclusive of deaf and mute

Vision Disability

Mild: (20 - <30 db)

Moderate: (30 - <60)
Severe: (60 - <90db)
Profound: (>90 db)

Blind: Vision less than 3/60 of normal eye vision

even with visual aid (spectacles)
Low Vision/Partially Sighted: Vision is less than
6/18 or equivalent but more than 3/60 of normal
eye vision even with visual aid (spectacles)

37

Table 2.1: Classification of Disabled People in Malaysia (Continued).

Physical Disability

Includes disabilities such as Polio, Loss of hand

(s) and Feet, Muscular Dystrophy, Myopathy,
Neuropathy, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, etc

Cerebral Palsy

Hemiplegia - Cerebral Palsy that affects partially

or half of the body
Diplegia - Cerebral Palsy that affects both feet
Quadriplegia - Cerebral Palsy that affects both
hands and both feet

Learning Disability

Others

Medical diagnosis under this category would cover:

Global Development Delay (for children age <
years old)
Down' Syndrome
Autism
Attention Deficit Disorder
Mental Retardation (for children age> 3 years
old)
Specific learning disorder/problem such as
dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, etc

Medical diagnosis under this category would cover all

the disability problems that are not indicated in the above
categories.

Source: Malaysian government webs ite at http.//www.jkm. gov. my/Perkhi dmatan upaya. asp

The Ministry of Local Government and I-lousing defines disabled persons as 'persons who

are disabled in terms of physical hearing or sight that limits their mobility or usage of
building facilities'.

Overall, these definitions could make a clearer picture of disability for the decisionmakers, and all stakeholders interested in disablement. The definitions have the potential to

open or close doors of opportunities (such as for education or employment), because

decision makers may use these definitions as benchmarks in the process of deliberating

38

disability status of concerned persons. The agreed status may ultimately frame the degree
of participation in society of disabled people.

Apart from definitions of disability, academics have used models of disability to study the

phenomenon of disablement. A number of disabled academics such as Mike Oliver, Paul

Abberly, Vic Finkelstein and Paul Hunt were involved in the development of these models,
especially that of the social model of disability (Marks 2001).

Literature on the implications of models of disability is introduced in the following section

because it is believed to be essential for understanding the background of the phenomenon

of disablement although this thesis does not generally intend to associate its findings with

the implications of models of disability. The topic helps provide useful knowledge to

position employment in the realm of disablement. The aim of this dissertation is to

specifically address the influence of three factors, namely, organisational commitment to

employment of disabled people, attitude towards disabled workers, and organisational

policies on disability, on the employment opportunities of disabled people.
2.3.3

Implications of Models of Disability

This section examines the ramifications of two main models of disability. The models
discussed are (a) Individual / Medical Model of Disability, and (b) the Social Model of
Disability.

(a)

Individual or Medical Model of Disability

The individual or medical model of disability is seen as an impairment-centric concept in

the discussions of Richard Rieser (2000). He establishes that the model views the disabled
person as the problem and therefore, the solution looks for ways to adapt the disabled
person into the world as it is. The implication is that since the focus is on the impairment
instead of the needs of the person, the authority (and the power) to change the disabled

39

person lies within the medical profession that control cures, normalisation, and associated
science.

Various interacting factors are seen to influence the individual/medical model of disability,
these are:

Early intervention programmes

Occupational therapists

Speech therapists

Physiotherapists

Medical specialists

General Practitioner

Doctors

Surgeons

Child development teams

Educational psychologies

Special schools, training centres and workshops

Special transport

Benefits agency and

Social workers

The disabled person operates within strict preformatted boundaries that are mostly
beyond his or her control (Rieser 2000)

It is interesting to note that the originator of the concept of individual and social models,

Mike Oliver, is emphatic that the medical model of disability is wrongly termed.

According to him: '...

there

is no such thing as the medical mode! of disability, there is

instead, an individual model of disability of which medicalisation is one significant

component' (Oliver 1990, p.1). The medical model shapes the notion of the personal
tragedy theory of disability in which disability is a random, chance event happening to

unfortunate individuals who then need care and attention resulting in dependence on

40

others. Interestingly, after further debate, Oliver also rejects the individual model of
disability because he finds it inappropriate to place medicalisation of disability within the

model. He maintains that 'doctors are trained to diagnose, treat and cure illnesses, not to
alleviate social conditions or circumstances' (Oliver 1990, p.2). However, he supports the
concept of the social model of disability.

(b)

Social Model of Disability

The social model seems to have built a radical, catalytic platform of change for disabled

people. Asked if he wants to change the world (in accordance with the social model),
Finkelstein (1996, p. 1) said yes, 'we do want to change the world, to remodel the world
according to the perspective of disabled people, to develop and share our culture, because

this will improve your quality of life, whoever you are'. Although the changes may not

occur dramatically, the attributes of the social model are envisioned to usher in more
amicable conditions for creating wider opportunities for disabled people in many fields,
including that of employment.

The social interpretation of disability surfaced in the early 1970s during the combined

struggles of disabled people living

in residential

institutions and the community

(Finkelsteiri 1996). This social interpretation was publicized as Fundamental Principles of

Disability by The Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS) in 1976.

IJPIAS revealed that poverty linked to physical impairment was caused by the way
employment was organized. It excluded disabled people from being able to earn a living on

a par with non-disabled peers. The exclusion isolated disabled people from participating in
social activities (Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare 1 999). This view created the stimulus and
encouragement for the development of the social model of disability.

A few years later saw the advent of social model of disability in its nascent form due the

work of Mike Oliver, a disabled academic. He developed a social interpretation of

disability which explained that the way society was organised caused disablement (Oliver
1990).

41

A major implication of the social model lay in its ability to eliminate or reduce a sizeable
number of debilitating factors found in the disability environment; Rieser (2000) lists these
factors:

Discrimination in employment

Lack of useful education

Inaccessible environment

Inaccessible transport

Inaccessible information

Segregated services

Prejudice

Poverty

Belief in the medical model

The social model of disability is not beyond criticism. The absence of impairment as an

element in the structure of the social model of disability is a critical topic of argument.

Shakespeare and Watson (2002) assert that impairment constitutes part of the daily
experience of people with disabilities; they view impairment as different locations on a
continuum whereby disabled people are also people with impairments. They agree that
impairment is not the essential element of disability, but it is however an inherent nature of

humanity. While Shakespeare and Watson agree on the principles of the social model for

social change, and removal of disabling environmental barriers and practices, they also
believe that appropriate action on impairments and prevention of impairments should be

allied to the cause. According to them, the modernist social model lends itself to an
effective political movement, but falls short on grounding for a social theory. They
advocate the gathering of new insights from other movements and perspectives of poststructuralism and post-modernism to give it relevance for the twenty-first century.

The ground-level inference of the social model of disability is clearly stated by Vasey
(Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare 1999, p.3 I):

42

The social model is not about showing that every dysfunction in our bodies can
be compensated for by a gadget, or a good design, so that everybody can work an

8-hour day and play badminton in the evenings. It's a way of demonstrating that
everyone-even someone who has no movement, no sensory function and who is

going to die tomorrow-has the right to a certain standard of living and to be

treated with respect.

In conclusion, the medical model of disability focuses solely on impairment and the
characteristics of the impaired individual, it does not address disability. In contrast, the

social model views disablement as a way in which society disables those who have
impairments by not accommodating their differences. The implication is that the lack of
accommodation of impairments creates barriers which prevent participation of disabled
people in social, cultural, and economic life. For example, the economic barriers of poverty
and discrimination thwart participation in the labour market (Zarb 1995). It is interesting to

note that in the area of employment, the medical model seeks to assist disabled people live

with economic disadvantage, whereas the social model addresses ways to remove the
disadvantage so that they can compete on better terms with non-disabled employees.

Work is an integral part of employment. In fact, work is 'the very fabric of society' and the
means by which individuals identify themselves in the populace (Szymanski et al. 2003, p.
1). The meaning of work is examined next.

2.4

Understanding the Meaning of Work

Disability complicates the interrelationships between people and work. An understanding

of the complex nature of work is required to help individuals attain and maintain work,
interact with co-workers, and sustain productivity (Szymanski et al. 2003, p. 1).

The most general definition of work is that it is an 'activity performed to produce goods or

services of value to others' (Rothman 1987, p. 5). The significance of work is lucidly put
forward by Juan Somavia, ILO Director General in 2001:

43

Everyday we are reminded that, for everybody, work is a defining feature of

human existence. It is the means of sustaining life and of meeting basic needs. But

it is also an activity through which individuals affirm their own identity, both to

themselves and to those around them. It is crucial to individual choice, to the

welfare of families and to the stability of societies. (O'Reilly 2003, p. 3)

Quintanilla (1991, p. 85) states that the meaning of work is one variable that has been used

to study social construction of work with respect to individuals, groups, societies, and

nations. The meaning of work influences aspects of job outcomes, expectancies, goal
setting and acceptance, and responses to feedback. He operationalized meaning of work

into four measures, i.e. work centrality, work goals, societal norms about working, and
work definitions. These measures play an equally important role for disabled people as
well as for non-disabled people.

Work centrality is defined by Quintanilla (1991) as the degree of general significance that
working has in the life of an individual at any given point in time. For the disabled worker,
this carries considerable significance due to the degree of social inclusion produced.

The work goals were operationalized through comparisons of the relative importance of
eleven work goals. These are listed here in order of their importance:

good pay,

interesting work,

good job security,

opportunity to learn,

good interpersonal relations,

a lot of variety,

a good match between the worker and the job,

good opportunity for upgrading or promotion,

job autonomy,

convenient work hour, and

good physical working conditions.

44

To operationalize societal norms about working, Quintanilla examined the meaning of

work aspect along two dimensions: (a) entitlement, and (b) obligations. The entitlement
norm 'represents the underlying rights of individual and the work-related responsibilities

of society and organisations toward all individuals'; and the obligation norm 'represents

the underlying duties of all individuals to organisations and to society with respect to
working' (Quintanilla 1991, p. 85).
Lastly, the work definitions were operationalized across the following three factors: (a)

reasons for working, (b) personal outcomes resulting from working, and (c) constraints
related to working.

The meaning of work studies have shown that work meanings differ across individuals,

countries, and time, thus, revealing the complexity of the construct of work in

its

interaction to other aspects of life (Szymanski, Parker, Ryan, Merz, Trevino-Espinoza &
Johnson-Rodriguez 2003). The majority of the western society views the meaning of work

around a particular set of values and principles, such as the pursuit and maximization of
profit, waged labour, and competition between individual workers. However, these factors

effectively disadvantage or disable categories of people who possess perceived functional

limitation or impairment. The more unconcealed the limitation or impairment, the more
severe the disadvantage or disability (Barnes 1 999).

Overall work 'gives people the sense of participating in a wider collective purpose; and it
provides the individual with social status and a sense of identity' (Jahoda cited in Barnes,
Thornton and Campbell 1998, p. 9). The next issue examined is the topic of employment.

45

Employment: Regional and Local Issues

2.5

Niwa (1997) maintains that for all people, work is their prerogative, a matter of obligation

and an issue of human dignity. He explains that employment of disabled persons in the
open labour market is essential for three major reasons:

Most adult disabled individuals need the reasonable income that can be

obtained from gainful employment in the open labour market. Work

provides economic rewards,

Work in the open market satisfies fundamental human needs of developing

and enriching life. Work is the right, duty and a matter of human dignity of
every citizen,

Open employment provides opportunities to integrate disabled persons in the

normal flow of life, in which social relationships are formed, social skills are
developed and social status is confirmed.

In order to obtain decent employment, certain conditions must exist; these are listed by
Khor (2002):

Workers need basic literacy and generic work skills, technical skills and business
skills in the case of the self-employed or entrepreneurs,

The economy must create good jobs and self-employment opportunities,

o A vocational guidance/employment services system should have a process for

guiding and matching job training to job opportunities,

46

The infrastructure should include services to complement employment such as a

good public transport system and effective communication systems and lastly,

To ensure job retention and security, the workplace should promote appropriate

health and safety measures, access to lifelong learning opportunities and other
enlightened workplace practices.

Niwa (1997) and Khor (2002) have underlined the significance of employment and the
conditions that promote employment. Lack of employment becomes a critical issue for

disabled people because disability is often related to both unemployment and poverty
(Szymanski et al. 2003). Since most of Asia consist of developing nations where poverty is

widespread, this observation is particularly true for this region (Disability World 2002).

The relationship between disability employment and poverty was investigated by

Szymanski eta! (2003, p.14). Taylor's study (cited in Szymanski et a! 2003, p.14) revealed

that a 1994 Harris Poll indicated two thirds of Americans with disabilities between the
ages of 16 and 64 were not working (although 79% of these individuals reported that they
want to work) and 59% of them lived in households earning less than U$25,000, which is

considered to be at poverty level. However, only 37% of employed disabled people lived
in such households. The next Harris Poll in 1998 found that the situation had not changed
appreciably. Therefore, it is argued that employment plays an important part in alleviating
poverty for disabled people.

A key method of providing employment opportunities for disabled persons is through

proclamation of policies and legislation. Literature reveals that the United Nations

Organisation maintains regular impetus worldwide to keep disability issues

in the

foreground through its agencies such as the ESCAP and the APCD. The UN action helps

champion widespread awareness of disability. Consequently, the UN along with many

countries find synergy for the creation of new or updated policies and legislation. The

Malaysian government is very aware of disability issues within the country and has
enacted various policies and some legislation to provide equal rights for disabled persons
(see Section 2.9.1).

47

Employment opportunities for people with disabilities are generally promoted by two
approaches: anti-discrimination laws and quota legislation (ILO Ability Asia 2003). Antidiscrimination laws state the principle of non-discrimination in employment on the ground

of disability, or either state the right to work and/or contain provisions detailing when
discrimination is unlawful. Some of these also include enforcement mechanisms.

Quota legislation generally obliges employers to reserve a specified proportion of available

jobs for disabled people. It may include the condition of a compensatory payment for noncompliance (ILO Ability Asia 2003).

Other external factors such as economic and employment trends also influence the
employment prospects of disabled people. These factors are discussed below.

An overview of economic and employment trends within the ASEAN and South Korea is
presented below. Although some of the figures date back to the year 2000, the trends could

provide valuable insights into prevailing conditions, and the likely influence in the
Malaysian region. This sections end with a discussion on employment options.

(a)

Economic Trends

It may be observed from Table 2.2 that the economic trend in Malaysia from 1997 to 1998

was subjected to a large fluctuation during the financial crisis of Asian countries. The

average annual percentage change in GDP growth fluctuated from positive 7.3% to
negative 7.4%, but by the year 2000 it had moved to 8.4% which was just below that of

the leading country Korea (at 8.9%). Overall the Malaysian economic performance
achieved the second highest position after Korea.

There are good reasons to believe that the country's economic performance could be
enhanced by widespread employment of disabled people. The World Bank estimated in
2000 that due to the exclusion of disabled people from the mainstream of society, the total

loss to the gross domestic product is between US$1.37 trillion to US$1.94 trillion

48

worldwide (Khor 2002). In the UK alone, the spending power of disabled people is
estimated at 45 billion to 50 billion (Perrin 2003). For Malaysia, the social exclusion of
disabled people entails an estimated loss to the GDP of between US$1. 18 and 1 .68 billion.
(Khor 2002).

Summary of Economic Trends: 1980-2000

Table 2.2:

GDP Growth (Average annual per centage change)

1980-

1996

1997

1998

GDP per capita

($)
1997

1998

1995

Indonesia

6.8

8.0

4.7

-13.0

0.23

4.7

1,100

487

Korea

8.7

7.1

5.0

-6.7

10.7

8.9

10,550

9,681

1980-

1996

1997

1998

1997

1998

1995

Malaysia

7.9

8.6

7.3

-7.4

5.6

8.4

4,530

3,208

Philippines

2.1

5.7

5.2

-0.6

3.3

4.18

1,200

N/a

Thailand

6.7

6.4

-0.4

-10.2

3.3

4.8

2,740

1,899

Sources: Data upto 1998 are from Betcherman and Islam (2000). For subsequent years, spec4fic sources are
indicated. World Bank, World Development Indicators 2000; International Monetary Fund, World Economic
Outlook; National accounts of the Philippines NSCB (various years) and Economist Intelligence Unit
(country profile-various issues).
Notes:
1.

2.
3.

(b)

GDP per capita at market prices (current US dollars)

N/a figure not available
EIU estimates and not strictly comparable with previous years.

Employment Trends

Table 2.3 show details of unemployment, underemployment and employment trends for
selected Asian countries for the years 1997-2000.

49

Table 2.3:

Summary of Unemployment, Underemployment and Employment

Trends, 1997 - 2000
Underemployment

Unemployment
1997

1998

1999

2000

%
change
19981999

1997

1998

Employment

change
19971998

change
19971998

change
19981999

Indonesia

4.7

5.4

6.4

n/a

18.5

35.8

39.1

9.2

2.7

1.3

Korea

2.6

6.8

6.3

3.7

-7.4

7.3

9.3

29.2

-5.3

1.4

Malaysia

2.6

4.0

3.6

n/a

-10

7.3

7.9

8.2

-2.7

2.8

Philippines

8.7

10.1

9.8

11.2

-2.9

11.3

11.9

5.3

5.8

2.6

Thailand

2.2

5.2

5.2

4.3

No
change

0.9

1.2

33.3

-2.8

-2.0

Sources: Country papers: Thailand Economic Monitor, January 2000; Irawan et a!. Labour Markey
Dynamics in Indonesia ILO (2000); Policy Options for Income Support and active Labour Market
programs (2000); A synthesis of the Korean Experience and National accounts of the Philippines NSCB
(various years).
Notes:

2.

3.

4.

Thailandfigures are for February; Indonesia for August; Korea and Philippines are averages
of quarterly estimates.
Underemployment (as % of employed population) defines as: Malaysia, less than 30 hours per
week; Korea 35 hours or less per week; Indonesia, less than 35 hours per week; Thailand and
the Philippines, less than 40 hours per week and available for more hours.
Working age population in Thailand is defined as 13 years of age and older.
n/a = figures not available

During the period 1997 to 2000, the unemployment (see Table 2.3) in Malaysia rose from
2.6 to 4.0, but tapered off against 1999; similarly, underemployment reached its peak
during this period, Employment also dropped, showing a percentage change of-2.7
although by 1998-1999, the figure had gone up to 2.8 percent, the highest percentage
change among the listed countries. Judging from the current (2005) GDP growth of 5.3 for
Malaysia (Department of Statistics Malaysia 2006), it appears that good economic and
employment fundamentals have regained control in the region providing rebound for the
other nations as well. It may be concluded that the rapid recovery of economy and
50

employment indicate resilience and pragmatism in conducting business across the region.
These qualities have the potential to enrich employment prospects, including the opening
up more opportunities for employment of disabled people.
The employment tendencies shown below (Table 2.4 and Table 2.5) are for the USA and
UK. The first table (Table 2.4) indicates the ratio between employment related to
information handling and goods handling. It is seen that the ratio of employment within the
information sector is almost equal to that of the goods handling sector in 1991. The second
table (Table 2.5) indicates a disparity between the ratio of employment related to services
and the industry. The service sector employment is three times ahead of the industrial
sector in 1991.

Table 2.4:

Ratio between Information Handling and Goods Handling Employment

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1990

1991

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.6

1980
0.7

1985

USA

0.8

0.9

UK

0.3*

0.4*

0.3*

03*

0.9

0.5

0.6

0.8

0.8

* England and Wales only and 1 year later

Source.' adaptedfrom Castells (1996), Tables 4.8 and 4.13

Table 2.5:

USA
UK

Ratio between Services and Industry Employment

1920

1930

1940

1.1

1.3
1.1*

1.6

0.9*

1950

1960

1970

1.6

1.6
1.0*

2.0

1980
2.3

1.0

1.5

0.9*

1985

2.6
2.0

1990
2,9
2.4

1991

3.0

* England and Wales only and 1 year later

Source: adaptedfrom Castells (1996), Tables 4.8 and 4.13

The Table 2.6 lists worldwide employment in the services and industrial sector. It shows
that employment in services sector as a share of total employment exceeds that of the
industrial sector: worldwide figures show services sector at 38.9 (2005) and the industrial

sector at 21.0 (2005); for South East Asia and the Pacific, the corresponding figures are at
36 and 20.7 respectively, in fact, services represent more than 75% of the economy in the
United States (Horn 2004).

51

Table 2.6:

Worldwide Employment in the Industrial and Service Sector.

Employme nt in sector a s s har e of total employment
1995

2003

2004

2005*

21.1

20.3

20.5

21.0

28.7

25.5

24.9

24.8

27 5

26 7

27 2

27 4

EastAsia

25.9

24.3

24.8

26.1

South East Asia and the Pacific

15.4

19.2

20.3

20.7

South Asia

13.4

13.5

13.7

14.1

Latin America and the Caribbean

20.2

20.4

20.2

20.3

Middle East and North Africa

20.3

24.2

24.8

25

Sub-Saharan Africa

8.2

8.9

8.7

8.9

34.5

37.8

38.4

38.9

66.1

70.5

71.2

71.4

44 6

49

49 6

49 9

EastAsia

19.7

23.1

23.7

24.4

South East Asia and the Pacific

29.3

34.9

35.4

36.0

South Asia

22.5

23.9

24.2

24.6

Latin America and the Caribbean

56.4

61.4

62.2

62.5

Middle East and North Africa

48.9

48.6

48.3

48.7

Sub-Saharan Africa

21.7

25.3

27.1

27.5

Year I Description

INDUSTRY
World

Developed Economies and

European Union
Central and Eastern Europe (non
EU) and CIS

SERVICES
World

Developed Economies and

European Union
Central and Eastern Europe (non
EU) and CIS

Source: ILO, Global Employment Trends Model, 2005; IMP, World Economic Outlook, September 2005; see
also note to table 1; *2005 are preliminary estimates

Overall, judging from the trends shown in the above three tables, Table 2.4 to Table 2.6, it

appears that the nature of employment is progressively being dominated by service

52

oriented sectors and information processing sectors. Thus, work itself is undergoing
changes due to the pervasiveness of Information and Communication Technology (ICT),
knowledge management, the service industry, and outsourcing, just to name a few of the

drivers in today's borderless world (Karim & Khalid 2003). The employment trends
illustrated may portend a positive turn for employment of qualified disabled people,
because service sectors and information handling demands more "able mind" than "able

body" (Comes 1991 cited in Barnes & Mercer 2003, p 49). This shift towards
"informationalization" places a premium on highly educated and skilled workers (Castells
1996). Therefore, qualified disabled people stand to benefit from the greater employment

opportunities in the information and services sector. In the present time of free market
economy largely driven by information processing, knowledge and information skills are
likely to be of prime importance in obtaining employment for disabled persons.

Despite the prospects of employment, barriers exist to thwart employment of disabled

people. Two studies are highlighted here to illustrate the problems facing disability
employment. A Singaporean study by Vasoo (1997) attributes slow growth in employment

figures of disabled people to a number of factors such as negative community attitudes,

transportation problems, environment barriers such as inadequate access to facilities,

ineffective training and development programs, lack of skill and inadequate facilities. An

Indian study by Abidi (1999) for the National Centre for Promotion of Employment for

Disabled People, shows that

in

spite of laws favouring employment, the rate of

employment was below expectations. The findings revealed that even after three years of
implementing a policy of job reservation for disabled people, the target achieved was only

13% of the desired level. It seems evident from these studies that the removal of
employment barriers needs a holistic approach where, for example, the implementation of

disability policies encouraging employment should also be monitored, enforced, and

feedback sought, for successful outcome. An interesting study in New Zealand by

Lawrence and Alam, (2000) into the current state of implementation and management of

nation-wide disability service centres, provides valuable insights for those engaged in
shaping Malaysia's public administration policies. Just as New Zealand deploys trained

Disability Employment Advisors (DEA5), Malaysia could also train officers from the

53

Welfare Services Department as Welfare Services Advisors (in the style of DEAs). These

Malaysian officers could use manual or remote electronic ICT surveillance devices, as is
done in the New Zealand, to observe and assess the degree of disability of candidates. The
disability assessments could then be used to calculate appropriate funding that may need to

be sought from government bodies or other private organisations for providing continuing
disabilityservices.

(c)

Employment Options

O'Reilly (2003) states that disabled persons should benefit from equality of employment

opportunity and treatment in terms of access to, retention of and advancement in

employment, which would reflect, as close as possible, their own choice and their
individual suitability for the job.

Employment opportunities for persons with disabilities are found within four broad options
which vary across countries "depending on factors such as tradition and culture, economic,

social and labour market conditions, social welfare benefit systems, availability of trained

personnel, and influence of stakeholders, including disability organizations" (O'Reilly

2003, p. 35). The options are: open or competitive employment, sheltered employment,
supported employment, and social enterprise employment.

(i)

Open or Competitive Employment

The opportunity for self-employment is included in this option. The involvement of

disabled people in the open labour market is seen to be much lower than that of other
workers; often times, they are in part-time workers. Unemployment rates vary between
categories of disability; it is highest among those with mental illness. In the U.K. it is

estimated that 75 per cent of those of working age with mental illness are unemployed.
Although disabled people comprise about 20 per cent of the working age population, only

about 12 per cent of then are in employment. In Australia, the participation rate for
disabled males was almost 60 per cent in 1998, compared with 90 per cent for non-

54

disabled persons. The corresponding figures for females were 46 per cent and 71 per cent,

respectively. In Canada, the equivalent figures for disabled people were 6.5 per cent in

2001. In France, the unemployment rate for disabled workers in 1996 was three times
higher than that for the overall non-disabled population. In West Germany in 1997, the
employment rate for severely disabled persons was 37 per cent, compared with that for
non-disabled persons of 80 per cent for men and 63 per cent for women. In Sweden, 60 per

cent of disabled people were employed, compared with 72 per cent in the general
population in 1998 (O'Reilly 2003).

(ii)

Sheltered Employment

Sheltered employment is one "in an enterprise established specifically for the employment

of people with disabilities, but which may also employ able-bodied people" (Tom Martin
& Associates 2001, p. 2). Sheltered employment is suitable for persons who were unable or

unlikely to obtain or retain ajob in the open labour market because of the severity of their

disability or limited working capacity. It may receive special funding from the State..
"Comparison between countries is difficult for a number of reasons, not least because the

concept of sheltered employment does not have the same meaning to all, even within the
same country" (O'Reilly 2003, p. 39)

The stated policy goal of sheltered employment in most countries, according to O'Reilly

(2003), is to facilitate the transition to the regular labour market; however the transition
rates often range from under one per cent to about S per cent, with the majority of countries
closer to the lower value.

(iii)

Supported Employment

"The Supported Employment Program is intended to provide services to individuals who,

because of the severity of their disabilities, would not be able to function independently in

employment without intensive ongoing support services. In transitional employment, the

55

provision of ongoing support services must include continuing sequential job placements
until job permanency is achieved" (Wisconsin DVR 2004, p. 1)

Supported employment was initiated in the United States as an alternative to traditional

rehabilitation programmes. Supported employment may be provided as individual

placement, enclaves, mobile work crews and small business arrangements. The individual

placement option appears to be dominant in the United States. In 1995, 77 per cent of
supported employment workers were in individual supported employment places, and 23

per cent in some categories of group model. In the United Kingdom, it includes
programmes offering financial subsidies to employers hiring disabled workers with
reduced productivity. In Norway, supported employment had existed since 1996. In New

Zealand, the supported employment programme grants a wage subsidy for two years
(O'Reilly 2003)

(iv)

Social Enterprise Employment

Social enterprise is a general term for a non-profit enterprise, social purpose business, or
revenue-generating venture intended to sustain or create economic opportunities for poor
and disadvantaged populations while operating within the context of financial bottom line

(Emerson and Twersky 1996). Enterprises of the Social Economy include social firms,

social businesses, social enterprises, community enterprises, community cooperatives,

development trusts, neighbourhood co-ops, worker cooperatives, social cooperatives,

credit unions, microcredit and mutual guarantee societies. In the United States, the not-forprofit sector dates mainly from the I 960s. Government departments are required to procure

goods and services from not-for-profit organizations employing disabled persons, subject

to competitive price and quality. In Japan, social firms and enterprises have provided
employment opportunities for severely disabled individuals since 1981.In Italy, social

cooperatives, which engage in a variety of commercial, manufacturing, farming and

service activities, employed over 17,000 disabled workers in 1997. In Spain, ONCE (The

Spanish Organization of Blind Persons) established a foundation (Fundacion ONCE) in

1988, involving representation of different groups of disabled persons with the primary

56

objective of providing disability employment. In the next year, it set up a holding company

of more than 60 enterprises engaged in activities such as laundry, retail sales in hospitals
and community centres, telephone marketing, food production and data processing. These

business entities employed almost 6000 workers where 72 per cent consisted of disabled
workers. In the United Kingdom, between 40 and 50 social enterprises provide work for
persons with disabilities in 1995 (O'Reilly 2003).

Further discussion on disability barriers are presented in Section 2.11 of this chapter. A
few other issues of disability are discussed in the following section.

2.6

Other Issues Related to Disability in Malaysia

This section focuses on localised issues of disability in Malaysia, namely, legislation,

government incentives to the employment of disabled people, and management limitations.

(a)

Malaysian Disability Legislation and Employment

Currently there is no specific legislation concerning disabled persons in Malaysia, but '

disabled person may claim his rights under Article 8 of the Federal Constitution that
guarantees equality to all persons unless conditions expressly authorized by the

Constitution' (Ismail 2003, p. 2). The Government of Malaysia introduced in 1990 special
tax incentives to encourage the private sector employ more disabled individuals.

Lee Lam Thye in 2003 called on the government to pass the Persons with Disabilities Bill

without delay to protect the rights of people with disabilities. The National Advisory and

Consultative Council on the Disabled (working under the National Unity and Social
Development Ministry) was responsible in drafting the Persons with Disabilities Act (Koay

2004). The Act provides disabled people with equal access to education, employment,
rehabilitation services and social security (Dermawan 2003).

57

Even with the introduction of the bill, results may not occur overnight. For example, a

study done by Unger (2001) in the United States, reports that despite the support of
progressive laws designed to integrate disabled people into the workforce, they still
represents an untapped labour pool.

In Malaysia, as well as the rest of the world, the possibility exists that heightened
awareness of disability issues may promote more places in the workforce for disabled
people. According to Ismail (2003) public awareness of disability issues in Malaysia has
significantly increased through seminars, workshops, campaigns and such by the

government and the private media. Many of these programs are held on or around the
International Day of Disabled Persons which falls on December 3 of every year.

The number of disabled people in Malaysia up to the year 2000 should total 2,200,000

according to calculations (using a factor of 9.9% disabled persons for High Human
Development countries) by the World Bank. Due to lack of data in Malaysia to verify such

a high figure, an estimate of 1% was used by local authorities, lowering the figure to

220,000 disabled persons (Khor 2002). The number of disabled people who were
registered with the Department of Social Welfare Malaysia up to June 2002 was 108,000.
A break-down by types of disability as of 2000 is shown in Table 2.7:
Table 2.7:

Distribution of registered disabilities in Malaysia (2000)

Type of Disability
o Physical Disability
o Mentally Impaired
o Hearing Impaired
o Visually Impaired
o Multiple Disability

Number of Disabled People

33,559
33,275
17,692
13,743
183

Total

98,452

Source: ACPD-Country Profile 2005 (Department of Social Welfare Malaysia)

From the period 1990-2001, the Social Welfare Department Malaysia had been able to
place 4,490 disabled persons into work in the public sector. For the same period, according

58

to the Ministry of Human Resources, only 538 disabled persons have been successfully
placed in the government service (Borneo Post 2002, p. 8).

Government Incentives towards Employment of Disabled People.

(b)

In Malaysia about 3,000 physically disabled people are employed in the private sector,
which employs a total of nine million people (Yong 2001). In comparison, 540 disabled

persons are employed in the public sector consisting of more than 800,000 employees
although a government policy (since 1989) has reserved one percent of jobs in the public
sector for disabled people (Yong 2001).

In 1990, the Government introduced special tax incentives to encourage the private sector
to employ more disabled individuals. En the year 2001 some 3,000 of them worked in the
private sector and the year 2003 showed an increase of about 2,000 (Fong 2004). This total

of 5,000 disabled employees represents only 3.92% of disabled persons registered

(126,194) with the Welfare Department Malaysia. The private sector's response is slow to

government incentives for providing at least 1% of the jobs in the sector for employment
of disabled people (Fong 2004).

Under the Social Security Organisation (SOCSO), PWDs are given benefits on a

permanent or temporary basis. The following benefits are provided to PWDs (APCDCountry Profile 2005):

RM200 allowance per month for disabled workers earning less than RM750,

One percent quota of Public service posts for disabled candidates,

Flexi working hours for government staff with disabled children,

RMIO million (US$2.6 million) fund for disabled people suffering from chronic
diseases,

Twenty percent discount to buy low cost house built by Syarikat Perumahan
Negara (SPN),

59

Fifty percent discount on travel fares from Syarikat Parasarana Negara (50%
discount on local airfare and train fare already provided. Personal Assistant also

included),
o

No road tax for motorcycle 150 cc and below,

No road tax for locally make vehicle owned by a disabled person. (50% discount on
government duty already provided).

(c)

Some Management Limitations

For effective functioning of a disability-employment service, there is a need to know the

number of disabled persons in the country, but according to Yong (2001) Malaysia's
Welfare Services Department does not have an exact record of disabled persons in the

nation. Registration of disabled people is not mandatory by law. For the registration
purpose disabled individuals are required to present themselves at the nearest office of the
Welfare Services Department so that their disability can be ascertained. Khatijah Sulieman
(Yong 2001) explains that one of the reasons why they do not register at the Welfare office

is because a large number of disabled people do not know their rights and benefits
available from registering with the Welfare Services Department.

To ensure that disabled persons are given equal rights SUHAKAM ( Suruhanjaya Hak
Asasi Manusia Malaysia or the Malaysian Human Rights Commission) often highlights
the rights and equal opportunities to be extended to disabled persons (Lee 2001). However,

Ivan Ho Tuck Choy of Malaysia Confederation for the Disabled (New Straits Times:
Nation, 4 December 2003, p. 7) emphasises that disabled people are left behind the
mainstream despite their wish to be part of the society.

In any society, organisations would be a part of the stakeholders interested in the

employment of qualified disabled persons. A key factor in the successful recruitment,
selection and placement of such candidates would be the commitment of organisations
towards the goal of disability employment.

60

Organisational Commitment to Employment of Disabled Persons

2.7

Organisational commitment is examined through two main aspects (a) hiring decisions

practiced by organisations, and (b) disability training. Disability training

is

further

documented into three areas: training of disabled employees, training of non-disabled

employees, and the employer's role in training of employees.

2.7.1

Relationship between Disability and Hiring Decisions

Millington et a!. (2003, p.312) believe that the placement of workers with disabilities is
based on making a match between worker abilities (with or without accommodations) and

essential functions of the job. The relationship between disability and hiring decisions is
more complex than was once believed. Their analysis of labour market decisions provides
four hypotheses to explain the role of stereotyping in employer decision making:

Disability is sometimes used by employers as a negative signal, indicating a

potential performance problem. They cite Blessing & Jamieson (1999) and Lee &

Newman (1995) to show that the employers sometimes anticipate high

accommodation costs, difficulty in supervising and communicating with the
employee, problem behaviour or attitudes, and difficulty with co-worker
acceptance,

Disability may also serve as an unusual or novel stimulus that distracts the attention

of the employer away from more job-relevant features of an applicant, resulting in

idiosyncratic decision making. For example, the differences in qualification among
applicants were detected readily when applicants did not have a disability but were
less well attended to when applicants had a disability,

Disability may introduce an additional level of uncertainty into the decision making
process. Employers use applicant-information to predict future performance and job

.61

fit. Employers tend to avoid a less certain alternative, when other factors are nearly

equal,

Employers seek to avoid personal discomfort and to protect themselves and other
employees from (imagined or predicted) discomfort.

Hagner (2003) reports that studies have shown that interviewers testified more discomfort

when an interviewee has a disability. However, they also report that a few studies have
indicated employer bias in favour of disabled applicants, where achievements of an
interviewee were given more weight if the interviewer believed that the interviewee had
overcome significant obstacles to accomplish them.

Stensrud (Gilbride & Stensrud 2003) provides three more reasons why employers
generally do not hire more disabled people: (a) employers were not aware of how to utilise

the public and private agencies that served people with disabilities, (b) many employers
were unsure of how to perform the job selection process for disabled applicants; they were
uncertain of the requirements under the government's disability policies, and (c) employers
were uncertain of the degree of comfort in terms of assistance if confronted with disabilityrelated dilemmas.

An exception may be cited for large firms, which are likely to hire and accommodate

disabled people. They do so for these reasons: (a) the existence of affirmative action
mechanisms in larger firms, (b) the likelihood of encountering persons with disabilities
because of the sheer numbers of workers employed, and (c) the much greater diversity of

job types in larger firms that lead to more possibilities of hiring and greater flexibility in
job assignments (Brodwin, Parker & DeLaGarza 2003).

Ganapathy (Jayasooria 2000) in 1992 identified five reasons for low hiring of disabled
persons in Malaysia; first reason is the absence of a nation-wide register of job seekers
among disabled persons because the Government and voluntary agencies were not well
coordinated, the second reason is the prejudice existing against disabled people, the third

62

is the poor access to public facilities, the fourth reason is the restricted location of
employment - more concentrated than distributed, and, the fifth reason is reluctance of
employers to modify or adapt machinery and facilities for disabled workers.

2.7.2

Disability Training

Disability training provides employees and managers valuable insight into how disabled

people experience the organisation inclusive of the services provided. Playforth (2003)
points out seven benefits of disability training:

Staff confidence: Increased confidence in interacting with disabled people creates a

welcome environment for them as users and employees,

Development of a user-centred perspective: Disabled users' requirements and how

best to deliver and manage these needs could be identified through user-centred
perspective,
o

Changing traditional or stereotyped ideas: Training helps to discard wrong

assumptions about disability and thus improve provision of services,

Increasing the number of users (for service oriented organisations): Customer

satisfaction translates into a larger customer base and better public profile,

Enhanced support for funding bids: Evidence of training will lend additional
support for funding bids,

Becoming an inclusive organisation: Training will enable employees at all levels to

understand their role in the development of an organisation which is inclusive of

disabled people, and
o

Fulfilling legal requirements: For countries that have disability legislation, training

provides the staff with the understanding of the organisation's disability policies,

legal obligations, and duty of reasonable adjustments. Staff who would have
contact with the public may be provided with training in disability awareness and
disability etiquette.

63

The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP 2002) reports that

disability awareness training is a solution to overcome issues of poor implementation and

enforcement of guidelines and legislative measures. The training initiates changes bringing

increased awareness and commitment starting at the local government level. In Malaysia

however, disability awareness training is only an informal programme of activities and

unless it is integrated into mainstream training, the expected chain-reaction benefits will
not be rapid (ESCAP 2002).

A comprehensive disability training programme is expected to cover issues such as: (a)

disability in present times, (b) the social and medical models of disability, (c) legal
requirements, (d) barriers faced by disabled people, (e) customer care, (f) customer care,
(g) access needs and how to meet them, and (h) sources of information and support.

The two main approaches to disability training are Disability Awareness Training, and
Disability Equality Training. These may be complemented by specially tailored training
for specific disabilities such as for sight or hearing (Playforth 2003).

Disability Awareness Training consists of multiple modules. Common modules are:

Introduction to ADA or DDA or equivalent legislation,

General information on disabilities,

Focused discourse on disabilities pertaining to hearing, vision, mental and mobility,

Specific points related to the relevant organisational business or service,

Discussion on interaction with disabled people, and

Practical exercises designed to expose common myths, in-iprove suitable language,

and cultural etiquette.

Disability Equality Training permits trainees to understand disability from an angle of

equality. The role of society in creating an inclusive and equal society is also discussed.
Due recognition of a disabled person's right to participate wholly in the economic, social

and cultural life is explained. The training seeks to inform the trainees of the suitable

64

behaviour and actions with reference to disability. The following number of elements are
explored by the training (National Disability Authority 2006):
o

A social understanding of disability and responsibility sharing where environmental

barriers to full participation are identified, and a rights-based approach to

participation in society are discussed,

o

The requirements of current disability legislation,

Identification of participation needs of people with different kinds of impairments,

Changes in staff or organisational behaviour to welcome a disabled employee to

participate fully as a member, and

The significance of management support for training.

Therefore, organisations which provide effective disability training are poised to deliver

higher quality of service to

all

stakeholders through their diversity of employees.

Furthermore, such organisations are also positioned to tap into a wider pool of job
applicants. Another resultant factor is an improvement of staff morale which in turn leads
to better staff satisfaction (National Disability Authority 2006).

(a)

Training of Disabled Employees

The importance of training in the hiring of disabled workers is reported by Christie and

Kleiner (2001). They cite examples of hiring successes brought on by agencies that do
temporary staffing. These agencies, who work closely with human resource professionals,

provide training, evaluation, and matching of jobs with potential candidates. Once the
disabled person is selected into the company, he or she is given more training based on the
skills and interests for which employee was selected. The significance of training is further
underlined by the findings of Digh (1998) who established that trained disabled employees

move from temporary to permanent positions at about the same rate as non-disabled
people.

65

Provision of reasonable accommodation during training will minimise undue hardship for

disabled attendees. Cornell University's Program on Employment and Disability (The

ADA and Personnel Training 2001) recommends the following modifications:

Restructuring or simplifying training formats to accommodate trainees with

cognitive impairments,

Making training rooms wheelchair accessible,

Brailling or audio taping print materials,

Providing a sign language interpreter or reader,

Captioning videotape materials,

Being aware of environmental irritants for chemically sensitive trainees,

Advocating on behalf of a trainee for any training held elsewhere, when an

accommodation is needed for that individual.

On-line training programme for disabled users may need the following ICT adjustments:

All PDF formats are translatable by screen readers (for persons with visual
impairments) and therefore a text only alternative should also be included if a nonaccessible version of PDF format is used;

(b)

Alt-tags and labels are used to denote graphics/pictures;

Use of frames is restricted or eliminated;

Use of Flash and JavaScript avoided.

Training of Non-Disabled Employees

Training non-disabled staff in disability issues is a valuable tool to bring about positive

organisational changes in its attitude towards disabled personnel. The training plays a
central role in the development of equal access, and is probably one of the most effective
ways in improving various provisions for disabled people. Staff training raises the levels of
user satisfaction among customers and disabled users of services (Playforth 2003).

66

Apart from increasing the level of awareness, responsiveness and resourcefulness of the
staff, disability training instills in the organisation an approach that is holistic and crossdisciplinary, thereby, easily meeting the requirements of disability legislation.

Yaacob (2001) indicates that there is a need for disability awareness training among public

administrative and technical personnel in the government of Malaysia. This will enable
better framing of disability legislation and successful implementation of the product.

The Employer's Role in Training of Employees

(c)

In order to ensure that all employees are aware of, and understand the implications of
disability legislation so that they may comply with the requirements, the employer need to
observe the following guidelines:

Train all staff to understand the organisational disability policy,

Ensure adequate adjustments are made for disabled employees who attend the
training courses,

The values and commitment of the organisation on disability should be reflected in

all training,

Ensure that the standards set in the organisation create good practices,

Ascertain accessibility for disabled employees towards organisational services and

Provide disability equality training for all staff who have contact with the public.
(Directgov 2005)

Another significant factor influencing the issue of employment of disabled people is the
attitude towards them from employers and co-workers. Nelson and Kleiner (2001, p. 150)
explains that:

The most important organisational adjustment is not the adoption of specific

policies and programmes, but a change in employee attitudes and organisational
culture, two critical factors of successful, effective practices.

67

2.8

Understanding Attitude towards Disabled Workers

This section begins discussion with an introduction to employers' attitude to disabled

people. The issues of disability label and disability identity are also discussed.

While there seems to be no universal definition for the concept of attitudes (Olson &
Zanna, 1993), attitudes were traditionally defined in terms of evaluation, affect, cognition,

and behavioural predisposition. One approach is to examine employers' attitude through

their global and specific attitudes to disabled workers.

Global attitudes are categorised as evaluative responses concerning general disability

issues for which no definite action need to be stated. Specific attitudes, however, have a

narrow focus with a plan for intended action; for example, studies may investigate
participants' expressed willingness to employ disabled workers. Studies have revealed that

positive results were indicated in assessment of global attitudes (Ehrhart, 1995), but
negative results were more apparent in studies that assessed more specific attitudes (Diksa
& Rogers, 1996).

Scheid (1999) found that the expressed willingness to hire disabled applicants continued to

exceed employers' actual hiring. Therefore, it appears that employers' global acceptance of
disabled workers may be superficial and does not seem to indicate a committed willingness

to employ them (1-[ernaridez 2000). En contrast, a study by Kregel and Tomiyasu (1994)

which assessed disabilities in general, obtained positive perception towards disabled

workers. Overall, it would appear that employers hold mixed attitudes towards disabled

workers. Barnes, Patricia & Maynard (1998) believe that some of the greatest barriers

against employment opportunities for disabled people are created by unfavourable

attitudes.

The disability label is another source of concern because of its influence in shaping

attitudes towards disabled workers. Boyle (1997) found that successfully employed
individuals with severe disabilities reported having to make serious efforts in overcoming

68

negative stereotypical assessment of their abilities. Another 53% of college graduates with
disabilities reported employment discrimination (Hallock, Hendricks, & Broadbent, 1998).

Therefore, it is primarily the disability label and not the reality that causes most of the
difficulty for disabled people (Scheid, 1999). Nelson and K!einer (2001, p. 150) explain:
Often people have existing unfavourable attitudes toward disabled people and

most are uneasy about interacting with them. In addition, because of limited
experiences, most people are unaware of how much the differently labelled can

do and as a result, often believe that disabled people cannot do much of

anything. These employees' attitudes towards disabled employees most likely

impact the employer's response to dealing with disability issues. In addition,

most employers automatically think that job accommodations are too costly
and therefore, avoid the disabled altogether.

The issue of disability label in the workplace is further complicated by an added concern:
disability identity. Shakespeare (1996, p. 94) looks at identity from two angles: first, when

identifying is used as an active verb, it is equivalent to "uncovering disabled people or

discovering disabled people"; second, in a reflex sense, identity implies identifying oneself
and gaining membership of a collective or a wider group. Weeks (Shakespeare 1996, p.94)

elaborates that "identity is about belonging, about what you have in common with some

other people and what differentiates you from others". Shakespeare (1996) uses the
metaphor of story telling to explain that identity is an aspect of the stories that disabled
people tell themselves, and to others. In recent times, political developments have offered
new opportunities in how disabled people identify themselves. Thus, there is less reliance

on the "traditional narratives of biomedical intervention or rehabilitation, of misery,

decline and death", instead new stories are being told by, and for, people with impairment
in spaces where audiences will listen (Shakespeare 1996, p. 95). However, major obstacles

are faced in the development of a positive and strong disabled identity in the workplace
and indeed in the lives of disabled people. One of the obstacles relate to the messages of
physical difference and personal deficit in the images of disabled people, "our self image

is.. .dominated by the non-disabled world's reaction to us" (Morris 1991, cited

in

Shakespearel996, p. 103). Another obstacle is that disabled people are generally isolated

from each other and from sources of combined support and strength. This situation
69

prevents disabled people from recognising and challenging values and judgements that

work against the development of a strong and positive identity according to Morris
(Shakespeare 1996, p. 103). Lack of a convincing disability identity exacerbates disability

label wherein workplace disability plays out as work disruption with the perceived
connotation of job performance limitations, decreased productivity and increased cost
(Thomason, Burton & Hyatt 1998).

For further understanding of attitude towards disable people, the discussion now focuses

on two factors: the culture within society, and the culture within organisations. Culture
within society is discussed from the perspectives of worldviews and human rights, whereas

organisational culture is viewed from the areas of business values and corporate
responsibility.

2.8.1

The Role of Culture within Society

Societies are themselves highly heterogeneous, both in terms of cultures and social
practises, and in terms of policy making and interpretation (Barton & Armstrong 1999).
Although "culture" is a debatable topic, Stuart Hall (1995) explains culture as:

Culture is not settled, enclosed or internally coherent.

In the modern world,

culture, like a place, is a meeting point where different influences, traditions and
forces intersect.

o A culture is formed by the juxtaposition and co-presence of different cultural forces

and discourses and their effects. It does not consist of fixed elements but of the
process of changing cultural practices and meanings. (Hall, 1995, p.187)

Just as the world is complex, so is the world of disability with its myriad barriers encased
in biases, ignorance, outdated beliefs and myths. A brief discussion on the woridviews of
societies and human rights aspects follows next.

70

(a)

Woridviews

The society's vision seems to be clouded towards many aspects of disability. The rights of

disabled people under existing UN conventions are generally ignored or marginalized in

monitoring procedures. As a result, disabled people are the largest and most discriminated

minority group in the world whose human rights are systematically violated, resulting in
worsening living conditions, degrading in human treatment, lacking in adequate housing,
healthcare, education, employment, social inclusion and, often facing death (Khalfan 2003)

However, there are social forces that let disability and non-disability take on mixed hues
under certain circumstances. Gartner and Lipsky (1999, p. 104) present a good example
when they talk about a vineyard in Massachusetts (USA) called Martha's Vineyard, which
'from the seventeenth century to the early part of the twentieth century was the home of the

largest concentration of people who were deaf; disability was part of the normal context of

society'. This attitude towards disability emerged as a result of the vineyard community's
inclusion of persons with deafness. The impairment (absence of hearing) was not permitted

to become. a handicap when almost everybody at the vineyard knew sign language for

communication (Groce 1985). Although the deaf vineyarders may be characterised as

disabled people, they were not considered to be at a disadvantage. They participated freely

in all aspects of life in this American community. They grew up, married, raised their
families, and earned their living in just the same manner as did their hearing relatives,
friends, and neighbours.

In contrast, when a society's vision passes through different filters in different countries,

the views of disability takes on various dimensions. For example, most of the Nepali
society still view disability as a result of the sins committed in previous births. As Govinda

Adhikari (2002) reports from Nepal, that the notion that a disabled person has equal rights

and duties as compared to any individual is largely absent from the popular mindset. As a

result there is a lack of legislation addressing the needs of disabled people resulting in a
lack of sensitiveness to disability issues. In Zimbabwe, the birth of a child with disabilities

in the traditional Shona and Ndebele cultures is not a good omen (Chimedza & Peters

71

1999). Often it is associated with witchcraft, promiscuity by the mother during pregnancy,

and punishment by ancestral spirits. It is generally felt that one should not laugh at a
person with a disability or the curse may be transferred to you.

Literature shows that the Malaysian view of disability is quite constructive. As referred to
in an earlier section, terminologies such as "less fortunate", kurang upaya (less-than-able)

and terancat akal (mentally-retarded) still masquerade as official terms in Malaysia to

describe disabled people in a way that solely highlight their weaknesses and not their
strengths.

(b)

Human Rights

Employment opportunities for disabled people are also intimately linked to the concepts of

human rights and disability. Lewis (1999) believes that Western traditions regard human
rights as highlighting "personal autonomy and personal choices" whereas Asian traditions
look at human right as a form of collectivism where the onus is on personal obligations and

selflessness. Thus, the Western societies attempt to satisfy the needs of the individuals,
while Asian societies ask the individual to adapt to the needs of the society. Nevertheless,
some form of unified concepts of human rights may ultimately be formed across the globe

by means of cross-cultural experiences through globalisation, travel, trade, politics,

education, communication and the mass media. Eastern and western societies provide

classic examples of variance in values and beliefs. As Mahbubani (2000, p.37) says,
'...those who live and think in the West are not aware of how they impact the rest of the
world or how the rest thinks of the West'. He cautions the West that an inability to accept

the notion that other cultures have equal validity as their's may create a unique weakness
or blindness for their societies. This brand of weakness may also develop in the East if the
western culture is not given due credence. These facts point to the possibility that disability

issues and human rights may need to be discussed without losing sight of the various
aspects of values, beliefs and traditions inherent in the cultures of different societies.

72

Attitude towards disabled persons could also be affected by the culture existing within
organisations. The next section discusses the role of culture found in organisations.

2.8.2

Role of Organisational Culture

This section briefly observes the role of organisational culture through the viewpoints of
business values, corporate responsibility and the changing attributes of work.

Organisational culture is a key component that contributes to the successful placement of

employees with disabilities. It should help in implementing required adjustments for

employees within the organisations (Nelson and Kleiner 2001). For example, cultural
adjustments towards disabled people are found to be influenced by a number of factors.
Some factors are listed below:

Degree of physical unattractiveness related with disability,

Degree to which the person is surmised personally responsible for the disability,

Degree to which the disability is progressive and irreversible,

Degree to which the disability is noticeable to others,

Degree to which the disability is believed to put others at risk,

(Stone and Colella 1996)

Degree to which the disability is disruptive to communication flow or social

interaction.

(Nelson and Kleiner 2001)

It

is evident that organisational culture and human resource strategies have to exhibit

mutual compatibility in order to produce an effective workforce. Corporate culture is

enhanced when companies include disabled employees so that the resulting diversity
increases their competitive advantage, in fact, the employment of a disabled person can
provide reciprocal benefits (Nelson & Kleiner 2001).

73

(a)

Business Values

Business values have a significant impact on organisational policies because business

organisations do not often share the society's values regarding disability. As Drucker
(1982) maintains, maximizing profit and minimizing cost are two sides of the same coin
that drive the fundamental motivation of organisations in a market economy. The highest
market price is determined in a given market sector by demand, supply and competition.

For business, cost and profit may establish the relative market value of disability.
However unsavoury, the bottom line sees the disabled worker as a seller of labour directly
in competition with all other workers in related businesses (Millington et at. 2003, p. 319).

The labour market has targeted efficiency as a prime objective to reduce expenditure, and
this too has affected disabled persons since they may not be able to match the efficiency of

the non-disabled employees (Michailakis 2001). In the ultimate rational choice, business
may seek the best worker for the least expense. This may not be favourable to the disabled
candidate who possibly will find difficulty in meeting the cost-effectiveness characteristics

of a non-disabled candidate (Millington et

2003, p. 319). Therefore, corporate

responsibility may need to mediate a reconciliation between business values and human
al.

resource needs especially when disabled employees are involved.

(b)

Corporate Responsibility

From the standpoint of corporate responsibility, Millington et al. (2003, p. 322) point out

that companies often discharge their social responsibility through various actions and

projects for the benefit the society. Disability has added value in this sphere, and
employment of disabled workers instils disability-friendly values in the workplace. In

addition, disability employment promotes good public relations and good corporate
citizenship. A positive social response to disability in the workplace impacts favourably on
the group morale.

74

As indicated by Millington et al. (2003, P. 320) good organisational leadership is a key

factor in producing corporate responsibility:

The profit motive offers no inherent guidelines for socially responsible

practices. Good corporate citizenship may be self-imposed when it reflects the
values of the business leadership...

(c)

The Changing Attributes of Work.

The way work is structured in organisations is largely influenced by changes in the

business environment (McGreevy 2003, p.19 I). Such adaptations of work seek to maintain

overall performance and staff productivity in the face of changes. The changing work
environment brings about more barriers against gainful employment of disabled persons;
Ryan and Thomas (Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare 1999, p. 18) explains:

The speed of factory work, the enforced discipline, the time-keeping and
production norms

all these were a highly unfavourable change from the slower,

more self-determined and flexible methods of work into which many

handicapped people had been integrated.

However, the changing nature of work may benefit disabled workers because job
performance is increasingly assessed on the basis of meeting targets rather than behaviour,
and rewards are being based on contribution rather than service or status (McGreevy 2003,
p. 193).

Cultivation of a good attitude towards disabled people would probably generate the
goodwill to understand their true potential, yet, without policies that are rational, pragmatic
and enforceable, the fruits of success growing in the field of disability can turn sour.

2.9

Understanding Policies on Disability

In this section the discussion centres on various aspects of disability policies. It begins with

a review of policy approaches. Next, it moves on to international anti-discrimination

policies and legislation. This is followed by Malaysian disability guidelines that were
75

announced in the government's 2004 budget speech. The discussion next focuses on
policies affecting accommodation; the topic is enhanced with detailed examples of

workplace accommodation that can be implemented through disability policies. The

concluding section discusses shortcomings of policies.

Policy approaches are underlined by the inferential understanding of disability. As a brief

guide, International

Labor Organisation (ILO Ability Asia 2003) identifies three

approaches based on the interpretations of disability:

As a moral matter: When disability is equated as a 'moral' matter, related with

shame or guilt, the policy involves care by the family or by religious institutions,

and often involves charity. Laws that underpin such a policy seek to assuage
poverty and misery by providing basic services, in settings that are often segregated
and stigmatised.

As a medical matter: When disability is seen as a medical matter, the policy

approach includes care and service provision in a number of institutions. Individual

rehabilitation is also provided to assist a person to live life as normally as possible.

Legislation supports social security, social protection, and health services. For
employment of disabled people, this approach supports quotas within the public
and private sectors. However, the existence of quotas may be seen as an indication

of disabled workers possessing lower prospects and productive capacity than non-

disabled persons. Furthermore, the enforcement mechanisms related with quota

schemes may be seen to oppose the employment of disabled people on merit.

As a social construct: When disability is understood as a social construct, the policy

structure involves integration or inclusion of disabled people to help in removal of

social barriers in the built environment, in laws and policies, in organisation of

activities, and in the assumptions people make. Legislation in this approach takes
the form of equity/anti-discrimination laws. The laws underline the mainstreaming

of disabled people by eliminating structural inequality and societal exclusion,

76

treating disability as a human rights issue, and understanding people with

disabilities as citizens with citizenship rights whose special needs be met by

reasonable accommodation. The employment opportunities of disabled people are
also improved through the

removal of social barriers

in the

workplace.

Employment policies such as the quota scheme become more of an affirmative

action tool.

These approaches are therefore, the building blocks in the construction of policies and
legislation. A sample of international anti-discrimination policies and legislation related to
work are presented below (O'Reilly 2003):

(a)

Australia has both national and state legislation to address discrimination against
persons with disabilities. The Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act 1992
over-rides state legislation and prohibits discrimination on the ground of disability
in work and employment as well as other areas, including education.

(b)

The Federal Constitution of Brazil of 1988 explicitly prohibits discrimination of

any kind concerning the recruitment of or salaries paid to persons with disabilities

(Article 7). Law No. 7.853/89 concerning the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

guarantees to persons with disabilities the full exercise of their basic rights,
including the right to work.

(c)

Anti-discrimination measures in Canada take two legislative forms. Section fifteen

of the 1982 Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees every individual 'the right
to equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination' and covers
discrimination based on mental or physical disability. The Canadian Human Rights

Act 1985 prohibits certain discriminatory practices, and disability is included

among the possible grounds. The second form of legislative measure, the
Employment Equity Act, 1995, requires active measures to deal with disadvantage,

including making reasonable accommodation. Persons with disabilities are among

those covered by the Act.

77

(d)

The Training and Employment of Disabled Persons Act 1996 of Mauritius contains

an antidiscrimination provision which makes it an offence for an employer to

discriminate against any disabled person

in

relation to advertisement of and

recruitment for employment, and the determination or allocation of wages, salaries,

pensions and other matters relating to employment.

(e)

The Philippines' Magna Carta Disabled Persons 1992, section 32, prohibits

discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment South Africa's

obligations as a member of the ILO, the Employment Equity Act was passed in
1998. The Act requires all employers to eliminate unfair discrimination, direct or

indirect, in any employment policy or practice, on disability or other specified

grounds.

(f)

In the U.S. public activism and organized advocacy culminated in the adoption of

the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990. This extended the antidiscrimination principle to all private employers with fifteen or more workers. It

also prohibited discrimination on the ground of disability in housing, public

accommodation,

education,

transport,

communication,

recreation,

institutionalization, health services, voting and access to public services.

(g)

The People with Disabilities Act No. 33 of 1996 in Zambia specifies that an
employer shall not treat a person with a disability different from a person without a

disability in advertising for employment, recruiting, offering terms or conditions of

employment, considering promotion, transfer or training of such persons or

providing any other benefits related to employment.

There are a number of common threads running in all these legislation; mostly they are
oriented towards anti-discrimination principles of employment, education and disability
access.

78

Malaysia's guidelines and programs for disabled people are based on strategic goals of the
National

Welfare Policy emphasising attainment of self-reliance, equalization of

opportunities for the less fortunate, and fostering the spirit of mutual help for building a
caring culture.

2.9.1

Malaysian Disability Policies

The Malaysian government has not enacted any comprehensive legislation consisting of
disability policies (APCD-Country Profile 2005a). A comprehensive Malaysian disability

policy document called The Disabled Persons Act 2002, is awaiting endorsement (Koay
2004). However the public stance of the Government towards disability issues can be seen

through the 2004 Budget Speech delivered by Mahathir Bin Mohamad, then Prime
Minister and Minister of Finance in September 2003. The theme of the address was
"Building on Success, Investing for the Future". Presented below is an excerpt of the
speech (Mohamad 2003, p. 64) pertaining to support of disabled people of the nation (the

item numbers are from the budget list and the word "disabled" refers to disabled people;
the extract has been reproduced without alteration):
o

197.

The Government is concerned with the well-being of the disabled and will

ensure that they continue to benefit as well as participate in the mainstream of

development. Several financial assistance have already been provided for them,
including financial aid of between RM8O to RM350 a month. As of mid-2003, a
total of 122,543 disabled persons has registered and received financial aid,

amounting to RM88.5 million (US$22.3 million).

o

198.

To encourage the disabled to continue working to support themselves and their

families, a Disabled Worker Allowance of RM200 per month has been provided if
their monthly income ceiling does not exceed RM500. The assistance is provided to

meet the cost of transport to the workplace as well as other expenses. To enable
more disabled workers to enjoy this financial aid, the Government proposes that
their income ceiling be raised from RM500 to RM750 a month.

79

199.

As a measure to ensure that the disabled also have access to job opportunities,

the Government has allocated 1% of public service posts for the disabled. In
addition, a special unit will be established at the Ministry of Human Resources to
assist the disabled in getting jobs.

200.

The Government sympathizes with the heavy responsibility of parents with

disabled children and the high cost of sending them to special schools. To help

these parents and their children, the Government proposes that a monthly
allowance of RM25 per person be given to disabled students in primary and
secondary schools to encourage them to receive education. For the disabled in
institutions of higher learning, the Government proposes that the present monthly
allowance of RM300 per person for those with impaired hearing, also be extended
to them.

201.

For civil service employees with disabled children, the Government will allow

them to work on flexi-hours to facilitate them in caring for their children. The
Government also proposes that the private sector provides similar facility.
o

202.

In the 2003 Budget, the Government had announced a fund of RM100 million

to finance treatment of those suffering from chronic diseases. The Government now

proposes that a special fund of RMIO million (US$ 2.6 million) be established for
the disabled suffering from chronic diseases.
o

203.

Job opportunities for the visually impaired, such as typists, stenographers and

telephone operators are declining. As such, they need to be provided with skills in
new areas, such as IT, physiotherapy and others. In this regard, the Association for

the Blind is encouraged to establish a network of Franchise Shops to provide

opportunities for them to become entrepreneurs as well as create more job

opportunities. They can also obtain financing from the Government's Micro-Credit

Scheme and will be given suitable locations to establish a network of Franchise

80

Shops. In addition, the Government will also bear the full expenses for the purchase
of white canes and Braille machines for the visually impaired.
o

204.

The Government will also ensure that the disabled can own comfortable and

affordable homes. For this purpose, the disabled in the low-income group will be
given priority to purchase low and medium-cost houses from SPNB, with a price
discount of 20%.
o

205.

To help reduce the cost of transport for the disabled, Syarikat Prasarana

Negara Berhad will give a 50% discount on travel fares. Private transport
companies are encouraged to extend the same facility. In addition, the Government

proposes that road tax be exempted on locally manufactured cars, vans and
motorcycles owned by the disabled.

206.

To ensure the disabled also benefit from the use of ICT, a Pioneer [CT

Resource Centre will be established in Sungai Buloh to train the visually and
hearing impaired in ICT skills. The Government will also provide ICT enabler to
facilitate them to use ICT as a communications tool, particularly at zebra crossings

and during emergencies, especially on the highways. In addition, all Government

buildings will be provided with appropriate facilities to help the disabled in their
dealings with Government departments,

including

facilities in

lifts.

The

Government hopes the private sector will also provide such facilities for them.

Between 1990 and 1993, guidelines on accessibility and mobility for people with
disabilities were introduced in Malaysia. Three of the Malaysian standards codes of
practice pertaining to buildings are:
o

MS 1184:1991, Code of Practice for Access for Disabled Persons To Public

Buildings,

MS 1183:1990, Code of Practice for Means of Escape for Disabled Persons,

81

MS 1331:1993, Code of Practice for Access for Disabled Persons Outside

Buildings.

In addition, the Uniform Building (Amendment) By-Law 34A (UBBL) 1991 stipulates that

all new buildings are to be provided with access for disabled persons such as ramps, step
ramps, pathways, stairs, door-ways, grab bars, floor spaces, lifts, toilets, parking bays and

alarm systems (UNESCAP 2002). The Prime Minister, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi has
instructed that all building be made disability-friendly (Foong 2003). The local authorities
are required to include these conditions as a prerequisite for the approval of building plans
of new buildings (Ismail 2003).

2.9.2

Policies affecting Accommodation

Accommodation policies are designed to meet the needs of disabled employees at the
workplace. Components of accommodation include activities that restructure jobs/work

hours, reassign vacant positions, modify equipment, modify training materials, provide

readers or interpreters, offer flexible HR policy, change supervisory methods, provide

transportation

accommodations,

give

written

instructions,

offer

modified

work

environment, and make existing facilities accessible (Bruyere 2000). For example, the

ADA states that modifications necessary under the "reasonable accommodation"

provisions include:

modifying the physical layout of a job facility to make

it

accessible to

individuals who use wheelchairs or who have other impairments that make
access difficult;
o

restructuring ajob to enable the person with a disability to perform the essential
functions of the job;

establishing a part-time or modified work schedule (e.g., accommodating

people with disabilities who have medical treatment appointments or fatigue
problems);

reassigning a person with a disability to a vacant job;

82

acquiring or modifying equipment or devices (e.g., buying a hearing telephone

amplifier for a person with a hearing impairment);

adjusting or modifying exams, training materials, or policies (e.g., giving an

application examination orally to a person with dyslexia or modifying a policy
against dogs in the workplace for a person with a service dog); and

providing qualified readers or interpreters for people with vision or hearing

impairments.
(Brodwin, Parker & DeLaGarza 2003)

Types of reasonable accommodation with appropriate examples are shown in Table 2.8. It

should be noted that: 'job accommodations should be done with an individual who has a
disability, notfor the individual' (Kutsch, 1990, p.3).
Table 2.8:

Types of Reasonable Accommodation

Physical access
accommodation : A
change or
modification of the
physical structure
IL

Resource accessibility
accommodation:
Providing an assistive
person to enable the
individual to do the
job duties

III.

Adaptive equipment
accommodation:
The provision of "lowtech" and "high-tech"
assistive devices

Examples- Accessibility/ambulation solutions:

Situate job on first floor
1.
2. Situate job near employee parking lot
3. Situate job near restroom

Examples:
1. Hearing impairment Provide note taker or sign
language interpreter
2. Visual impairment Provide reader or note taker
3. Development disability (mental retardation)
provide ajob coach
Examples:
1.
Person with arthritis or carpal tunnel syndrome
provide special pen/pencil holders
2. Orthopaedic problems
o Provide desk or chair modifications
o Provide speaker and earphone on telephone
3. Reaching problems
o Provide a turntable on a desk

Provide a special desk that has easy

accessibility
4. Neck problems Provide a slant board on a desk
5. Visual impairment Provide a talking calculator or
o

83

Table 2.8: Continued

6.

7.

talking computer
Hearing impairment
o Provide a telephone amplifier
o Provide a speaker telephone

Quadriplegia Provide a computer with a specialized

keyboard and an electronic wheelchair with assistive
devices

IV.

Job modification:
Modifying the
performance ofjob
duties while
maintaining the same
job duties

Examples
1. Energy or ambulation problems Salesperson does
more telephone sales with fewer field appointments
2. Energy problem Design drafter works part-time for
less pay
3. Orthopaedic problems
o Parking lot attendant uses a chair for sitting
instead of standing throughout the day
o Warehouse worker lifts and carries lesser
weights by making more frequent trips with
lighter weights
4. Scheduling secretary leaves early for physical
therapy appointments by coming to work earlier

V.

Job restructuring:
Changing some of the
actual job duties
performed (maintain,
eliminate, or replace
job duties)

Examples:
1. Ambulation problem rehabilitation counselor is
assigned more office work (initial interviews, testing,
labor market surveys, and job development) and less
fieldwork activity (on-site job analyses, school visits,
and employer visits)
2. Emotional stress
o Social worker is assigned more case file
analysis and paperwork and less interviewing
and field visits
o Attorney does more research, case
preparation, and legal briefs and spends less
time litigating in court
3. Lower extremity problems Shipping and receiving
clerk is assigned more clerical work (typing reports,
bills of lading, and expediting) and less lifting,
carrying, standing, walking, and forklift driving

Source: Adaptedfrom Table 6.3, Brodwin, Parker & DeLaGarza (2003), pages 215-216

84

The job accommodations required for people with cognitive impairments focus on eight
concerns (JAN 2006). For each concern, three examples are shown that could overcome it:

(a)

(b)

Maintaining Concentration:

Reduce distractions in the work area,

Provide space enclosures or a private office, and

Allow for use of white noise or environmental sound machines.

Handling Memory Deficits:

Permit the employee to make electronic record of meetings,

Provide type written minutes of each meeting, and

Use notebooks, calendars, or sticky notes to record information for easy search
and retrieval.

(c)

Staying Organized and Meeting Deadlines:

Make daily TO-DO lists and check items off as they are done,

Use several calendars to mark meetings and deadlines, and

Remind employee of important deadlines via memos or e-mail or regular

supervision.

(d)

Working Effectively with Supervisors:

Provide positive praise and reinforcement,

Provide written job instructions, and

Write clear expectations of responsibilities and the results of not achieving

them.

(e)

Handling Problem Solving Deficits:

Provide problem solving techniques such as flow charts,

Restructure the job to include only essential functions, and

Assign a supervisor, manager or mentor to be available when the employee has

questions.
85

(f)

Handling Stress and Emotions:

Provide praise and positive reinforcement,

Refer to counselling and employee assistance programs, and

Allow telephone calls for needed support during work hours (to doctors and
others).

(g)

Handling Change:

Recognize that a change in the office environment or of supervisors may pose a

difficult situation,

Maintain open channels of communication between the employee and the new
and old supervisor in order to ensure an effective transition, and

Provide weekly or monthly meetings with the employee to discuss workplace

issues and productions levels.

(h)

Maintaining Stamina during the Workday:

Flexible scheduling of work.

Allow longer or more frequent work breaks, and

Provide additional time to learn new responsibilities.

Another issue often related to job accommodation is the cost of implementing it. Studies
have shown that reasonable accommodation rarely involved considerable costs. John
Studer (Mottl 2001, p. 85) who heads the People with Disabilities Task Force of Proctor &

Gamble Co., maintains that accommodation costs are insignificant in comparison to the
benefits returned to the employer from the hiring of a talented, qualified person. The
advocacy group at the non-profit Organisation on Disabilities indicates that: (a) 15% of
accommodations cost nothing, (b) 51% are priced between $1 and $500, (c) 12% cost $500
to $1,000, and (d) only 22% cost more than $1,000 (Mottl 2001, p. 85). An earlier study in
1997 by Roessler and Sumner (Brodwin, Parker & DeLaGarza 2003, p. 214) found that

most employers they surveyed considered U$500 to U$5,000 an acceptable cost for an
accommodation. However, sophisticated-technology devices can be costly but the costs

86

may be offset through grants and tax incentives or avoided completely with sponsorship
from willing organisations.

2.9.3

Shortcomings of Policies

Organisational policies, practices and attitudes that are not favourable to the disability
environment, could raise unnecessary barriers to the employment of disabled persons and
vindicate the social model of disability. On the other hand, to be able to formulate effective

disability policies to overcome barriers, the policy makers are expected to be in the know
of disability needs and management of them. Therein lies the problem. Floyd et al. (1988)
found that (a) line mangers do not possess adequate knowledge or expertise to manage the

barriers that disabled people face at work, and (b) occupational health professionals often

do not comprehend the work capabilities of disabled workers. Therefore, for the
formulation of a comprehensive disability policy the decision makers should possess good

knowledge of disability coupled with a trait for thinking through details with an overall
pragmatic vision. Once the policy is formulated and implemented, the outcome often needs
careful monitoring.

There are a number of factors that lead to unsatisfactory outcome of organisational

policies. Dibben, Janes and Cunningham (2001) report that some of the factors that
precede policy failures are: (a) conflicts between policy requirements and the operational

pressures faced by managers, (b) inadequate training and other support activities, (c)
prejudicial or stereotypical assumptions among those in the workforce, and (d) a lack of
senior management commitment. The last factor, lack of senior management commitment,

is commonly identified for inadequate outcome of policies; this situation occurs when

some policies are accorded low, flawed levels of importance in comparison to critical
financial and operational considerations.

In Malaysia, Khor (2002) forwards three major factors that influence inadequate policy
outcomes: (a) lack of policy support from the top in terms of dedication and legislation,
this factor substantiates the findings of Dibben, Janes and Cunningham (2001) concerning

87

lack of senior management support, (b) lack of enforcement of existing legislation and
regulations, this factor agrees with the findings of Dibben, Janes and Cunningham (2001)

concerning conflicts between policy requirements and the operational pressures faced by
managers, and (c) lack of database for matching job seekers and jobs, this factor underlines

inadequate support activities by management shown in the findings of Dibben, Janes and
Cunningham (2001).

Disability policies especially those dealing with accommodation policies interact with

various categories of enabling technology to set up suitable work adjustments for the
disabled worker. Although enabling technology (such as office productivity suites and
much of the office equipment) is prevalent in the realm of the non-disabled workers, the
next section centres on enabling technology meant for disabled people.

2.10

Use of Enabling Technology at the Workplace

Technology adaptations enhance the work satisfaction and productivity of disabled

workers by letting them compete fairly in a fast changing work environment. Fallows and
Steven (2000, p. 75) points out that:
The world of employment is also changing rapidly. Permanence is no longer a

significant feature: traditional career paths have disappeared, entire industries

have relocated to other areas of the world, new technologies have made
established practice and experience irrelevant.

As stated earlier about enabling technology: 'equipment and adaptations required to enable
disabled people to do their job most effectively should be looked upon in the same ways as

machines or other facilities which increase the efficiency of other employers, e.g., word
processors, childcare, etc.' (Barnes, Thornton & Campbell 1998, p.15).

Brown (1992) explains that an adaptive technology is any computer software or hardware
tool that assists individuals with disabilities to be more effective in performing job related

or daily activities. 'Most individuals with disabilities praise adaptive technology and say

88

that they could not imagine life without it', quotes Tanya Goette citing Lazzaro (1990) and
Sheldon (1990).

A type of adaptive technology called voice recognition technology (VRT) converts spoken

words into input data for computers without the use of a keyboard. Thus, VRT benefits

people with motoric disabilities who are now able to access computers hands-free.
Examples of other assistive devices are head wands, eye trackers, screen readers, sip-andpuff switches, speech synthesizers and experimental thought-controlled devices.

The modern disabled employee has a number of select technology devices to choose from

in order to enhance their work. Most of the devices are based on Assistive/Adaptive
Technology (AT) and Augmentative and Alternate Communication (ACC).

The Malaysian government provides policy incentives towards the acquisition of assistive
devices. The Department of Social Welfare Malaysia provides funding to purchase devices

such as orthopedic appliances, hearing aids, and wheelchairs for those who need assistive
devices but cannot afford to purchase them. Additionally, the National Welfare Foundation

maintains a special fund to aid PWDs to purchase motorized tricycles and other assistive

devices. Emported products or appliances for the use by PWDs are tax exempted. A
deduction of 50% on the excise duty is provided to the physically disabled people for the

purchase of the national car and motorcycles. The Bangi Industrial and Rehabilitation
Centre produces prosthetic and orthetic appliances which caters to the needs of those who

are unable to purchase them from private suppliers (APCD Country Profile-Malaysia
2004).

Some examples of usage of Assistive Technology in the workplace are: (a) Victor Liew, a

quadriplegic, uses voice recognition software called DragonDictate to manage his work

and develop web pages as a hobby (Hooi 2000c), (b) Greg Smith, a lead software
developer at Microsoft's research department uses a head pointer and a "sip-and-puff'
device in lieu of a mouse to navigate his computer, and (c) blind people are often assisted

89

by a software called Job Access with Speech (JAWS) which let them listen to computerdata (Motti 2001, p.85).

An interesting benefit of technologies such as AT, ACC, ICT and computer networks in

the workplace, is the opening up of the telecommuting or telework concept that allows
disabled employees to work from home on selected jobs. The number of such jobs may
increase since literature shows an upward trend in jobs related to information handling and

services. This may herald a new era of employment for disabled people who possess the
appropriate skills and qualifications.

However, at present teleworking with its many potential benefits for disabled people, may

not develop as quick as had been anticipated for the following five reasons: (a) the costs
involved for small businesses in setting up telework environment, (b) the lack of adequate

technical systems (c) the employers are ignorant of the possibilities, (d) the employers are

resistant to the idea, being prepared to approve of it only in cases where the employees
involved are in a strong bargaining position because of their high skill and high pay, and
(e) the

under-representation of disabled people

particularly

in professional

occupations, have

limited their access to teleworking (Barnes, Patricia & Maynard 1998).

Nonetheless, telework remains a viable option of work because of it many benefits for
disabled persons. Jobs requiring the expertise of programmers, data processors,

researchers, designers and publishers could be completed via teleworking by qualified

disabled persons (l-Iooi, 2000a).

In contrast to these optimist views of technology-enabled workplace, the sombre notes of a

research carried out by Michailakis (2001) deserve attention. Some significant conclusions
of the study are:

While ICT may compensate for disability, it creates work processes that threaten
the employment of the disabled person who then needs re-training.

90

ICT reduces the number of jobs on all levels thus equally reduces the number of
jobs available to disabled people.

ICT is not an independent variable but one that is dependent on economic, social

and cultural aspects; economic efficiency seems to be in contradiction with social,

cultural and moral principles of employing disabled persons.

Another study of enabling technology by Roulstone (1998) revealed that more than 30
percent of disabled people felt that the pace of change was too much for them, thereby
raising concerns about the implementation of technology in the lives of disabled people.
Therefore, it is possible for ICT and other technologies to reduce opportunities for

employment of disabled people unless education and re-training are used as tools of
enab lement.

However, the study by Roulstone (1998) also found that enabling technologies have
afforded critical benefits to people with severe and visible impairment. For example,
communicating via word-processing and e-mail helped them to exhibit their efficient
abilities which co-workers had underestimated (Barnes, Patricia & Maynard 1998).

Perhaps what matters most is not about how technology fits into the lives of disabled

people but more about the world surrounding the technology. Mohamed Riza!, an
experienced disabled computer programmer, states that 'technology is just a tool. What is
more important is a civil and caring society with good human values' (Soo, 2001).

While technology helps disabled people to over come selected barriers, another range of

obstacles stand in the way to employment of disabled people. A brief discussion of

categories of barriers is presented in the next section.

2. 11

Barriers to Employment of Disabled People in Malaysia

A brief list of barriers faced by disabled people in Malaysia (Khor 2002) is highlighted
below. The obstacles fall into the categories of mental, physical and policy barriers.

Mental Barriers consist of (a). low self esteem among disabled persons and
overprotective families, (b) negative attitudes arising from ignorance, myths,
stereotypes and fear resulting in over-protectiveness by parents, (c) low acceptance

by workplace colleagues, and (d) prejudice on the disabled person's productive

ability at work.

Physical Barriers consist of (a) unequal access to education, (b) unequal access to

training programs which includes lack of inclusion in poverty alleviation, credit

lack of
infrastructure facilities at workplace, (d) reluctance of employers to provide

and business development schemes, (c) inaccessible buildings and

facilities and infrastructure at workplace, (e) inaccessible transportation to and from

the workplace (f) lack of suitable housing near workplace, and (g) lack of access to
assistive devices, technology and support.

Policy Barriers consist of (a) lack of policy support including legislation, (b) lack
of enforcement of existing legislation and regulations, and (c) lack of databank for
job seeking and matching purposes.

Additional problems faced by disabled job-seekers from the viewpoint of Malaysian

employers are: (a) safety aspect on the journey to and from the workplace, (b) fear of
discrimination, (c) suitability of job in relation to the capability and types of disability, (d)

inadequate qualifications and skills, (e) lack of basic amenities and transportation, and (f)
employer bias towards the capabilities of disabled candidates (Bardan 2001).

92

The majority of these barriers could be overcome by the adoption of realistic measures in

the areas of disability legislation, skill upgrading, jobs availability, vocational guidance,
infrastructure and environment, employment services and follow-up interventions.

Maurice Blanchot's quote (Davis 1997, p. 217) concludes this chapter:

Nature caused us all to be born equal; if fate is pleased to disturb this plan

of the general law, it is our responsibility to correct its caprice, and repair
by our attention the usurpations of the stronger.

2.12

Summary

The chapter began with an overview of disability developments in Malaysia starting from

the United Nation International Year of the Disabled Persons in 1982 to the first phase of

the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons (1993-2002). During this period,
concerns about disabled persons were translated into policies, and agencies were set up to
look into their welfare and quality of life of disabled people. Events related to the on-going

second phase of the decade (2003-20 12) were also described in appropriate sections of the

chapter. The talents of disabled persons were highlighted next. Discussion then led to
definitions of disability. It included a brief tour of definitions contained in the disability
laws of countries around Malaysia. Definition and classification of disability in Malaysia

was presented next. Also included were disability concepts from the World Health
Organisation (WHO). The discussion then focused on the implications of the two main
models of disability, the individual/medical model and the social model. Understanding the

meaning of work for the individual and for the society was highlighted in the ensuing

review. Next, a discussion followed on various aspects of employment such

as

employment trends, Malaysian disability legislation and government's incentives towards

employment of disabled people

in

public and private sectors.

An overview of

organisational commitment to the employment of disabled persons followed. The focus of

the discussion was on issues such as relationship between disability and hiring decisions,

and the training of disabled and non-disabled employees. The next issue, of attitude
towards disabled workers, was examined in the context of worldviews, human rights,

93

business values, and corporate responsibility. Subsequent discussion centred on disability

policies which highlighted policy approaches, Malaysian and international policies,

accommodation policies at the workplace, and the shortcomings of policies. The impact of
enabling technology in the workplace was examined next; both the benefits and the pitfalls
of technology were underscored in the discussion. The chapter concluded with an overview
of barriers to the employment of disabled people in Malaysia.

94

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction

This study investigates the influence of three factors on the employment opportunities of

disabled people. The three factors are the organisational commitment to employment of

disabled people, attitude towards disabled workers, and organisational policies on

disability.

In this chapter the contents include a description of the population, the sample, the
instrumentation, the procedures, the operationalisation of variables, the research questions

and hypotheses, and the proposed analysis to address the research questions as well as the
hypotheses.

A quantitative, hypothetico-deductive research design was chosen for this study. The major

assumptions of a quantitative research were observed by introducing as much objectivity

as possible (ontological assumption), by maintaining the role of the researcher independent
from that being researched (epistemological assumption), by keeping the role of values to a

minimum (axiological assumption) and by complying with rules, guidelines and

procedures. The data analysis, which was completed with statistical methods, demonstrates

a medium to high level of sophistication since

it

mainly deals with explanation,

associations between variables, and interrelationship between variables. Due to the

quantitative nature of this research, the level of analytical rigour also ranges from medium
to high level.

3.2

Population

As this study is concerned with the employment opportunities of disabled people in

Malaysia, the population consisted of human resource managers of corporations and other
95

businesses that were medium sized or smaller located across East and West Malaysia.

These categories of managers were chosen because human resource professionals are
associated with five functional areas of human resource management: (a) staffing, (b)
human resource development, (c) compensation and benefits, (d) safety and health, and (e)

employee and labour relations (Mondy & Noe, 2005). Work within these functional areas
provides the human resource professionals

in-depth

knowledge and information

concerning organisational commitment to employment issues, organisational policies,

work attitudes and other human resource procedures related to hiring and placement of

disabled workers. Furthermore human resource professionals responsible for hiring

constitute the most knowledgeable group for information on employers' attitudes towards
disabled persons in the workforce (Unger, 2001).

3.3

Sampling Method

According to Neuman (2000, p. 195) quantitative researchers tend to use sampling based
on theories of probability to save time and cost, as well as to enhance accuracy. This study
maintains these principles by using random sampling to select the samples. Dillman (1994)

points out that in order to obtain a representative sample, a complete and current sampling
frame is required where every member of the population is specified on the list so that they

have an equal chance of being selected. The sampling frame for this study was produced

by a compilation of names of corporations and smaller businesses from telephone

directories and Bursa Malaysia (formerly known as Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange or

KLSE). A list of organisations was tabulated and a number was assigned to each
organisation. The organisations were selected using the statistical random numbers table.

In 2004, the total number of listed companies in Bursa Malaysia was 963 (Yusoff 2005,
CPPS 2006). According to Krejcie and Morgan (1970), for a population size of 963, the
minimum sample size should be about 278.

96

3.4

Instrumentation

The questionnaire used in this study is based on an established instrument developed by

Darlene Unger in 200! for her study entitled "A National Study of Employers'

Experiences with Workers with Disability and Their Knowledge and Utilization of
Accommodation", which was supported in part by a grant from the National Institute on
Disability Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) with the US Department of Education. The
questionnaire attached to the thesis was purchased online from UMI Dissertation Services
from Proquest Digital Dissertations at http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations (UMI Number:

3004668). The purchased questionnaire consists of two modules, the first one being the
Human Resource Survey (HRS) module composed of 48 questions designed for responses

from human resource professionals, and the second one being the Supervisor Survey (SS)
module composed of 45 questions designed for responses from supervisors or managers
responsible for disabled employees. However, only the I-IRS module was used for selecting

questions to be included in the survey instrument of this study. The reason was that the

I-IRS module was designed for respondents who are human resource managers. The
questionnaire of this study is also designed for human resource managers. The selected

questions from the HRS module were not modified except when necessary to suit the

current research context. The questions sought the perception of the human resource
managers on employment opportunities for disabled people in Malaysia.

3.5

Adaptation of the Questionnaire.

To develop the questionnaire for this research, 32 questions (out of a total of 48 questions)

were selected from the Human Resource Survey (HRS) module of Unger's questionnaire.

The selection of these 32 questions were based on their suitability to the Malaysian
environment in terms of disability issues that may be encountered by Malaysian managers

in the areas of (a) organisational commitment to employment of disabled persons, (b)

attitude towards disabled workers, and (c) organisational policies on disability. Excluded in

the selection from the HRS module were questions that probed into issues of American
Disability Act (ADA), Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) and Affirmative Action.

97

Also excluded were questions that referred to American agencies or departments for which
there were no equivalent forms existing in Malaysia. The selected questions were placed in

a suitable questionnaire format before being pilot tested. Based on the comments and

recommendations received from the pilot test, some modifications were made to the
questionnaire. In addition, to further attune the questionnaire, a discussion was held with a

panel of two Malaysian professionals with a good record of academic and non-academic
research at Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Sarawak, Malaysia.

3.6

Description of Instrument

The questionnaire elicits data for three dimensions of the research: (a) organisational
commitment to employment of disabled persons, (b) attitude towards disabled workers,
and (c) organisational policies on disability. The survey instrument has nine sections which

are described below in Table 3.1. However, it should be noted that the questions are not
arranged according to these sections in the questionnaire. This was done to prevent bias in

responses. A private record of the question-clusters and sub-headings was tabulated for
analysis of data collected. The record is shown in Table 3.1

The first section of the questionnaire (Organisational and Personal Demographics) has
eight questions with a mix of multiple choice single response scale, and multiple choice
multiple response scale. The second section (Company Policies) consists of eight questions

all of which except one is in Likert scale summated rating category. One question is in the

simple category (dichotomous). The third section (Recruitment of Disabled Employees)

consists of six questions in a mix of dichotomous questions, multiple choice multiple

response questions, semantic differential scale questions, and Likert scale questions.

The fourth section (Employee Training for Disability Related Issues) consists of two
questions, one of which is a dichotomous question with two items, and the next is a Likert

scale question with three items. The fifth section (Co-workers perception of Disabled
Employees) consists of two Likert scale questions. The sixth section (Perception of Work

Attendance of Disabled Employees) consists of two Likert scale questions. The seventh

98

section (Perception of the Need for Supervision of Disabled Employees) has two Likert
scale

questions,

one of which

is

divided into two

items. The eighth

section

(Accommodation for the Disabled Employees) is composed of two multiple choice

questions, and two Likert scale questions. The ninth section (Barriers to Employment of
Disabled People) is composed of one Likert scale question with eight items.
Table 3.1: Sections of the Questionnaire
Serial
No.
I

Section
Organisational and Personal
Demographics

Range of Questions
1-8

Company Policies

9-16

Recruitment of Disabled
Employees

17-20, 29, 31(d & f)

Employee Training for

Disability Issues

21 (a & b), 32 (b, f& h)

Co-workers' Perception of
Disabled Employees

24, 25

Perception of Work Attendance

of Disabled Employees

28, 3 1(e)

Perception of the need for

Supervision of Disabled
Employees
Accommodation for Disabled
Employees

Barriers to Employment of
Disabled People

3.7

30, 31 (a & b)
22, 23, 26, 27

32

Purpose
For descriptive
analysis & discussion
For descriptive and
inferential analysis &
discussion
For descriptive and
inferential analysis &
discussiod
For descriptive and
inferential analysis &
discussion
For descriptive and
inferential analysis &
discussion
For descriptive and
inferential analysis &
discussion
For descriptive and
inferential analysis &
discussion
For enrichment of
research discussion
Seen as an inverse
relation to
employment
opportunities and
ranked for assessment

Survey Method

This study employed survey method for data collection. The concept of survey method for

conducting research is well established. Catherine Marsh (1982, p.6), refers to the survey

99

method as an investigation where '...

(a)

systematic measurements are made over a series

of cases yielding a rectangle of data, (b) the variables in the matrix are analysed to see if
they show any patterns, and (c) the subject matter is social.' Survey research is capable of
investigating both the external and behavioural aspects of social phenomena, as well as the

internal and subjective aspects of it (Normah 1997). According to Sekaran (2003, p. 257)
the

mail questionnaire "is best suited (and perhaps the only alternative open to the

researcher) when information is to be obtained on a substantial scale through structured

questions, at a reasonable cost, from a sample that is widely dispersed geographically".
Therefore, it can be concluded that the survey method is an appropriate method to address
the variables being studied.

3.8

Data Collection Method

Self-administered questionnaire was the method of data collection. Excluded as an option

for data collection were direct or telephonic interviews since it was felt that the attributes

of the interviewer can have an effect on the responses given, especially when the subject
tries to please the interviewer, or is apprehensive about the likelihood of an evaluation of
performance resulting from the responses given in interviews. Self- administered surveys

have the added advantage of allowing contact with otherwise inaccessible respondents,

giving expanded geographic coverage without increase in costs, being perceived as

anonymous and permitting visuals to be used (Cooper & Schindler, 2001). In this study,

the questionnaires were distributed by mail to respondents who were Human Resource

Managers of selected, sample organisations. The terms of reference and definitions of

disability were not included in the questionnaire; this was based on the rationale that the
Human Resource Managers, by virtue of their position and responsibility, would possess

functional knowledge of disability pertaining to employment within their respective

organisations. The next section examines the validity and reliability of the questionnaire.

100

3.9

Establishing the Goodness of Measures

Goodness of measures ensures that the research instruments do indeed measure the

variables they are supposed to (validity) and that they deliver consistent, accurate
measurements (reliability).

A valid questionnaire, while it may be valid for its stated purpose, may not be valid when
used in a different situation or context. The responses on a questionnaire are valid means of

assessing the designated respondents' views, if the necessary steps to safeguard validity
and reliability

have been taken

in

statement construction and in questionnaire

administration (Ratnawati 1995). These issues are discussed below.

(a)

Reliability

Reliability is the measure of consistency of a particular instrument; it is the capability of

the instrument in producing consistent results if it were to be repeatedly administered to a

homogenous group of respondents. The reliability of the instrument is assessed by

determining the proportion of systematic variation in a scale; this is done by determining
the association between scores obtained from administrations of the scale (Malhotra 2004).

In this study, the Cronbach's coefficient alpha test was used to assess the internal
consistency reliability of the responses for each item within the instrument. The
Cronbach's coefficient alpha of the instrument for the various dimensional elements of the
of the study are shown in Table 3.2

The Cronbach's coefficient alpha for the element of Company Policies was found to be
good (a

0.89). Acceptable values of Cronbach's coefficient alpha were found for other

elements namely, Co-workers' Perception of Disabled Employees (a

Training for Disability Issues (a

0.76), Employee

0.69), and Perception on the Need for Supervision (a =

0.69).

101

Table 3.2:

Serial No

Summary of the Reliability Index

Cronbach's

Elements

Coefficient Alpha
I

Company Policies

0.89

Recruitment of Disabled Employees

Less than 0.6

Employee Training for Disability Issues

0.69

Co-workers' Perception of Disabled Employees

0.76

Perception of Work Attendance of Disabled Employees

Less than 0.6

Perception on the Need for Supervision of Disabled Employees

0.69

However reliability was found to be poor for these elements, namely, Recruitment of
Disabled Employees (a < 0.6), and Perception of Work Attendance of Disabled Employees

(a <

0.6).

The poor alpha values for these two elements may reflect a limitation of this

research: it is plausible that the theme and terms of this research are rather unique to most
respondents in Malaysia where the issue of employment opportunities for disabled people

may be a relatively new social topic. Furthermore data analysis of this study had revealed

that about half the number of respondent companies (51%) did not employ disabled
people. Thus, questions on employment of disabled workers particularly in core areas of

recruitment, work-attendance, accommodation, and related issues may have introduced

perplexities in the respondents that led to inconsistent replies, resulting in poor values for
Cronbach's coefficient alpha.

(b)

Validity

Broadly, validity can be termed as a measure of how "truly" a particular concept is

represented by its construct (Kline 1998), i.e. validity ensures the ability of a scale to
measure the intended concept (Sekaran 2003). Validity can be tested under three main
categories: content validity, criterion-related validity and construct validity.

102

Sekaran (2003, P. 206) explains that 'content validity ensures that the measures include an

adequate and representative set of items that tap the concept'. According to Churchill
(1979 p.70), 'clearly specifying the domain of the construct, generating items that exhaust
the domain, and purifying the resulting scale should produce a measure which is content or
face valid and reliable'.

Criterion-related validity is demonstrated when the measure differentiates individuals on a

criterion it is expected to predict. Construct validity is established when the results

obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the test is designed
(Sekaran 2003).

In this study, areas of interest for the questionnaire were developed through an examination

of the literature in the fields of (a) company policies on disabilities, (b) recruitment of
disabled employees, (c) employee training for disability related issues, (d) co-workers

perception of disabled employees, (e) perception of work attendance of disabled

employees, (0 perception on the need for supervision of disabled employees, (g)

accommodation for disabled employees, and (h) barriers to employment of disabled

people. Upon identification of these areas of interest, questions for the instrument were

selected from Unger's HRS module. These questions were expected to possess a good
level of validity because before the questions were developed, they had undergone an

expert panel review, participant review, review from disabled persons and disability
advocates, and representatives from business and professional trade associations.

In

addition, the Unger's questionnaire was piloted tested with a large corporation that fitted
the criteria used for selecting her study's sample. Since the questionnaire of this study has
been compiled from Unger's 1-IRS questionnaire module, which used respondents similar

to that of this study, it is assumed that the survey instrument of this research carries good
validity. Pilot testing of the questionnaire was carried out to further ascertain the goodness
of measure.

103

3.10

Pilot test

The questionnaire was pilot-tested to determine weaknesses in design and instrumentation

in terms of errors in questions, instructions, skip directions, the approximate time taken to

answer the questionnaire, and other issues that the respondents thought fit to point out. A
total of 30 participants were selected for this pilot test. The majority of them were chosen

from a few business areas that were likely to employ disabled workers, namely, the fast-

food retail outlets, soft drink manufacturers, handicraft industry, and a university and a
medical clinic. The participants were briefed clearly about the purpose of the pilot test. The

researcher was available to answer any questions or queries the participants posed. Based

on the comments of the respondents, the questionnaire items that were identified as
confusing or inappropriate were either improved or dropped in the revised version.
3.11

Data Collection Procedures

This study employed the mail survey as the method of data collection. The response rate
was expected to be at about 70% - 80% due to the fact that the survey instrument carried

the characteristics of a good questionnaire (see section 3.5 and 3.6) including an
information sheet with comprehensive contact details for purposes of communication and

clarification. Good response rate was further sought by ensuring that each questionnaire

was accompanied by a cover letter and a self-addressed, stamped envelope. The

questionnaire pack was dispatched to the respondents by post. About three weeks later,
reminder letters were mailed to the respondents to call their attention to the questionnaires
in case they had not completed and returned them.

The number of questionnaires chosen

to be sent was 400, as it has been noted that too large a sample size (over 500) may cause
Type II errors where weak relationships could reach significant levels (Sekaran 2003).

The mailed questionnaires of this research experienced both non-response bias and item
non-response phenomenon. As Hussey and Hussey (1997, p.164) explains, questionnaire

non-response happens when not all questionnaires are returned, and item non-response
occurs when not all questions are answered. Mail surveys generally exhibit poor response

104

rates. Without any pre- or post-mailing contacts, the response rate is typically less than 15

percent from randomly selected respondents (Malhotra 2004). Although follow-up letters

were sent to those in the mailing list, for this study, 82 questionnaires out of 400 were
returned, giving a response rate of 21% which falls within the range that Neuman (2000,
p.268) describes: 'Response rates are a major concern for mail questionnaires. A response

rate of 10 to 50 percent is common for a mail survey'. Despite the low response rate, the
number of received questionnaires was sufficient for data analysis. According to Roscoe

(1975), the sample size may fall within the range of 30 to 500 for most research; also, if
the samples were to be divided into sub-samples, a minimum sample size of 30 for each

category is necessary. This condition was also fulfilled when sub-samples taken for
analysis between organisations that employed disabled workers and those that did not fell
into

the following proportion: 39 companies employed disabled workers, and 43

companies did not employ disabled people.

3.12

Research Design and Analysis

Research design is '...

the

plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain

answers to research questions' (Kerlinger 1986, p. 279). While the plan is the genera!
scheme of the study, the structure is the framework of relations of variables of the research.

The design of this study incorporates the features of descriptive research, as well as
analytical research. The former 'describes phenomena as they exist. It is used to identify

and obtain information on the characteristics of a particular problem or issue', and the
latter, also known as explanatory research, is a continuation of descriptive research, such

that 'the researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analysing and
explaining why or how it is happening' (Hussey & Hussey, 1997 pp.10-il). Thus, the
analytical research conducted in this study sought to understand phenomenon of

employment opportunities of disabled people, by identifying and measuring causal

relations among influencing factors.

The research questions, hypotheses and the theoretical framework are presented below.

105

3.13

Research Questions

Four research questions are examined in this study, these are:

1.

What is the organisation's perception towards its commitment to employment of

disabled people?

2.

What is the organisation's perception on attitude towards disabled workers?

3.

What is the organisation's perception towards disability policies intended for

providing employment to disabled persons?

4.

3.14

What is the current level of employment opportunities for disabled persons?

Hypotheses

Three hypotheses are tested in this study, these are:

H1:

There is no association between organisational commitment and the employment

opportunities for disabled people.

H2:

There is no association between attitude towards disabled workers and employment

opportunities for disabled people.

H3:

There

is

no association

between organisational policies and employment

opportunities for disabled people.

The theoretical framework that logically links all the variables is described next.

106

3.15:

Theoretical Framework

In the theoretical framework (Figure 3.1) the variance in the dependent variable
Employment Opportunities for Disabled People can

be explained by the three

independent variables: (a) Organisational Commitment to Employment of Disabled

People, (b) Attitude towards Disabled Workers, and (c) Organisational Policies on
Disability. Each of these independent variables possesses additional elements.

The independent variable, Organisational Commitment to Employment of Disabled

People, is composed of two elements:
(i)

Recruitment of Disabled People, and

(ii)

Employee training for Disability-related Issues.

The next independent variable Attitude towards Disabled Workers, is composed of three
elements:
(i)

Co-workers' perception of Disabled Workers,

(ii)

Management's Perception of Work Attendance of Disabled Workers, and

(iii)

Management's Perception on the Need for Supervision.

The third independent variable, Organisational Policies on Disability, is composed of only

one element, i.e. Organisational Policies on Employment of Disabled People.

Organisational commitment, which is represented in this study by recruitment of disabled

people and training of employees, has the potential to develop an effective diverse
workforce. The cultivation of an optimistic but pragmatic attitude towards disabled
workers would help strengthen employment opportunities for disabled people in terms of

(a) co-workers' perception where a positive outlook would set the pace for conducive
working conditions for disabled staff, (b) management perception of work-attendance,
where a non-biased view would create realistic employment opportunities for disabled

people, and (c) management perception on the need for supervision, which could be
tailored closer to factual costs and time. Lastly, organisational policies that are proactive
towards disability issues could further enhance the employment opportunities of disabled
107

persons. Overall, the three independent variables discussed above would appreciably
explain the variance in the employment opportunities for disabled people.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

DEPENDENT

1
I

Recruitment of Disabled
People

VARIABLE

Organisati onal
Commitment to

Employment of
Disabled People

Employee Training for Disabilityrelated issues

Coworker's perception of
Disabled Workers
Management Perception of Workattendance of Disabled Workers

Organisational
Attitude towards
Disabled
Workers

Employment
Opportunities
for Disabled
People

Perception of the Management on

the need for Supervision of the
Disabled Workers

Organisational
Policies on

Organisational Policies on
Employment of Disabled People

Disability

Instrument of Measure: Survey Questionnaire (Adapted from Unger, 2001)

Figure 3.1:

Theoretical Framework of Employment Opportunities for the Disabled

People

108

The employment opportunities were further explored by conducting a closer look at

barriers to employment of disabled people, since these barriers can be considered as

inverse reflections of employment opportunities. Therefore, findings from the ranking of

these employment barriers contributed to further appraisal of employment opportunities for
disabled people. The selected employment barriers were:
o

Lack of required skill and training for disabled people,

Cost of training for disabled employees,

Attitude towards and stereotyping of disabled workers,

Cost of supervision of disabled workers,

Lack of knowledge about accommodation issues,

Cost of accommodation for disabled workers,

Lack of related experience in managing disability issues, and

Lack of education on disability topics.

3.16

Data Analysis Method

For this study, data analysis was done by quantitative methods where statistical analysis
was conducted in both descriptive and inferential areas of statistics.

Descriptive statistics methods were used to compute frequencies, measures of central

tendency such as the mean, median and the mode and dispersion such as the range, the
variance and the standard deviation. Inferential statistics method was used for tests such as

the t-tests and chi-square. The data collected from the survey questionnaire were analysed
using SPSS Version 12 software.

The primary analysis consisted of (a) descriptive statistical analysis such as computing
mean score, mode, median, standard deviation, and frequency tables, and (b) inferential
analysis such as t-tests and chi-square.

The t-test was used to test for differences between two groups on a particular intervalscaled or ratio-scaled variable of interest, while the chi-square was used for similar purpose
but with nominal data. The t-test and chi-square were used mainly to test for differences on

109

Data Analysis Matrix for Research Questions

Table 3.3:
Research
Question
Number
I

Analysis Performed

Lndependent Variable

Organisational Commitment to
Employment of Disabled Persons.
This variable is measured from two
aspects:

(i) Descriptive Statistics to computing mean,

median, standard deviation, and frequency

Recruitment of Disabled
Persons and
(ii). Employee Training for
Disability-related issues

(ii) Inferential Statistics to perform a two-tailed

Independent sample t-test using two subgroups
(companies that have disabled staff versus
companies that do not have disabled staff)

tables.
(i).

Attitude towards Disabled Workers

This variable is measured from two
aspects:

Co-workers' Perception of
Disabled Workers
(ii). Management Perception of
Work-attendance of Disabled
Workers
(I).

(i) Descriptive Statistics to computing mean,

median, standard deviation, and frequency
tables.
(ii) Inferential Statistics to perform a two-tailed
Independent sample t-test using two subgroups
(companies that have disabled staff versus
companies that do not have disabled staff)

(iii). Perception of the Management

on the need for Supervision of
Disabled Workers
3

Organisational Policies on Disability

This is a unidimensional variable,

(i) Descriptive Statistics to computing mean,

median, standard deviation, and frequency
tables.
(ii) Inferential Statistics to perform a two-tailed
Independent sample t-test using two subgroups
(companies that have disabled staff versus
companies that do not have disabled staff)

Dependent Variable

Analysis Performed

Research
Question

Number
4

Employment Opportunities for

disabled people

(i) Descriptive Statistics to computing mean,

median, standard deviation, and frequency tables.
(ii) Inferential Statistics to perform a two-tailed
Independent sample t-test using two subgroups
(companies that have disabled staff versus
companies that do not have disabled staff)

110

various issues addressed in this study between companies that employed disabled people
and those not employing any disabled people. The analysis matrix for research questions is
shown above in Table 3.3.

Research Question 1 (What is the organisation's perception towards its commitment to

employment of disabled people?) was addressed using descriptive statistics such as the

mean score, standard deviation. One-sample t-test was used to compare significant
differences between the mean score and the median. An independent sample t-test was
used to compare the variable Organisational Commitment to Employment of Disabled
Persons between two sub-groups of organisations where one group employed disabled
workers while the other group did not employ any disabled people. Apart from the overall

analysis of organisational commitment to employment of disabled workers, a more

detailed assessment was also done for (a) Recruitment of Disabled Persons and (b)
Employee Training for Disability-related issues. The independent sample t-test was also
used for this purpose.

Research Question 2 (What is the organisation's perception on attitude towards disabled

workers?) was addressed using descriptive statistics analysis, the mean score and standard
deviation were computed before conducting a one-sample t-test. The test compared
significant differences between the mean score and the median. Attitude towards Disabled
Workers was also compared between two sub-groups of organisations where one group
employed disabled workers while the other group did not employ any disabled people; it
was done by an independent sample t-test. Apart from the overall analysis of attitude

towards disabled workers, a more detailed assessment was also done for (a) Co-worker's
perception of Disabled Workers and (b) Management Perception of Work-attendance of
Disabled Workers and (c) Perception of the Management on the need for Supervision of
Disabled Workers. An independent sample t-test was also used for this purpose.

Research Question 3 (What is the organisation's perception towards disability policies

intended for providing employment to disabled persons?) was addressed using descriptive

statistics to obtain the mean score and standard deviation; then a one-sample t-test was

111

conducted to compare significant differences between the mean score and the median.

Organisational Policies on Disability, which is a unidimensional variable, was also

compared between two sub-groups of organisations where one group employed disabled
workers while the other group did not employ any disabled people. Independent sample ttest was used for this purpose.

Research Question 4 (What is the level of the current employment opportunities for
disabled people?) was addressed using descriptive statistics, the mean score and standard

deviation were found and a one-sample t-test was run to compare significant difference

between the mean score and the median. The variable, Employment Opportunities for
Disabled Workers, was also compared between two sub-groups of organisations where one

group employed disabled workers while the other group did not employ any disabled
people; for this an independent sample t-test was performed.

The three hypotheses are:

(a) H1:

There is no association between Organisational

Commitment, and the Employment Opportunities for Disabled People, (b) H2: There is no

association between Attitude towards Disabled Workers, and Employment Opportunities

for Disabled People, and (c) 1-13: There is no association between Organisational Policies

and Employment Opportunities for Disabled People.

These hypotheses were tested using independent sample t-test at a level of 0.05. The
respondents' profile was generated by univariate statistical analysis using appropriate
items such as mean score, mode, median, standard deviation, and frequency tables.

3.17

Summary

This chapter explained the various aspects and stages of this study. Discussion began with

the type of research selected for the study (deductive) and its compliance to the major
assumptions of quantitative research. The population of the study was then defined to
consist of all human resource managers of corporations, and other smaller businesses that
were located across East and West Malaysia. These managers were chosen for the reason

112

that their functional areas bring them at close proximity to issues of employment
opportunities within the organisation and the external labour market. As for data
collection, the survey instrument was based on Unger's HRS Questionnaire module of her
study of disabled workers (Unger, 2001). The mail questionnaire that were distributed to a
selected sample of human resource managers, sought data on areas of respondents' profile,

policies and other factors related to disability such as recruitment, training of employees,

co-workers' perception, work attendance, need for supervision, accommodation, and

barriers to employment. For sampling, the respondents were selected through a random
number table. Tests for reliability and validity of the instrument were done before the data

collection procedures. Twenty-one percent response rate was recorded for the mail
questionnaires. Data analysis output involved four research questions and three hypotheses

that were designed to contribute to better understanding of the employment opportunities

of disabled people in Malaysia. The data analysis included both descriptive and inferential
statistics; the details of which were shown in the analysis matrix. The theoretical

framework of the research represented the dependent variable as the employment

opportunities for disabled people; the three interacting independent variables were
represented to be organisational commitment, attitude towards disabled people and
organisational policies. The conclusion of this chapter leads to the next chapter which
addresses data analysis and findings.

113

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS OF DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
4.1

Introduction

This chapter presents the results of data analysis and findings of factors influencing

employment of disabled persons in Malaysia, as perceived by the human resource

personnel in the participating Malaysian organisations. The analysis is presented according

to the following five areas: (a) Demographic Characteristics (b) Analysis of Disability
Issues (c) Analysis of Research Questions (d) Testing of Hypotheses and (e) Summary of

Findings. The analysis and tests were carried out using the Statistical Program for Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 12.0 for Microsoft Windows.

4.2

Demographic Characteristics

The demographic characteristics are represented by respondents' profile and company

profile. These profiles were contoured by the use of eight questions distributed equally so

that four questions probed each profile. Descriptive statistics provided the necessary
information to shape the profiles. Analysis of the questions is shown below.

4.2.1

Analysis of Respondents' Profile

This section discusses four characteristics in order to build up the respondents' profile. The
first characteristic relates to the functions that the employee is responsible for in the current

job, the second one relates to the offices (main or branch) to which the employee reports,
the third characteristic is associated with the number of years that the employee was in the

current job-position, and the fourth one is associated with disability experiences of the
employee.

114

____________
_____________________

(a)

Functions responsible for in the current job held by respondents.

It was found that the highest percentage of respondents (54%) belongs to the core of

human resource management. Respondents from other elements of human resource

management such as employment and recruitment (43%) constitute a higher percentage
than from the area of training and development (3 8%); there are more respondents from the

area of employee relations (33%) than from the area of labour and industrial relations
(27%). The remaining respondents from the HR area are from benefit management (20%),

from disability management (14%), and from diversity management (12%). Beyond this,
43 respondents (53%) were engaged in administration, and 5 respondents (6%) were in the

legal area. It should be noted that a majority of respondents reported being responsible for
multiple functions. The results are shown in Figure 4.1

Functions responsible for in the current job held by Respondents

Human Resource Management

44
-

50.1

Administration

43

43.2

Em ploym ent/Recruitm ent

Jo

Training and Development

ii

Employee Relations

2/

i2J.l

Corn pensation

23

127

Labsurllndustrial Relations

22
-

HealthJSaletylSecurity

Frequency

22.2

Drganioational Development

Benegts Management

Disability Management

11

---

Diversity Management

is
6.2

Legal

10

20

30

40

50

60

Number of Respondents

Figure 4.1:

Functions Responsible for in the Current Job Held by Respondents:

percent and associated number of respondents

115

Overall, these percentages add value to questionnaire responses in terms of veracity

because 54% of responses were from human resource management and 43% were from

employment and recruitment areas. The percentage of respondents from disability

management was however only 14 % but this sparse figure may be a reflection of the
generally meagre employment of disabled persons in Malaysia. As Fong (2004) indicated,

only 4% of registered disabled people have found employment in the private sector. In the

public sector consisting of more than 800,000 employees, only about 540 of them were
disabled workers (Yong, 2001).

(b)

Employee Reporting: Main or Branch Office

It was found that 63% of the respondents reported to corporate headquarters while the
remaining reported to branch offices. This bodes well for the accuracy of responses since it
is

likely that personnel at the headquarters are in possession of a larger picture of

disability-employment, due to the fact that headquarters are commonly sources of overall
strategic planning and information dissemination.

(c)

Number of years in current position

Sixty-five percent of respondents had been in the current position for five years or less and

26% were in the current position between six and eleven years. While 1 .2 % of
respondents were in their post between 12 and 17 years, seven percent of them were in
their post for 18 years and above. The overall mean number of years in the current position

for respondents was computed to be six years. The results are shown in Figure 4.2. It
shows a positive balance for questionnaire responses; a ratio of 2: 1 is achieved between
those up to five years in service and those beyond, thus moderating the responses in terms
of bias and beliefs.

116

_______ ________
_____________________________________

Number of Years in Current Position

74

18 and above

1.2

1217

0 Percent
Frequency
6 11

70

Figure 4.2:

(d)

Respondents' Number of Years in Current Position: percentage and

associated number of respondents

Disability experiences of the respondent

On the issue of disability experiences of the respondents, just below half of the total
number of respondents (49%) reported experiences with disabled people, arid a few (4%)
reported possessing some forms of disability themselves. Within the category of personal

experiences with disabled people, the largest percent (27%) of respondents had friends
with disability, a somewhat lesser percent (2 1%) knew neighbours or community members

with disability, about the same percent (20%) of respondents had relatives with disability,

and those who had family members with disability constituted 10% of the respondents.
Fifty-one percent of respondents reported no personal experiences with disabled people,
thus, inversely 49% clearly had experience with disabled persons; the results are shown in
Figure 4.3.

H7

Respondents Experiences with Disability

No Personal Expenence
with Disabled People

A Friend with a Disability

Neighbour or Community
Member with a Disability

o Percentage
Frequency

RelatNe with a Disability

Immediate Family
Member with Disability

Own Disability

Figure 4.3:

4.2.2

10

20

30

40

50

60

Respondents' Experience with Disability. Percent and associated number

of respondents

Company Profile

The description of the company profile of respondent organisations consists of five parts.
The first part describes the type of industries that responded to the survey, the second part

explains the category of irregular workers employed, the third part looks at work benefits

available to the employees, the fourth part describes the size of workforce, and last part
looks at the number of disabled employees in respondent companies.

(a)

Types of Industries that Responded to the Survey.

Analysis revealed that the highest number of responding organisations (11) employing

disabled people are from organisations in the industrial sector, where 61% of them
employed disabled people. The percentage of respondents from this sector formed 22% of

the total respondents. Four organisations employing disabled people came from the
financial sector, where 44% of them employed disabled people. The percentage of

118

respondents from this sector formed 11% of the total respondents. Three organisations
found in two sectors, the
Table 4.1:

Types of Industries
Type of Industry

2
3

4
5

6
7
8

9
10
11

12
13

14
15

16

17
18
19

20
21

22
23

24

Data Processing / Information

Technology
Childcare
Educational Institution*
TV Broadcasting Corporation*
Engineering Consultant*
Shipping and Marine
Transportation*
Logistics and Supply Chain*
Advertising Company*
Non-government Body*
Publication House*
Automotive Business*
Aquaculture Company*
Oil and Gas Company*
Insurance Company*
Human Services (religious,
private agencies, etc)
Custodial, janitorial, building
maintenance, repairs, etc
Property Developer*
Construction
Management Corporation
(Consultation Services, etc)
Government Agency
Retail Sales
Hospitality (food, lodging,
etc)
Financial Institution
(Banking, services, etc)*
Industrial (Manufacturing,
etc)
Total

Disabled
people

Percent of
Companies
employing
Disabled
people

2.4

%
0.0

1.2
6.1
1.2
1.2

3.7

2.4

0
0

Number of

Percent of
Respondents

Respondents

Total

2
1

5
1

Number of
Companies
employing

0
0
0

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2

3.7

6.1

2.4

0.0
0.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
33.3
20.0
100.0

2.4

100.0

2
2

2.4
3,7
3.7

100.0
66.7
66.7

1
1
1

1
1
1

8.5

4
4

4.9
4.9

3
3

28.6
75.0
75.0

11.0

44.4

18

22.0

ii

61.1

82

100

39

N/A**

* These

are extra categories that were extracted from the respondents' written answer under the selection
"Others, please
".
**
N/A = Not applicable

119

hospitality sector and retail sales sector had an equal employment rate for disabled people

at 75%. The percentage of respondents from each of these sectors formed 5% of the total
respective respondents.

The next group of respondent organisations employing disabled people was found in a
group of six sectors comprising the government, management corporations (services),
construction, property developers, custodial services and human services. Each of them
employed two disabled workers. Out of the total number of agencies in the government
sector, 29% of them employed disabled people. The percentage of respondents from this

sector formed 8.5% of the total respondents. As for organisations from the management
corporation (services) sector, 67% of them employed disabled people, and the percentage

of respondents from this sector formed 4% of the total respondents. Similar figures were

exhibited by the construction sector. The other three sectors of the group, i.e. property

developers, custodial services, and human services reported employment of disabled

people in all of their respondent organisations with the percentage of respondents from
each of these sectors forming 2.4% of the total respective respondents.

Another set of organisations employing disabled people belonged to a group of 6 sectors

comprising the insurance, oil and gas, aquaculture, automotive, publication and nongovernment bodies. Each of these organisations employed one disabled worker.

this

group, 20% of the insurance sector provided employment to disabled people, and the
percentage of respondents from this sector formed 6% of the total respondents. The oil and

gas sector had 33% of it providing employment to people with disability. The other four
sectors, i.e. aquaculture, automotive, publication and non-government bodies exhibited

100% employment of disabled people across all their sectors with the percentage of
respondents from these respective sectors forming an equal 1.2%.

Responding organisations did not show employment of disabled people in the sectors of
educational institutions, shipping and marine transportation, logistics,

information

technology, advertising, engineering consultants, and TV broadcasting. En this group, the

percentages of respondents from the sectors of educational institutions formed 6%, and

120

from shipping/marine transportation formed 4% of their respective total respondents. For

the sectors of logistics and information technology the percentages of respondents for each

sector were 2.4% of their respective total respondents. The remaining three sectors of this
group comprising of advertising, engineering consultants, and childcare

showed

percentages of respondents at 1.2% of the total respondents. The results are shown in Table
4.1

Overall, the top four business areas employing disabled persons are from the industrial
sector, financial sector, hospitality sector, and retail sector. In general, the findings support

the literature which indicates that disability employment, though sparse, is much higher in
the private sector (Yong 2001 & Fong 2004).

(b)

Categories of irregular workers employed by respondent organisations

Regarding the employment of workers other than full-time workers, it was found that 41
organisations (51%) engaged contingent workers, another 39 organisations (48%) engaged

part-time workers, in addition 25 organisations (31%) engaged paid interns and 19

organisations (24%) engaged individuals for apprenticeship. The results are shown in
Table 4.2
Table 4.2:
S/N
I

2
3

Categories of irregular workers

Number of
Organisations

Category of Workers

Part-time Workers
Contingent Workers
Apprenticeship
Paid Internship

Percent

39

%
48

41

51

19

24

25

31

The perceived difference between contingent workers and part-time workers was
highlighted in the pilot study of the questionnaire where contingent workers were seen as

temporary batch of blue-collar workers supplied by established employment agencies or

contractors, whereas part-time workers were seen as those generally employed through a
normal recruitment and selection process. Although data is unavailable as to the percentage

121

of disabled workers in each of the categories, the fact remains that disabled persons have a

place in such categories of work either through supported employment or otherwise.

Barnes, Thornton & Campbell (1998) point out that disabled people are more likely than
non-disabled people to work part time since they may prefer part-time hours for a number
of reasons pertaining to household and personal aspects.

(c)

Work benefits available to employees

As regards work benefits provided by employers, a majority of organisations (98%)

provided sick leave benefit for the employees; other benefits in sequence are health
insurance programs (73%) and reimbursement for studies (62%). Other key benefits are
holidays and vacations (where 46% of organisations gave time off for holidays and only

39% of organisations gave vacation time), employee assistance programs (29% of

organisations), dental insurance (18% of organisations), flex-time work schedule (16% of

organisations), childcare / eldercare (6% of organisations) and telecommuting (1% of

organisations). The results on the various work related benefits are shown in Figure 4.4

The aspect of low provisions for vacation (39%) and holidays (46%), may largely be due
to the fact that out of the total number surveyed, 22 percent of respondent organisations are

from the industrial sector, another ii percent of respondents are from the financial
institutions and 5 percent each are from hospitality and retail sales; these categories of

organisations do round-the-clock business and thus, vacation and holidays may be

curtailed.

Overall, the work benefits provided by organisations appear satisfactory for general
employment, but for disabled employees, more emphasis on telecommuting (only 1% of

companies provide this facility) and flex-time work schedule (only 16% of companies
provide this program) offer more accommodation for their jobs.

122

_____________

Work Benefits Provided by Companies

Sick
Health Insurance

Study Reimbursement
Holidays

Vacation

o Percentage
Frequency

129
24

Employee Assistance Programs

Dental Insurance LiFlex-time Work Schedule

Childcare /Eldercare

Telecommuting
0

Figure 4.4:

20

40

60

80

100

120

Work Benefits Provided: percentage of companies and associated

number of companies.

(d)

Size of Workforce

Twenty-six percent of the total number of organisations surveyed employed a workforce of

up to or below 50 persons. Eleven percent of the organisations had a workforce between

persons, closely followed by 10% of organisations that had total employment

between 101 200 persons. Twenty-four percent of the organisations had a workforce
between 201 500 employees, It was also found that 29% of respondent organisations had

a workforce of over 500 persons. The size of workforce within the respondent
organisations is shown in Figure 4.5

123

Size of Workforce
-J

----

Above 500 workers

24

201 500 workers

10

101 200 workers

0 Percent

11

51 100 workers

0 -50 workers

21

Figure 4.5:

10

15

20

25

30

35

Size of Workforce: percentage of companies and associated number of

companies.

(e) Number of Disabled Employees in Respondent Companies

Analysis revealed that 16% of organisations each employ only one disabled worker, 12%

of organisations each employ two disabled workers, 6% of organisations each employ

three such workers, 2.4 % of organisations each employ four such workers, 1% of
organisations employ six disabled workers, 2.4% of organisations each employ eight such
workers, 1% of organisations employ ten such workers, again 1% of organisations employ

11 disabled workers, another 1% of organisations employ 16 such workers, 2.4% of

organisations each employ 17 disabled workers and 1% of organisations, a consortium of
companies (described below), employs 49 disabled workers. Fifty-two percent of
organisations (43) do not employ disabled persons.

124

Table 4.3:

Number of Disabled Employees in Respondent Companies

Number of Disabled
Workers

Frequency of
Companies

Percent of Companies

Percent of Companies

0.0

43.0

1.0

13.0
10.0
5.0
2.0
1.0

52.4
15.9

52.4
15.9

12.2

12.2

6.1

6.1

2.4

2.4

1.2

1.2

2.0

2.4

2.4

1.0
1.0
1.0

1.2
1.2
1.2

1.2
1.2
1.2

2.0

2.4

2.4

1.0

1.2

1.2

82.0

100.0

100.0

2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
10.0
11.0
15.0
17.0
49.0
Total

These figures disclose the sparse employment of disabled workers in Malaysia. The sole
organisation that employs 49 disabled workers seems to be an exception but questionnaire

data shows that the organisation is a consortium of dispersed companies engaged in

development of property and plantation with a workforce of 2,500 personnel; it is assumed

therefore that these 49 disabled workers constitute the total number from all the different
locations. Table 4.3 illustrates the statistics.

4.3

Analysis of Disability Issues

In this section seven disability issues are investigated; the issues are (a) policy for hiring
disabled workers, (b) designated department or individual to deal with disabled employees,

(c) recruitment of disabled applicants, (d) training of employees on disability issues, (e)

accessibility to offices, (f) bearer of costs of accommodation, and (g) barriers to

employment of disabled people.

125

(a)

Policy for hiring disabled workers

On the issue of whether organisations possess specific policies for hiring disabled workers,

analysis showed that a large percent (90%) of the organisations do not have such policies.

Only the remaining percent (10%) of the organisations had specific policies for hiring
disabled workers. Table 4.4 shows the results of the analysis.

Table 4.4:

Policy for Hiring Disabled Workers

Specific Policy for Hiring Disabled

Workers

Frequency

Percent
%

No

74

Yes
Total

82

90.2
9.8
100.0

Floyd et al. (1988) put forward two reasons that prevent organisations from having
disability policies. The first reason is that line mangers do not often possess adequate
knowledge or expertise to manage the barriers that disabled people face at work. The
second reason is that occupational health professionals often do not comprehend the work
capabilities of disabled workers. These two factors combine to deprive the policy maker of
some of the necessary knowledge required to form a credible hiring policy.

(b)

Designated department or individual to deal with disabled employees

Analysis revealed that only a small percent of the organisations (8.5%) reported the
existence of a designated department or an individual to deal with disabled employees in

their organisation. A large percent of the organisations (9 1.5%) did not have a specific
department or individual to deal with disabled employees. The results of the analysis is
shown in Table 4.5

126

Table: 4.5:

Designated department or individual to deal with disabled employees

Designated Department! Individual

for Disabled Employees

Frequency

Percent
%

No

75

Yes
Total

82

91.5
8.5
100.0

Results in Table 4.4 and Table 4.5 show that in the majority of organisations, there are
neither policies for hiring disabled people nor a designated individual or a department to

handle disability issues. Plausible reasons for this are the lack of a comprehensive
disability law for Malaysians, and low employment of disabled persons.

(c)

Recruitment of Disabled Applicants

(i)

Practices to recruit disabled applicants

It was found that 95.3% of the organisations which are not currently employing
disabled workers do not engage in practices to recruit applicants with disabilities
while for the organisations that are currently employing disabled workers, 46.2% of
them were engaged in practises to recruit disabled people.
Table 4.6:

Practices to recruit disabled applicants

Recruit Disabled
Person

No

Yes

Total

1 = Non-disabled
2 = Disabled
1.00
2.00
41.00
21.00

Count

% within l=Non-Disabled,
2=Disabled
Count
% within l=Non-Disabled,
2=Disabled
Count
% within INon-Disabled,

2Disabled

127

Total

62.00

95.30%

53.80%

75.60%

2.00
4.70%

18.00

46.20%

20.00
24.40%

43.00
100.00%

39.00
100.00%

82.00
100.00%

When these proportions were compared using a chi-square test, the result indicated

that there

is

a significant difference (p=rO.OO) making it evident that those

organisations that are currently employing disabled workers indeed initiate some

form of recruitment activities to attract disabled people. Results of analysis are

shown in Table 4.6.

These findings reflect some concerns expressed by Ganapathy (Jayasooria 2000) in

1992. He pointed out five reasons for low hiring of disabled persons in Malaysia.
The reasons included the absence of a nation-wide register of disabled job seekers,

the prejudice existing against disabled people, the poor access to public facilities,
the restricted location of employment - more concentrated than distributed, and the

reluctance of employers to provide accommodation for disabled workers. These

factors, among others, would have contributed to the finding that 95% of the
organisations which are not currently employing disabled workers, do not engage
in practices to recruit applicants with disabilities. Hagner (2003), on the other hand,

found that a few studies have indicated positive employer bias towards disabled
applicants, where achievements of an interviewee were given more emphasis if the
interviewer believed that the interviewee had overcome significant impediments to
accomplish them. This may be one of the reasons that, in the above finding, 46% of

organisations that currently employed disabled workers were engaged in practises

to recruit disabled people.

(ii)

Mode of advertisement used for recruitment

Further analysis was carried out to investigate the mode of advertisement used for

recruitment by organisations that engaged in practices to recruit applicants with

disabilities. The results indicate that the most preferred methods are (a)

recommendations from external agencies (19.5 %), (b) advertisement within

organisations (11%), (c) advertisements with physical news media (9.8%), and (d)
advertisements in electronic media (3.7 %).

128

The findings seem to concur with the prevailing situation in Malaysia where
agencies external to the organisations provide organisations with disability
information, opportunities to recruit disabled people and awareness of disability
issues. Relevant examples include the "Job for the Disabled Awareness Campaign

2004" organised by private entities and held almost every year in Kuala Lumpur,
the "Disabled Self-Reliance Programme" organised in Malaysia by Beautiful Gate

(disabled people's caring centre) and Country Heights (a business corporation). A

second example is found at Bangi Industrial Training and Rehabilitation Centre for

the Physically Disabled (BITRCPD) Malaysia where disabled candidates are

trained and prepared for employment (Hooi, 2000d).

Analysis of responses concerning the locations where recruitment advertisements

are placed, the findings indicate a preference based on the cost of hosting such
advertisements, the lowest cost being in-house advertisement (and thus, the most

popular of the three choices at 11%), and the highest cost being the electronic
media (and thus, the least preferred at 3.7%).

The fact that organisations that currently employ disabled workers carry out
recruitment activities to further attract disabled candidates is perhaps an optimistic
precursor of an approaching future bringing better employment prospects.

(d)

Training of Employees on Disability Issues

On issues related to training of employees on disability issues, the organisations were

assessed on the provision of providing specific training on (i) procedures for identifying
and securing accommodations for disabled workers, and (ii) disability awareness.

(i)

Analysis indicates that 79% of the organisations do not have training in specific

procedures for identifying and securing accommodation for disabled workers. Six percent

of the organisations reported training programs for accommodation procedures. Fourteen

129

percent of organisations were not sure of such specific training. Results are shown in
Figure 4.6.

Training for Accommodation Procedures

No

14

Do Not Know

0 Percentage
Frequency
Yes

'1
Not Applicable

Figure 4.6:

io

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Training for Accommodation Procedures. Percentage of Companies and

associated Number of Companies

(ii)

As for training for disability awareness, 76% of the organisations did not have such

training. However, sixteen percent of organisations had in place training for disability
awareness. Seven percent of organisations reported that they were not sure of such training
in their outfit. Results are shown in Figure 4.7.

Literature review points out that one of the major reasons for local organisations not
having effective training for disability-related issues is due to the nature of such training in
Malaysia. The training is often informal and therefore lacks depth (ESCAP 2002). As a

result of this, organisations are often prevented from utilising a wider pool ofjob
applicants, and also prevented from improving staff morale necessary for better staff
satisfaction (National Disability Authority 2006).

130

Training for Disability Awareness

76

No

16

Yes
13

0 Percentage

Frequency

Dont Know

Not Applicable

io

Figure 4.7:

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Training for Disability Awareness: Percentage of Companies and

associated Number of Companies

Thus, lack of training of employees for accommodation issues and disability awareness is
likely to be a setback for the creation of favourable working conditions for disabled
workers. There is a possibility, therefore, that the rate of employee retention of disabled
workers will suffer and bring about a difficult situation for continuing employment of
disabled persons.

(e)

Accessibility to Offices

On issues relating to disability access to offices, 37.5% of organisations reported that

majority of the offices are accessible, 32.5% of organisations indicated that all of the
offices are accessible, followed by 25% of organisations indicating that the majority of the

offices are not accessible, and 5% of organisations were not sure of accessibility to their
offices. These results (Figure 4.8) were unexpected especially due to the low employment
of disabled persons as reported by participating organisations of this study.

131

Accessibi'ity to Offices
I

M ajority of Offices are

Accessible

'

All of the Offices are

Accessible

Majority of Offices are

not Accessible

Not Sure

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Percent

Figure 4. 8. Accessibility to Offices

A larger number of offices were expected to have no access to disabled employees. It is not

clear whether the respondents evaluated the office spaces independently for access without

considering attached inaccessible stair-wells, particularly in cases where no elevators/lifts

or escalators were available. An exemplary case of barrier-free access to buildings and

offices in Malaysia is seen at the Government complexes and offices at Putrajaya. Ample
fittings of ramps, disability-friendly toilets, talking lifts and brailled buttons are common in

the area. However, survey of some major cities like Kota Kinabalu, Kuching, Kuala
Lumpur and Johor Baru shows that disability facilities are at minimal or dismal levels
(Khor 2004).

(1)

Bearer of Costs of Accommodation

On issues relating to the bearer of costs incurred during accommodation for disabled
workers, it was found that 72.5% of the organisations bear the costs themselves for office

132

____________

accommodation, 12.5% of organisations reported that such costs are borne by the
employee's unit; another 12.5% indicated that the costs are attributed to the employee.

Accommodation costs being shared by a variety of sources was reported by 5% of

organisations, and another 5% of them reported costs being attributed to an outside source.

It should be noted that some organisations had checked more than one response, thus, the
total percentage may exceed 100%.

Bearer of Cost for Accommodation

Cost is attributed to the

725

organ isation

Cost is attributed to the

employees unit

125

Cost is attributed to the

employee

125

Others

Cost is shared among a variety

of sources

Cost is attributed to an outside

source

25

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Percent

Figure 4.9:

Bearer of Cost for Accommodation

The findings (Figure 4.9) generally agree with literature on costs of accommodation.
Studer (Motti 2001, p. 85) finds that accommodation costs are insignificant in comparison

to the benefits returned to the employer from the hiring of a talented, qualified person.

Thus, majority of organisations would find

it

advantageous to bear the cost of

accommodation for their disabled employees.

(g)

Barriers to Employment of Disabled People

The results from the investigation into the barriers to employment of disabled people are
shown in Table 4.7. The ranking was done by evaluating the mean scores of the barriers.

133

Whenever two barriers carried equal mean scores, the percentage of response for each

barrier was examined, and the barrier having a larger percentage was given a higher
ranking. The mean score was calculated from a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 represented the
major barrier and 5 represented the minor barrier.

Table 4.7:

Ranking of Barriers to Employment of Disabled People in Malaysia

Barriers to Employment in Malaysia

Lack of related experience in managing

disability

Median Percent

Mean

Rank
1

48.8

2.46

46.3
41.3

2.61
2.61

39.2
40.5

2.77
2.82

36.7
36.7
35.4

2.82
2.84
2,89

issues

Lack of education on disability topics

Lack of required skill and training for disabled
people
Cost of supervision of disabled workers
Attitude towards and stereotyping of disabled
workers
Lack of knowledge about accommodation issues
Cost of training for disabled employees
Cost of accommodation for disabled workers

2
3
3
3
3
3

7
8

Lack of related experience in managing disability issues, is perceived by respondent

organisations to be the highest barrier to employment of disabled people, and

is

consequently ranked in the first position. Experience in managing disability issues is vital

for positive staff morale and productivity. According to Szymanski et al. (2003, p.

1),

disability complicates the interrelationships between people and work, thus, it could affect

work productivity and relationships with co-workers. Therefore, professionals who work

with disabled people need to understand the intricate nature of work in order to help
individuals for not only attaining and maintaining work, but also for interaction at the
workplace with their colleagues.

The next two barriers, in descending order are (i) the lack of education on disability topics

and (ii) the lack of required skill and training for disabled people. These two barriers are

134

discussed together because they have much in common. Education has to precede the
acquiring of skills and training for optimum utilisation of knowledge at the workplace.

According to Zainon Johari, director of BITRCPD, (Hooi, 2000d) in Malaysia,

it is

frequently the lack of education and skills that are the main barriers to disabled people in
seeking meaningful jobs. Although the Malaysian government is committed in providing

quality education for the entire nation, creating education opportunities for disabled
persons can be a daunting task in some parts of Malaysia especially when the education
infrastructure itself needs to expand rapidly to the rural areas. As stated by Sulaiman Daud
(Shah et al.1999, p.252):
In Sarawak (East Malaysia), the challenge is even far greater than for many of the

other states in the country.. only 3.8 % of Sarawak's population have undergone
tertiary education and as much as 22 % of the population have not had any formal
education at all. The situation is acute in most of the rural regions of the state while
in some other areas, it is even more critical and depressing.

In Greece, Giarinakis Christophorou (Phtiaka 1999, p. 186) observes that 'our experience

so far has shown that the most important problem for people with disabilities

is

employment. And this is the result of [inadequate] education and culture'. The importance

of education for disabled people is also succinctly stated by the Hong Kong's Board of
Education (Lewis 1999) that if the public schools are seen as a vehicle for the advancement

of ajust society, then education for disabled persons should be viewed as its headlight.
Cost of supervision of disabled workers, is ranked as the fourth barrier to employment. It is

plausible that respondent organisations consider as necessary the need for constant
monitoring of disabled workers in the workplace, and as a result, attribute higher costs to
supervision. Unger (2001) reports that disabled employees do indeed exhibit slower work
speed in comparison to other measures of work performance; a mean score of 3.48 (scale

lextremely dissatisfied, Sextremely satisfied) was found as a measure for the work
speed of disabled employees.

The barrier ranked fifth, in descending order of importance, is the attitude towards, and the
stereotyping of, disabled workers. Numerous studies have shown that attitude of employers

towards disabled people is an obstacle in the path of employment. According to Johari

135

(Hooi 2000d) employers are generally biased when the opportunity is offered to recruit

disabled workers because they build unstudied assumptions and opinions. Majority of
employers wrongly view a wheelchair as a career inhibiting factor, and thus, assume that a

disabled applicant is not capable of doing a job well or of handling new responsibilities

(Hooi, 2000d). Furthermore, Shakespeare (1994, p.296) affirms that '...people with
impairments are disabled, not just by material discrimination, but also by prejudice. This
prejudice is not just interpersonal; it is also implicit in cultural representation, in language
and in socialization'.

Before the passage of the ADA in 1990, Wilgosh and Skaret (1987) revealed that (i) in

some cases, employer attitudes were negative and therefore likely to inhibit the
employment and advancement of disabled people, (ii) prior positive contact with disabled
people was associated to favorable employer attitudes; and (iii) an incongruity was found

between employers' expressed willingness to hire disabled applicants and their actual
hiring practices. In the same year Greenwood and Johnson's (1987) released their findings

on employer characteristics and their receptivity to hiring disabled applicants. They

reported that (i) respondents with higher levels of academic achievement expressed more
positive attitudes than those with lower academic attainment; and (ii) employers were more
inclined

to express positive attitudes toward individuals with physical or sensory

disabilities than those with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities.

Khor (2002) reports that four attitudinal barriers need to be overcome to augment the

employment of disabled people in Malaysia. The first barrier springs from unhelpful
attitudes towards disabled people arising from typecasting, myths, apprehension about
disability and overall lack of knowledge about disability; the second barrier comes about
from unawareness of disabled workers' productive ability; the third barrier arises from lack

of recognition by workplace colleagues; and the fourth barrier is established from a low

sense of worth among disabled persons. It is evident that attitudinal barriers do indeed
curtail employment opportunities for disabled people in Malaysia.

136

The barrier ranked low at sixth position by respondent organisations is the tack of
knowledge about accommodation issues. A higher priority was anticipated for this barrier

since accommodation is essential in providing a good match between the worker and the
work thereby improving staff morale, motivation, and productivity. It is likely that most of

the disabled people currently employed manage their jobs well with minimum work and

environment adjustments. In addition, Curry and Lewis (Unger 2001, p. 74) reveals that
studies have shown employers generally having limited knowledge of accommodations,
and related support mechanisms for disabled employees in their workforce. Extrapolating
this fact to the Malaysian scene, where the awareness of disability is beginning to take root

(Ismail 2003), the lack of knowledge about accommodation issues could introduce a
barrier to productivity and retention of disabled employees in the respondent organisations.

An interesting note is that the benefits of accommodation go beyond disabled workers.

According to Unger (2001) accommodations for disabled employees have resulted in

unintended benefits to the co-workers and the organisation.

The next barrier at the seventh rank is the cost of training of disabled employees. Evidently

training any category of workers will involve costs, but training of disabled employees
may involve additional costs related to specific accommodations and specialised manuals.

Despite this, in Malaysia some of the best training for disabled people are given free of

charge at the Bangi Industrial Training and Rehabilitation Centre for the Physically
Disabled (BITRCPD) which organises job placement schemes with private companies.
From 1999 to 2004, BITRCPD had placed about 40 disabled persons into jobs. Although
the placement number is small due to low intake of eligible candidate, the training is given

free as it is subsidised by Social Welfare Department of Malaysia (Hooi 2000d). Judging

from the given rank for the cost of training, it appears that responding organisations are
ready to foot the bill for disability training.

The lowest barrier, at the eighth rank, is the cost of accommodation for disabled workers.

Assessing from the responses of organisations in ranking this barrier at the lowest level, it

seems clear that the organisations are willing to meet the cost of accommodation for the

137

employment of disabled people. Studies in the United States have shown that the average
while Roessler and Sumner

cost to accommodate a disabled person is $200 (Nelton,

(1997) found that most employers in the USA considered $500 to $5,000 an acceptable
cost for an accommodation. These costs ranging from a minimum US$200 to a maximum
US$ 5,000 yields upon conversion to Ringgit Malaysia (at 1 US$ to 3.8 RM), a range from

RM760 to RMI9,000. No documentation of accommodation costs in Malaysia was found,

nevertheless, according to Johari (Hooi, 2000d), it does not take much to accommodate the

disabled worker; a simple renovation of the premises is equally justified especially when it

comes to catering to the needs of the physically disabled worker. Job accommodations for
other categories of disabled workers are not so simple, as shown in Table 2.8.

Overall, in terms of employment opportunities for disabled people, findings from the
analysis of employment barriers show that:

(a)

It is critical for organisations to build up disability related experience for skilful

management of disability issues while imbuing themselves with knowledge of

disability topics. Evidently, this situation impacts the functioning of organisations

in their commitment to employment of disabled people, the attitude towards

disabled employees, and policies on disability.
(b)

Required skills and training for disabled people are also seen as an important aspect
in enhancing their employability.

(c)

The cost of supervision of disabled workers, and attitude towards them are
perceived to moderate employment opportunities, and

(d)

The

costs of training

and

accommodation,

and

lack of knowledge of

accommodation itself, are seen to pose further curtailment of employment

opportunities.

4.4

Analysis of Research Questions

This study carries four research questions. The results of analysis of these questions are
described below.

138

(a)

Research Question 1: What is the organisation's perception towards its

commitment to employment of disabled people?

The organisational commitment to the employment of disabled people

is the first

independent variable from the Theoretical Framework (Figure 3.1) being analysed in
research question 1. Analysis shows that the values of the mean, median and the standard
deviation are 15.39, 15.00 and 3.07 respectively.

In order to assess the level of organisational commitment, the mean value was compared
with the median. As can be observed, the value of the mean (15.39) has a higher value than

the median (15.00) which suggests that the organisational commitment to employment of
disabled people is somewhat favourable.

To test the above result, a one-sample t-test was performed to compare the mean score with

the median. The result indicates that there is no significant difference between the mean
score and the median as shown below (Table 4.8).

Table 4.8:

One-sample t-test for comparison of scores between mean and median

for Organisational Commitment

Test Value

Organisational
Commitment

15

Df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean
Difference

1.135

78

.260

.39241

95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
-.2960

1.0808

Since this study defines organisational commitment as composed of two elements (a) the
commitment towards recruiting disabled workers, and (b) the commitment towards training

for disability related issues, further analysis was performed to assess the organisational
commitment on these two aspects: descriptive statistical analysis shows that the values of

139

mean and standard deviation for the element of recruitment of disabled workers are 7.28

and 1.86 respectively. The values of mean and standard deviation for the element of
employee training for disability related issues are 8.08 and 2.25 respectively.

A one-sample t-test was also performed on these two elements of organisational

commitment. The test indicates that the mean score is somewhere close to its respective
median. Table 4.9 combines all the above findings.

Table 4.9:

One-sample t-test for the elements of Organisational Commitment

Mean

Organisational
Commitment
a) Recruitment
b) Training

Median

t-value

15.39

Standard
Deviation
3.07

15.00

1.14

7.28
8.08

1.86
2.25

7.00
8.00

1.33

0.30

In order to further explore research question 1, a subgroup analysis was performed on the
question. The sample organisations were divided into two categories: Group 1 consisted of

organisations that employed no disabled people and Group 2 consisted of those that
employed disabled people. An independent sample t-test was conducted to determine the
differences in perception of organisational commitment between organisations that employ

only non-disabled people and those that also employ disabled people. Test results indicate

that the mean value of organisational commitment to employment of disabled workers

(15.8) is higher than those that employ only non-disabled people (15.0). Evidently, the
organisations that also employ disabled

workers are perceived to

have higher

organisational commitment to the employment of disabled people; the corresponding tvalue (1.23) does not show any significant difference between the two groups at ctO.05.

140

Table 4.10: Independent sample t-test for subgroup analysis of Organisational

Commitment
Group 2
EmpI oying Disabled
People
Standard
Mean
Deviation

Organisational
Commitment
a) Recruitment

b)Training

Group 1
Employing No Disabled
People
Standard
Mean
Deviation

t-value

15.82

3.30

14.98

2.82

1.23

7.28
8.54

2.00
2.42

7.27
7.63

1.73

0.33

2.00

1.83

In general the mean score for organisational commitment (including recruitment and
training) is higher for those organisations employing disabled people.

Further investigation revealed that the significant difference is on issues related to training

(at alpha =

0.1).

Organisations employing disabled people show more emphasis for

training of employees towards disability issues. Table 4.10 above shows the result of the
analysis.

However, for the recruitment of disabled workers there is no significant difference between

organisations that employ no disabled workers and those organisations that include
disabled workers in their employment.

In summary, the organisational commitment to employment of disabled people is seen to

be somewhat favourable. The organisations that employ disabled workers are perceived to

have higher organisational commitment to the employment of disabled people. More

emphasis is placed on training of employees towards disability related issues by

organisations that employ disabled people. However, in the case of recruitment of disabled
people there is no significant difference between organisations that do not employ disabled
workers and those organisations that employ disabled workers.

The findings indicate that while there seems to be no distinction in recruitment of disabled

people by respondent organisations, there is indeed a difference in perception towards

141

disability training. As was observed, organisations that employ disabled people place more

emphasis on disability training. Literature indicates that the benefits of disability training

are numerous; Playforth (2003) lists some of the benefits: improvement of staff
confidence, development of a disabled-user-centred perspective, transformation of
stereotyped ideas, development of an organisation which is inclusive of disabled people,
and fulfilling legal requirements. In Malaysia, Yaacob (2001) indicates that there is a need

for disability awareness training among public administrative and technical personnel in
the government as well.

(b)

Research

Question 2: What is the organisation's perception on attitude

towards disabled workers?

The attitude towards disabled workers is the independent variable under analysis in
research question 2. Analysis shows that the values of the mean, median and the standard

deviation are 25.8, 26.0 and 5.4 respectively. In order to measure the general level of
attitude towards disabled workers, the mean value (25.8) was compared with the median

(26). As is observed, the value of the mean has a lower value than the median, thus,

suggesting that the overall attitude to employment of disabled people is not really
favourable.

To test the above finding, a one-sample t-test was performed to compare the mean with the

median. The result indicates that there is no significant difference between the mean and
the median.

This study defines the attitude towards disabled workers as composed of three elements:

(a) co-workers perception of disabled workers, (b) management perception of work

attendance of disabled workers, and (c) management perception on the need for
supervision of disabled workers. Further analysis was conducted to assess the levels of
attitude on these three aspects. The results of the analysis (one-sample t-test) are as shown
in table 4.11 below.

142

The result indicates that the mean is somewhat close to its median for the two variables
namely, co-workers perception of disabled staff and management perception on the need

for supervision of disabled workers. However the management's perception on work

attendance is not so favourable (mean is significantly lower than the median value).

Table 4.11:

One-sample t-test analysis for the variable Attitude

Mean

Attitude
a) Attendance
b)Co-workers
c) Supervision

25.75
5.45
11.18
9.11

Standard
Deviation
5.35
1.34
2.59
2.67

t-value
-0.42
-3.62
0.60
0.42

Median
26.00
6.00
11.00
9.00

Research question 2 was further investigated by a subgroup analysis. To facilitate the

analysis the sample organisations were divided into two categories: Group 1 consisting of

those that employed no disabled people and Group 2 consisting of those that employed
disabled people.

An independent sample t-test was conducted to determine the differences in perception of

organisational attitude between organisations that employed no disabled people and those
that also employ disabled workers. The results are shown in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12: Independent-sample t-test: Subgroup analysis for the variable Attitude.
Group 2
Employing Disabled
People

Attitude
a) Attendance
b)Co-workers
c) Supervision

Mean
25.82
5.28
11.20
9.33

Standard
Deviation
6.33
1.61

3.07
2.59

Group!
Employing No Disabled
People
Mean
25.68
5.61
11.15

8.90

Standard
Deviation
4.29
1.02

2.08
2.15

t-value

0.114
-1.09
0.10
0.81

Analysis of results indicates that the attitude of both categories of organisations (Group I

and Group 2) shows similar trend towards the employment of disabled workers. A closer

143

observation of the results reveals that organisations that employed disabled workers view
unfavourably the work attendance of disabled staff. However, the difference between the
two groups of organisations is not statistically significance on this aspect. It is also evident
that the organisations that are currently employing disabled workers are of the opinion that
greater supervision is needed.

In summary, the overall appraisal of attitude towards disabled employees seems to be

unfavourable. In particular two issues are viewed unfavourably: that of work-attendance

and that of the need for work-supervision. A probable factor considered to negatively
affect the work attendance of disabled workers is the low level of accessibility to public
transport systems that need to be used to arrive at various offices to begin work.

The unfavourable perception towards the need for supervision of disabled employees may

stem from the way disablement

is

perceived in the country. It

is

likely that the

organisational perception of the characteristics of disabled people lie closer to the medical
model of disability rather than the social model of disability.

While the medical/individual model of disability envisions disabled persons as people at

risk whose life may be managed by general opinion particularly medical views, the social

model encourages disabled people to establish their individuality and legitimacy of their
varied requirements. The negative perception attributed to the attendance and the need for

supervision of disabled workers by such organisations may, in part, be due to perceived

medical appointment and therapies that are often seen as a part of disabled people's life

(Christie and Kleiner, 2001). Efficient public transport systems evidently could assist in
creating a punctual workforce, but access to public transport systems such as buses is a
daily challenge for disabled people in Malaysia. The transportation issue was highlighted

by Singh (2005) when he reported of a confrontation between Penang (Malaysia) state

government assemblymen and a group called Citizens for Public Transport to discuss the
poor state of bus services for disabled persons. Anthony Thanasayan (Koay 2004) affirms
that transportation in the nation is not always accessible to disabled commuters. Currently

a partial solution to the problem is found in modified motorcycles for the disabled

144

commuter: 'The motorbike is a very important mode of transport for the disabled people',

says Sia Siew Chin (UCIS 2005), the Director of Beautiful Gate Disabled People Caring
Centre. Thus, it seems that Malaysians' view of disabled people as vulnerable persons with

continuous health problems with poor accessibility to public transport systems, may
provide sufficient reasons to conjure up problems linked to the need for supervision and
attendance of disabled workers.

(c)

Research Question 3: What is the organisation's perception towards disability

policies intended for providing employment to disabled persons?

The organisational policy on disability is treated as the independent variable for analysis in

research question 3. Analysis shows that the values of the mean, median and the standard

deviation are 29.39, 29.50 and 11.27 respectively (Table 4.13). The relatively high
standard deviation indicates inconsistency in responses

in the

items assessing the

organisational policy towards employment of disabled persons. A possible explanation for

this inconsistency could be the finding that 90% of companies surveyed in this study were

found to have no disability policies. As a result the responses towards the questions that
probed disability policies may carry speculative perceptions.

The study defines organisational policy as a unidimensional construct, the total scores on

the eight questionnaire items measuring this construct were taken as the value for the
current policy of the organisations with regards to the employment of disabled workers.

In order to examine the current organisational policies on disability the mean value is
compared with the median. It is observed that the value of the mean has a lower value than

the median suggesting that the general perception on the current organisational policy (for

the employment of disabled workers) is not really favourable. To test this finding, a one-

sample t-test was performed to compare the mean score with the median. The result
indicates that there is no significant difference between the mean score and the median.
The findings of the analysis are shown in the Table 4.13 below.

145

Table 4.13:

Policy

One-sample t-test for analysis of Policy

Standard
Deviation

Mean
29.39

Median
29.50

11.27

t-value
-0.09

A subgroup analysis was performed whereby the sample organisations were divided into
two categories: Group I consisted of those that employed no disabled people and Group 2

were those that employed disabled people. The research question was then further
investigated by conducting an independent sample t-test to determine the differences in
perception of policy between organisations that employed no disabled people and those
that also employed disabled workers. Results show that the mean value of policy towards
employment of disabled workers is higher for organisations currently employing disabled

workers than that those that do not employ disabled workers. This indicates that
organisations that employ disabled workers perceived their organisations to have a more
favourable policy with regards to employing disabled workers. However, this difference is
not statistically significant. Table 4.14 shows the results of the analysis.
Table 4.14:

Independent-sample t-test: Subgroup analysis for the variable Policy.

Group 2
Employing Disabled
People
Policy

Mean
30.03

Group 1
Employing No Disabled
People

Standard
Deviation
9.96

Mean
28.81

Standard
Deviation

t-value
0.48

12.43

In summary, the perception on the prevailing organisational policy for the employment of

disabled workers is not really favourable. However, organisations employing disabled

workers perceive that their organisations possess more favourable policy with regards to

employing disabled workers. The Malaysian disability policies are outlined in section
2.9.1. The government of Malaysia has reserved one percent ofjobs in the civil service for

the disabled people, and has recommended that the private sector reserve an equivalent
percentage for disability employment (Fong 2004).

146

(d)

Research Question 4: What is the current level of employment opportunities

for disabled people?

Analysis of research question 4 shows that for the employment opportunities for disabled

people, the values of the mean, median and the standard deviation are 12.66, 13.00, and
4.56 respectively.

Observation shows that the value of the mean has a lower value than the median indicating
that employment opportunity for disabled people is not favourable at present. To test this, a

one-sample t-test was performed to compare the mean score with the median. The result
shows that there is no significant difference between the mean score the median. The result
of the analysis is shown in the table below (Table 4.15).
Table 4.15:

One-sample t-test: analysis of Employment Opportunities for Disabled

People

Opportunity for Employment

of Disabled People

Mean

Standard
Deviation

Median

t-value

12.66

4.56

13.00

-0.07

In order to further examine the research question a subgroup analysis was performed. To
facilitate the analysis the sample organisations were divided into two categories: Group 1

was composed of organisations that employed no disabled people and Group 2 was
composed of those that employed disabled people. An independent sample t-test was
conducted to discern the current employment opportunity for disabled people between the

two groups of organisations. Results show that the mean value of the opportunity for
employment of disabled workers is higher for organisations that currently employ disabled

persons than that those that employ no disabled persons. This indicates that (i)
organisations that employ disabled workers provide more opportunities for hiring disabled

workers and (ii) the differences in the employment opportunities in organisations that
currently employ disabled workers are significantly greater than those organisations that do
not employ disabled workers. Table 4.16 below shows the findings of the analysis.

147

Table 4.16:

Independentsample t-test: Subgroup analysis for Employment

Opportunities of Disabled People.
Group 2
Empi oying Disabled
People
Mean

Opportunity for
Employment of Disabled

15

Standard
Deviation
3.78

Group 1
Employing No Disabled
People
Mean
9.87

t-value

Standard
Deviation
3.85

5.53

People

In summary, the findings show that the current employment opportunity for disabled
people is not favourable. However, organisations employing disabled workers provide
more opportunities for recruiting disabled workers. An additional finding shows that the
differences in the employment opportunities in organisations that employ disabled workers

are significantly greater than those organisations that do not employ such workers.
Literature indicates that only about 4% of the registered disabled population in the nation
were employed in the private sector (Fong 2004), and only 0.07% of the total employees of

the public section constitute disabled workers (Fong 2001). It is estimated that due to
social exclusion of disabled people, Malaysia is poised to suffer losses to the GDP in the

range of US$1.18 to US$1.68 billion (Khor 2002). Thus, improvement of employment

opportunities for disabled people goes beyond the social agenda into the nation's economic
arena.

4.5

Testing of Hypotheses

Three hypotheses form part of this study. The hypotheses and their test results are listed
below:

4.5.1: Hypothesis 1:
H1:

There is no association between Organisational Commitment and the Employment

opportunities for disabled people.

148

Testing of hypothesis H1 shows that organisational commitment seems to be positively

related to employment opportunities. Organisations with more employment opportunities

tend to be more committed to have disabled workers in the organisations. And the
difference is statically significant at a=0.10 (Table 4.17).

Table 4.17:

Independent sample t-test comparing level of employment opportunity with

Organisational Commitment
Employment Opportunity
1 = Not Favourable
2 = Favourable
Mean

Organisational
Commitment

More

1.00

14.74
15.88

2.00

detailed analysis revealed that the organisations

Standard
Deviation
2.78
3.39

with

t-value
-1.52

more employment

opportunities show significantly more favourable environment for employee training (on
issues related to disability). However, the differences for recruitment of disabled workers
are not significant (Table 4.18).
Table 4.18:

Independent sample t-test comparing level of employment opportunity with

training and recruitment
Employment Opportunity
= Not Favourable
2 = Favourable

Training

Mean
7.43
8.64
7.31
7.24

1.00

2.00

Recruitment

1.00

2.00

Standard
Deviation
1.84
2.55
1.78
1.87

t-value
-2.25

0.l6

In summary, the results show that the organisational commitment appears to be positively
related to employment opportunities. In addition, organisations with more employment

opportunities indicate (i) more commitment to employ disabled workers, and (ii)
significantly more favourable environment for disability training. These results agree with
some of the findings of research question 1 [Section 4.4 (a)].

149

4.5.2: Hypothesis 2:
H2:

There is no association between attitude towards disabled workers and employment

opportunities for disabled persons.

Testing of hypothesis H2 commenced with comparisons on the attitude towards disabled

workers. The results indicate that organisations with more employment opportunities tend

to give slightly lower score for attitude when compared with organisations with less
employment opportunities. However this difference is not significant (Table 4.19).
Table 4.19:

Independent sample t-test comparing level of employment opportunity with

attitude towards disabled workers
Employment Opportunity
I = Not Favourable
2 = Favourable

Attitude

Mean
26.89
25.42

1.00

2.00

Standard
Deviation
3.62
6.64

t-value
1.12

To further explore this pattern, analysis were done to investigate (a) the co-workers
perception of disabled staff, (b) management perception of work attendance of disabled

workers, and (c) perception of the management on the need for supervision of disabled
workers.

The results reveal that for organisations with more employment opportunities, the score for
co-workers perception is relatively lower and the difference is significant at a 0.10

As for the management's perception of work attendance of disabled workers there is no

significant difference between organisations offering more employment opportunity and

organisations with less employment opportunities. The results also indicate that the
management's perception of work attendance of disabled workers are more positive for
organisations with less employment opportunities while organisations with more

employment opportunities perceive work attendance of disabled workers more negatively.

The analysis is shown in Table 4.20 below.
150

Table 4.20:

Independent sample t-test comparing level of employment opportunity

with perception of co-workers and the need for supervision
Employment Opportunity
= Not Favourable
2 = Favourable
Mean

Co-workers

Attendance

t-value

1.77

1.40

2.00

11.74
10.88
9.29
9.39

1.00

5.86

3.17
2.01
2.66
0.88

2.00

5.15

1.72

1.00

2.00

Supervisors

Standard
Deviation

1.00

-0.19
2.15

In summary, tests reveal that (i) in general, organisations with more employment
opportunities tend to give slightly lower score for attitude when compared with
organisations with less favourable employment opportunities, (ii) organisations with more
employment opportunities have co-workers perceptions (towards disabled workers)

relatively negative, (iii) the management's perceptions on the need for supervision of
disabled workers show no significant difference between organisations offering more
employment opportunity and organisations with less employment opportunities, (iv)
organisations with more employment opportunities perceive work attendance of disabled
workers more negatively, and conversely (v) organisations with less employment
opportunities perceive work attendance of disabled workers are more positively.
Perceptions of negative attitude towards disabled workers may stem from viewing

workplace disability as work disruption with implications ofjob performance limitations,

decreased productivity and increased cost (Thomason, Burton & Hyatt 1998). Literature
indicates negative attitudes may be perceived through disability labels (Scheid, 1999) and
lack of disability identity (Morris 1991, cited in Shakespeare 1996, p. 103). A disabled

worker's punctuality and presence at the workplace may be influenced by his or her
medical appointments and therapies. Nelson and Kleiner (2001, p. 4) report of a 1992

survey by the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation which showed that
disabled people tend to have more doctor appointments. However, they state that this
situation could be offset by simple work accommodation of flexible schedules, unpaid time

'Si

off, and telecommuting. Literature survey reveals that inaccessibility of disabled people to

public transport also poses problems for maintaining regular attendance (Koay 2004, Singh
2005 & UCIS 2005).
4.5.3:

Hypothesis 3;

H3:

There is no association between Organisational Policies and Employment

Opportunities for disabled people.

Testing of hypothesis H3 indicates that there is a negative relationship, thus, organisational

policies are not favourable to employment opportunities (Table 4.21).
Table 4.21:

Independent sample t-test comparing level of Employment Opportunity

with Organisational Policy

Employment Opportunity
= Not Favourable
2 = Favourable

Organisational Policy

Mean
58.00
49.33

1.00

2.00

Standard
Deviation

t-value

13.13

3.23

8.29

Earlier findings on policy for hiring of disabled workers (Section 4.3 (a)) had revealed that
90% of responding organisations did not possess any policies for disability employment. It
was also found that 95% of organisations which were not currently employing disabled
workers did not engage in practices to recruit disabled applicants (Section 4.3 (c)). Test
result of this hypothesis substantiates the earlier findings by indicating that, in general,
organisational policies are not favourable to employment opportunities for disabled people.

Literature maintains that when disability is interpreted as a social construct, then the policy
structure involves inclusion of disabled people to help in removal of social barriers, be it in
the built environment, in laws and policies, in organisation of activities, or in the
assumptions people make (ILO Ability Asia 2003). According to Jayasooria (2000, p. 54),

for the employment of disabled people in Malaysia "...the emphasis is put on appealing to
152

the public conscience and goodwill, especially to that of the business community, rather
than on relying on the force of law". Thus, business values and corporate responsibility
would play key roles in the formulation of employment policies.

4.6

Summary of Findings

This chapter investigated the issues that influence employment of disabled persons in
Malaysia. The results were presented in four parts: Demographic Characteristics, Analysis
of Disability Issues, Analysis of Research Questions, and Testing of Hypotheses.

The demographic characteristics were represented by profiles of employees and

companies. The employees' profile showed that the majority of them were engaged in the
management of core areas of human resource management; however, only a small percent

was positioned within disability management. Majority of employees worked in corporate

headquarters and averaged at least six years or less in their current positions. About half of

the respondents had interaction with disabled people while a small number of respondents

were disabled persons. Company profile revealed that about half of the total number of
companies employed 200 or less employees; the other half included employees above 500

in number. As for the number of disabled employees in various respondent organisations,

one consortium of companies reported 49 disabled staff and 13 organisations reported one

disabled staff each. The remaining organisations reported between two and seventeen
disabled staff each. Largest number of organisations employing disabled people were
clustered in the industrial sector, second to this was the financial sector and it was followed
by the hospitality and retail sectors.

Analysis of disability issues revealed that concerning specific policies for hiring disabled
persons, a vast majority of organisations do not have such a policy; neither do they have a
designated department or individual to deal with disabled employees. However, about half

the numbers of organisations that employ disabled staff engage do indeed practice in
recruitment of disabled people through liaison with external agencies, and through inhouse advertisements.

153

As for the issue of training of employees on disability issues, more than three-quarters of
the numbers of organisations reported the absence of such a training. A good majority of
organisations reported that their offices were accessible by disabled staff, and that the cost
of accommodation of offices was borne by them.

In the analysis of barriers to employment of disabled persons, the most significant barrier
perceived is the lack of related experience in managing disability issues, other barriers in
descending order were the lack of education on disability topics, lack of required skill and

training for disabled people, cost of supervision of disabled workers, attitude towards
disabled personnel, lack of knowledge about accommodation issues, cost of training, and
lastly the cost of accommodation.

The four research questions are: (a) What is the organisation's perception towards its
commitment to employment of disabled people? (b) What is the organisation's perception

on attitude towards disabled workers? (c) What is the organisation's perception towards
disability policies intended for providing employment to disabled persons? and (d) What is
the level of the current employment opportunities for disabled people?

It was found that the organisational commitment to employment of disabled people was

rather favourable. The organisations which employ disabled workers were perceived to
have higher organisational commitment to the employment of disabled people.

As for organisations' perception on attitude towards disabled workers, it was found that in
general, it is not really favourable and in particular the perception on work attendance was
not favourable.

Analysis also revealed that the general perception on the current organisational policy for
the employment of disabled workers was not really favourable although organisations that

employ disabled workers perceived their organisations to have a more favourable policy
with regards to employing disabled workers.

154

As for the level of current employment opportunities for disabled people, findings show

that opportunities are not favourable at present. However organisations that employ
disabled workers provide more opportunities for hiring disabled workers. The differences

in the employment opportunities in organisations that currently employ disabled workers

are significantly greater than those organisations that do not employ disabled workers.

Testing of hypotheses yielded the following results: (a) the organisational policies are not

favourable to employment opportunities, (b) organisational commitment seems to be

positively related to employment opportunities and it was also noted that organisations

with more employment opportunities tended to be more committed to take disabled

workers in the organisations, (c) organisations with more employment opportunities tend

to give slightly lower score for attitude when compared with organisations with less
employment opportunities.

Discussion, conclusion and recommendations are presented in the next chapter.

155

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The main thrust of this thesis is to conduct a focused inquiry into the factors that influence

the employment opportunities of the disabled people in Malaysia. Although there are
numerous factors that contribute to the employment of disabled people, this thesis studies
three selected factors that are seen to exert considerable influence on disability

employment. The factors investigated are the organisational commitment to employment

of disabled people, attitude towards disabled workers, and organisational policies on

disability.

This concluding chapter presents three areas of interest: (i) a review, and implications of
factors influencing employment opportunities of disabled people in Malaysia, (ii) research
limitations of this study and (iii) recommendations.

5.1

A Review and Implications of Factors Influencing Employment Opportunities

of Disabled People in Malaysia

This section consists of (a) an assessment of research objectives and their implications, (b)
an assessment of disability training and recruitment of disabled workers, (c) a comparative
assessment of barriers to the employment of disabled people in Malaysia and the USA, and
(d) overcoming barriers to employment of disabled people.

5.1.1

An Assessment of Research Objectives

Seven research objectives are assessed in this section. Three of them are concerned with
the organisational perceptions on employment of disabled people. These three objectives

are examined in relation to organisational commitment, attitude, and policies. The

remaining four research objectives focus on employment opportunities of disabled people.

156

These four objectives are examined in terms of (a) the current level of employment
opportunities, (b) the association between policies and employment opportunities, (c) the
association between organisational commitment and employment opportunities, and (d) the

association between organisational attitude towards disabled persons and employment

opportunities.

(a)

Research Objective 1: To examine organisations' perception towards their

commitment to employment of disabled people.

In this study, the variable organisational commitment consists of two elements,

namely, the commitment towards recruiting disabled workers, and the commitment
towards training for disability related issues. Review of findings related to the above
objective shows that (i) organisational commitment to the employment of disabled people

is fairly favourable, (ii) the organisations that employ disabled workers are seen to have
higher organisational

commitment to the employment of disabled people,

(iii)

organisations employing disabled people show more emphasis for training of employees

towards disability issues, and (iv) there is no significant difference in the recruitment of

disabled workers between organisations employing no disabled workers and those

employing disabled workers.

(b)

Research Objective 2: To investigate organisations' perception on their

attitude towards disabled workers.

The variable attitude towards disabled workers

is

composed of three elements: (a) co-

workers perception of disabled workers, (b) management perception of work attendance of

disabled workers, and (c) management perception on the need for supervision of disabled
workers.

Assessment of the above objective was done by reviewing related findings. The result
reveals that (i) generally the attitude towards employment of disabled people is not really

favourable (ii) co-workers' perception of disabled staff is fairly favourable and (iii) the

157

organisational perception on the need for supervision of disabled workers is somewhat

favourable. Nevertheless, the organisations that are currently employing disabled workers

are of the opinion that greater supervision is needed and (iv) in general the organisational

perception on work attendance is not so favourable. In particular, organisations that

employed disabled workers view unfavourably the work attendance of their disabled staff.

(c)

Research

Objective 3:

To

explore organisations'

perception towards

disability policies intended for providing employment to disabled persons

An appraisal of findings related to the research objective shows that (i) the overall
perception of current organ isational policy for the employment of disabled workers is not
really favourable, and (ii) organisations employing disabled persons perceive their

organisations to have a more favourable policy regarding employment of disabled persons.

(d)

Research Objective 4: To examine the current level of employment

opportunities for disabled persons

A review of pertinent findings indicates that (i) employment opportunity for disabled
people is not favourable at present, (ii) organisations employing disabled workers provide

more opportunities for hiring disabled people, and (iii) the differences in the employment

opportunities in organisations employing disabled workers are significantly greater than

those organisations not employing disabled workers.

(e)

Research Objective 5: To determine the association between organisational

policies and employment opportunities for disabled people

An assessment of findings related to the research objective reveals, in general, that

organisational policies are not favourable to employment opportunities of disabled people.

Review shows only 10% of organisations surveyed possessed specific policies for hiring

158

disabled workers, furthermore, only 8.5% of organisations in the survey had a designated
individual or a particular department to handle disability issues.

(I)

Research Objective 6: To determine the association between organisational

commitment and employment opportunities for disabled people

A study of the research objective using findings related

to it indicates that (i)

organisational commitment seems to be positively related to employment opportunities.

Organisations with more employment opportunities tend to be more committed to have

disabled people in their employment, and (ii) organisations with more employment
opportunities show significantly more favourable environment for employee training on
issues related to disability. However, the differences for recruitment of disabled workers
are not significant.

(g)

Research Objective 7: To determine the association between the attitude

towards disabled employees and employment opportunities for disabled
people

A review of the research objective, using related findings, shows that (i) organisations
with more employment opportunities tend to give slightly lower score for attitude when

compared with organisations with less employment opportunities, (ii) for organisations

with more employment opportunities, the score for co-workers perception of disabled
workers is relatively lower, (iii) as for the management's perception of work attendance of

disabled workers, there is no significance difference between organisations offering more

employment opportunity and those offering less employment opportunities, and (iv) the

management's perception of work attendance of disabled workers are more positive for

organisations with less employment opportunities, while organisations with more

employment opportunities perceive work attendance of disabled workers more negatively.

An assessment of Research Objectives (6) and (7) reveals that while organisations with
more employment opportunities tend to be more committed in employing disabled people,

159

paradoxically, the same organisations allot somewhat lower scores for attitude towards

disabled people, co-workers' perception of disabled workers, and work attendance of

disabled employees, in comparison to organisations with less employment opportunities.

5.1.2

Implications Drawn from the Assessment of Research Objectives

The assessment indicates that although organisations that employ disabled persons show

more commitment towards recruiting of disabled persons and training of employees for
disability issues, in general, more attention is required in improving the commitment of

organisations because only a small percentage (16%) of organisations conduct training

programs for disability related issues. In order to improve the degree of commitment by
organisations towards disability issues, it may be necessary to create more interest from

organisations and citizens by highlighting on a national scale the abilities and talents of
disabled people. In order to seek and exhibit the talents of disabled persons, job fairs for
disabled candidates and sports carnivals for disabled athletes should often be held.

Analysis of research objectives shows that actual recruitment rate is low despite the fact

that results show that organisational commitment seems to be positively related to

employment opportunities. Also revealed is that organisations with more employment
opportunities tend to be more committed to have disabled workers in their organisations,
however these organisations are seen to award fairly lesser scores for (a) attitude towards
disabled workers, (b) co-workers' perception, and (c) work attendance when compared to
organisations with less employment opportunities. This paradox appears to be the product

of contradictory factors that shape Malaysia's disability environment; its plausible that
while the tenets of social model of disability encourage selected organisations to be more
committed in employing disabled workers, on the other hand, the social structures central

to the functioning of the social model may be poorly implemented resulting in a stronger

belief of the medical model. In this case, the nation's traditional gestures of charity and

welfare for the disabled community are likely to overshadow capabilities and needs of
disabled people. Therefore, in order to raise the present commitment of organisations into

160

higher pragmatic grounds, a concerted effort by the government, NGOs, business

organisations, and citizens, is required to highlight associated issues.

In addition, to complement efforts mentioned earlier, disability studies may be introduced

into Malaysian universities as a precursor to enhancing disability awareness and the role of

disabled persons in society. The introduction of such studies could ultimately lead to the

formulation (or modification) of disability theories to fit the Malaysian cultural and
political systems. A change of this nature would act as a catalyst for the integration of
disabled people into mainstream society.

Problems related to disability access, and the availability of the public transport are issues

to be resolved because reduction or elimination of these hurdles contribute to improved

work attendance and productivity. Another factor

disability training for all employees

could help reduce negative attitudes towards disabled workers.

Since assessment of research objectives reveals that the current organisational policies are

not favourable for employment of disabled persons, it may be crucial to plan ahead for

overcoming this policy barrier. If confidence in the capabilities of disabled people

translates into favourable organisational policies for employment, then in the provision of
appropriate skills and greater abilities, more emphasis need to be placed on education and

training (in universities and vocational centres). Timely nationwide enforcement and

monitoring of disability policies by concerned government agencies could also help

improve employment opportunities for disabled people.

Although assessment shows that overall chances of employment for disabled people are

currently unfavourable, there seems to be more employment opportunities for disabled

candidates in organisations employing disabled workers. Thus, stakeholders of disability
employment may invite these organisations to act as role models in helping to market the
employment of disabled people to other potential organisations.

161

5.1.3

An Assessment of Disability Training and Recruitment of Disabled Workers.

This section discusses two areas, namely the training of employees on disability issues, and

the recruitment of disabled applicants. These issues were not dwelt with in the earlier
review of research objectives.

(a)

Training of Employees for Disability Issues

The respondent organ isations were assessed on their programmes for offering training on

(i) procedures for identifying and securing accommodations for disabled workers and (ii)
disability awareness.

An assessment of training on procedures for identifying and securing accommodations for

disabled workers reveals that only 6 % of the organisations have training programme for
identifying and securing accommodation for disabled workers.

As for disability awareness training, 16% of the organisations include such training in their
programs. These low percentages of measure related to disability training are probably due
to the sparse employment rate of disabled people.

(b)

Recruitment of Disabled Applicants

Out of the number of organisations not employing disabled people, 5% of them conducted

recruitment practices for disabled applicants while for organisations already employing
disabled workers, 46% of them were involved in such recruiting practises.

As reported by Anbalagan (2001) only about 3,000 disabled people are employed in the

private sector which consists of about 9 million employees. A later report (Fong 2004)
updates the disability-employment figure to about 5000 in the private sector as of June
2003. Although no new figures are indicated for the total employment of in the private

162

sector, it is assumed that the figures would have risen proportionally keeping the disability
employment rate still low.

An assessment of findings related to the issue of recruitment of disabled applicants showed

that 9% of organisations have either a designated department or an individual to deal with

disabled employees. These percentages illustrate a disability environment that is rather

negative towards the employment of disabled persons except in organisations employing
disabled workers.

5.1.4

A Comparative Assessment of Barriers to the Employment of Disabled People

Perspectives of Respondents in Malaysia and the USA.

This section introduces an international perspective to the issue of employment barriers by

an assessment of the situation through the respondent organisations of this study, and an
American study. Methods to overcome the barriers are also discussed.

(a)

A Comparison of Perspectives

The barriers to employment of disabled people as ranked in order of importance by the

participating organisations in Malaysia, and the implications of these barriers, are now
discussed alongside the findings of an interesting study in America by Susanne M. Bruyere

(2000) on the subject of Disability Employment Policies and Practices in Private and
Federal Sector Organisations.

It was seen earlier in Chapter 4: Results of Data Analysis and Findings, that respondent
organisations of this study ranked a number of barriers related to the employment of
disabled people in Malaysia.

163

Ranking of Barriers to Employment of Disabled People by Responding

Table 5.1:

Organisations in Malaysia

Barriers to Employment of Disabled People

Ranking
(based on mean score)

Lack of related experience in managing disability issues

1 (High)
2

Lack of education on disability topics

Lack of required skill and training for disabled people

Cost of supervision of disabled workers

Attitude towards and stereotyping of disabled workers

Lack of knowledge about accommodation issues

Cost of training for disabled employees

Cost of accommodation for disabled workers

8 (Low)

The barrier considered as the most significant was the lack of related experience in
managing disability issues. Other barriers in descending order were: lack of education on

disability topics, lack of required skill and training, cost of supervision of disabled
workers, attitude towards and stereotyping of disabled workers, lack of knowledge about
accommodation issues,

cost

of training for disabled employees, and cost of

accommodation for disabled workers (see Table 5.1).

Bruyere's study reveals that American perception does not differ significantly from
Malaysians' perception on employment barriers. Her findings are shown in Table 5.2. The
barriers are listed in descending order of importance by her.

164

Table 5.2:

Results of Bruyere's Research on Barriers to Employment of Disabled

People in the USA

Barriers

Private Sector
(Percent Response)

Public Sector
(Percent
Response)

Lack of related experience

49

53

Lack of required skills/training

39

45

Supervisor knowledge of accommodation

31

34

Attitudes/stereotypes

22

43

Cost of accommodations

16

19

Cost of supervision

12

10

Cost of training

II

Source: US. Department of Labor :Office of Disability Employment Policy

"Disability Employment Policies and Practices in Private and Federal Sector Organisations, "Susanne M
Bruyere, March 2000, Cornell University, Program on Employment and Disability, School of Industrial and
Labor Relations, Extension Division

The ranking of barriers from Bruyere's study and this study are grouped together in Table

5.3. Two modifications were required to achieve common format: (i) one of the barriers
from this study lack of education on disability topics

was

not found in Bruyere's study,

so this barrier was removed for comparative assessment, (ii) another barrier in this study
lack

of knowledge about accommodation issues

which

probes into the level of

knowledge about accommodation, is similar to the one in Bruyere's study

knowledge of accommodation

supervisor

which essentially also seeks the degree of knowledge

about accommodation. Evidently barriers would arise only in the event of shortcomings;
therefore, lack of knowledge is also the issue in Bruyere's accommodation-barrier. Thus,
the two barriers were treated as one equivalent barrier.

The ranking of barriers to employment of disabled people from respondents of this study
and American perspectives are shown in Table 5.3 in the descending order of Malaysian
respondents' ranking.

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Table 5.3:

Comparison of Employment Barriers for Disabled People

Barriers to Employment of Disabled People

Lack of related experience

Lack of required skills/training
Cost of supervision
Attitudes/stereotypes
Supervisor knowledge of accommodation / Lack of
knowledge about accommodation issues
Cost of training
Cost of accommodations

Ranking by
American
Respondents
of Bruyere's
study

Ranking by
Malaysian
Respondents
of this Study

To facilitate discussion of the differing perceptions on employment barriers between the

Malaysian respondent organisations and those from America, a standardised graphical

representation of rankings was created and charted. The graph is shown in Figure 5.1 (refer
Appendix C for the method applied to create the standardised values of the chart).

It is interesting to note that the American perspective follows a trend close to that of the
respondents of this study. Inspection of the trends reveals four areas where the rankings are

not concurrent; these areas are the barriers of Cost of Supervision, Supervisor Knowledge

of Accommodation/ Lack of Knowledge about Accommodation, Cost of Training, and

Cost of Accommodation.

166

Perceptions of Malaysian respondents & US respondents on Barriers to

Employment of Disabled People
120
100
80

60

40
20
0

Higher Value denotes Higher Barrier

Malaysia

Figure 5.1:

D - USA

Comparative analysis ofperceptions of Malaysian Respondent

Organisations and American Organisations towards Barriers to Disability
Employment.

Respondent organisations from this research and Bruyere's research rank the barrier, Lack
of Related Experience in Disability Issues, as the most significant barrier to employment of

disabled people. This appears to be a prudent proactive observation by Malaysian

respondent organisations because literature review shows a passive environment for
disability issues in the labour market (and the country) where disability rights and legal

protection for disabled workers are only emerging. On the other hand, the American
appraisal possibly shows the significance of disability settings in the United States where

167

the need to incorporate the requirements of ADA, human rights issues, and litigation issues
arising from mismanagement of disability, are viewed with keen interest.

As for the perception of Malaysian respondents concerning the lack of management

experience in disability issues, it may be countered through higher attention to disability

training and related activities. This could be achieved if social, business and academic
activities are organised to (a) bring the needs and concerns of disabled people more to the

forefront of businesses and society, where the heightened disability awareness translates
into

positive developments, and (b) introduce disability management courses, and

internships in appropriate academic areas; in fact, the action may initiate debates on
management issues resulting in cross-disciplinary exercises towards effective solutions.

The next barrier to employment, the Lack of Required Skills/Training for Disabled
Workers, has been ranked concurrently as the second highest barrier by respondents of this

study and the American one. Training is necessary to produce the right skills even for
simple job positions such as that of a typist, tailor, telephone operator, receptionist, or a
toll-booth operator (Bardan 2001) therefore, the importance of training for more complex

job positions cannot be underestimated. The ranking indicates that Malaysian respondent

organisations recognise the significance of skills and training for disabled workers. This
seems to be a positive initiative especially since other findings of this study reveal that, in

general, disability training is not often conducted in respondent organisations. Moreover,

literature shows that training and vocational centres for potential disabled workers are not
widespread in Malaysia.

The next barrier, in descending order, is the Cost of Supervision which is ranked at
different levels by the respondents of the two studies. Participating respondents of this
research give it a high third rank, whereas American organisations place it at a low sixth
rank (just one level higher than the bottom of the list).

The reasons for the assessment by respondent organisations in Malaysia is not clear but it
is plausible that disabled people are viewed, to a great degree, in the context of the medical

168

model of disability which largely focuses on the impairment of the disabled person and
associates it to a "suitable" medical solution. As aptly pointed out by Zola:
'Being seen as the object of medical treatment evokes the image of many ascribed
traits, such as weakness, helplessness, dependency, regressiveness, abnormality of

appearance and depreciation of every mode of physical and mental functioning'

(Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare 1999, p.10).

Under such circumstances the appraisal by Malaysian respondents towards the need for

work supervision of disabled workers would likely entail a need for constant vigil to
maintain the worker and productivity levels. Thus, the cost of such an on-going operation

may be perceived to be rather high. (More literature is available in Appendix D for the

Classic Model of Disability and Intervention by Vic Finkeistein, and also for the
Individual/Medical Model)

In contrast, the low ranking given by the American assessment of the Cost of Supervision

may in part be due to their perspective of disability being more in the domain of social
model of disability than the medical model. The social model of disability looks at the

social environment as the source of disablement where, when adjustments are made, a
disabled person is given a good degree of equal opportunity. It is assumed, therefore, job

accommodations would mostly be met, and supervision need not greatly differentiate
between non-disabled and disabled workers resulting in normal cost of supervision. (More
literature is available in Appendix D for the Equal Rights Model of Disability and

Intervention by Vic Finkelstein, and also the Social Model).

A further barrier to employment of disabled persons, i.e. Attitude towards and Stereotyping

of Disabled Workers, finds mutual agreement with respondents of both studies and is
ranked at the fourth position. This finding demonstrates the concern for the orientation of

the society towards disabled people, and its influence on disability employment. The
problem seems to span across the Asian and Western cultures with equal emphasis. In
order to reduce the impact of the negative attitude towards the disabled people, one method
would be conduct focused disability awareness campaigns with sufficient intensity to reach

169

a critical mass of population so as to bring about a fusion of disability interests into

everyday life.

The next barrier is the Lack of Knowledge about Accommodation Issues. Respondent

organisations of this research rank

it

low at the fifth position, whereas American

organisations rank it higher at the third position.

Knowledge of work accommodation assists in adjusting a disabled employee to his or her

work, thus, ensuring the achievement of planned productivity, and good employee morale.

While this is the desired state, Curry and Lewis (Unger 2001) point out that employers

often have only inadequate knowledge of accommodations for their workforce. In

Malaysia, where the disability awareness has just begun to grow (Ismail 2003), the lack of

knowledge about accommodation issues is likely to interfere with the placement and
retention of disabled persons in the workforce.

Plausible reasons for Malaysian respondents to give this barrier a low ranking are: (a) the
respondents' scenario for disabled workers are limited to those with minimal disablement
who require minimum accommodation, (b) the jobs envisioned for disabled candidates are

simple in nature, and (c) the organisations are themselves not be clear about the dynamics
of accommodation and their effectiveness.

Literature review shows that knowledge of accommodations and its application impact
areas beyond disability; in fact, accommodations for disabled personnel have resulted in

unintended benefits to the co-workers and the organisation (Unger 2001). For the
participating organisations in Malaysia, it is recommended that steps be taken to upgrade

the awareness and understanding of this barrier. Such an action would set in motion
necessary initiatives to wisely identify optimum work adjustments for disabled employees,

thus resulting in better working conditions, enhanced productivity, better employee

relations, and better employee retention.

170

The Cost of Training is the next barrier that was appraised. Organisations from both
countries rank it barrier at low positions. The respondent organisations in Malaysia rank it

at the sixth position, just above the bottom position. The American appraisal puts it down
at the seventh position, that is, the bottom of the list. These perceptions of low concern for

the cost of training seem to indicate good confidence within organisations for providing
cost-effective training for employees.

The Cost of Accommodation was perceived to be the least significant barrier at the seventh

rank by participating organisations in Malaysia. However, the American respondents gave

this barrier the fifth rank.

The stance of the respondents of this study was expected since findings of this research

showed 98% of organisations indicated that they were willing to pay for the cost of
accommodation of their disabled employees. Nevertheless, it was unclear as to the range of

disabilities covered by organisational policies, and the optimum numbers of disabled

workers within each organisation who will be extended free work adjustments. Literature
review points out that it would not cost much to accommodate physically disabled workers

(Hooi, 2000d) but costs were not available for the accommodation of other categories of
disabled workers.

The American ranking of the Cost of Accommodation at the 5th position was somewhat
unexpected because literature shows that reasonable accommodation costs are acceptable
in the USA

for example, Rubin and Roessler (2001) report that the Job Accommodation

Network (JAN) has found that in more than 100,000 cases of reasonable accommodation,

20% of the accommodation cost nothing, 51% cost between $1 and $501, and just 25%
cost more than the last figure. The message from the American ranking seems to be that
while the accommodation costs are generally acceptable, it does however, leave a mark in
budget allocations and so forth.

In conclusion, the perspectives derived from both the studies on employment barriers

reveal that there a number of areas where one could learn from each other, and share

171

information to reduce the challenges confronting disabled people in their quest for
employment. For example, with reference to Figure 5.1, it may be observed that mutual
cooperation particularly in the areas of cost barriers (for supervision, training, and
accommodation), and the acquisition of knowledge on accommodation, could benefit the
cause of disability employment in Malaysia as well as in the USA.

(b)

Overcoming Barriers to Employment of Disabled People: A Malaysian

Perspective

Khor (2002) lists recommendations for overcoming barriers based on the following six
aspects: legislation, skills, jobs, vocational guidance, infrastructure and environment, and
follow-up. The recommendations are presented below:

(i)

Legislation:

Adequate legislation should exist in the country to provide fuller attention

and support for disability issues.

Stricter enforcement of the Uniform Building By-laws pertaining to

accessibility of the built environment is also required. A "Senator" Body
should be established to monitor and coordinate the enforcement of such by
-laws and code of practice.

The National Consultative Committee for disabled persons should be

reactivated as a partner in the enforcement process. As an example,

Malaysia may wish to implement a grants and levy system whereby
organisations with above a certain number of regular employees but which
do not fulfill their quota of employing disabled persons are required to pay a

certain levy per person short to support other employers who have fulfilled
their quota. (Such a system is implemented in Japan).

172

(ii)

Skills:

Disabled persons should be trained for technical skills that are relevant to

the present job market situation and not the stereotyped traditional skills
that have been taught in segregated centers for years.
o

Skills should reflect changing times and adapt to the current transition from

an industrial to a k-economy era where the ability to work in teams and

proficiency in IT are critical factors.
o

Wherever possible, disabled persons must be included in mainstream

programmes.

A database on skills required for the job (coping skills and job skills) for

disabled persons should be established and research carried out on the

labour market for job characteristics.
o

The present curriculum should carry the recognition of the National

Occupational Safety Standards (NOSS) with a possible support of the
National Information Technology Council (NITC).

(iii)

Jobs:

Jobs for disabled persons can be expanded in the job market through the use

of supported employment, by implementing simple work adjustments and

modifying the physical environment.
o

There should be job quotas reserved for disabled persons, but that should
not curtail increased flexibility in the provision ofjobs.

No categorization of jobs should be exercised whereby different categories

of disabled persons are stereotyped with certain jobs only.

Job placement officers for disabled persons must carefully seek out
appropriate jobs for disabled persons according to their skills.

In order to retain disabled persons at their jobs, they must have access to the

same opportunities for promotion and lifelong learning that are critical to
career stability and welfare.

173

Grants, subsidies and credits should also be provided to disabled persons

who wish to become entrepreneurs or work from home.

(iv)

Vocational Guidance:

Vocational guidance and employment services should include assessment,

guidance and referral to appropriate training programmes and job

placement.
o

It is essential for job placement officers to be trained in special skills needed

to work with disabled individuals.

More training centers, centralized and decentralized, should be set up for

disabled persons with unified standards in the training curriculum to

enhance adaptability of disabled persons to different work situations.

(v)

Infrastructure and Environment:

Employment of persons with disabilities requires special considerations,

therefore employers should be urged to comply with the existing Uniform
Building By-Laws to make their workplace accessible and provide adequate
facilities for disabled persons.

Wherever possible, they should also provide transportation facilities or

accessible housing near the workplace.

Government incentives should be given to employers such as tax deduction

for employment of disabled persons, and, also grants to renovate and retrofit
the workplace.

(vi)

Follow-up:

Follow-up may expose problems arising from job placement or small

business start-up, at which time appropriate interventions may be necessary
to ensure satisfactory solutions.

174

The job placement officer or departments concerned should continue

beyond job placements to see if disabled persons receive emotional
guidance, job development and capacity building where coworkers interact
and work with disabled persons as a team in the workplace.

As a developing nation, Malaysia is not a novice to the challenge of overcoming barriers of

all kinds, be it natural, social, industrial or technological obstacles; in fact, surmounting

obstacles play a key strategy in the continual growth of the nation. In spite of the
government's persistent and laudable effort in attempting to overcome the burden and

challenges faced by disabled people, the growth of opportunities in the disability

environment seems unhurried. Fong (2004) aptly points out:

"We fully understand that

it is

not easy for the disabled to be

assimilated into the society. The problems they face, to name a few,
include transportation, education system, training and the limitation of

work place facilities. These obstacles make it very difficult for the
disabled to lead a normal life like others."

5.2

Limitations of the Study

Limitations exist in all studies, and for this thesis the particular limitations include:
(a)

The area of research, employment opportunities for disabled people,

emerging employment sector

in

Malaysia.

Therefore,

some findings

is an

and

implications may not endure beyond a number of years from the date of this
study.

(b)

Constraints of the survey method used for this research:

Due to a relatively small response rate, which was somewhat compensated

through the units of analysis being organisations, the findings and

discussion offered mainly reflect those derived from responses of these

175

Malaysian organisations. Limitations may exist in generalising the findings

across the nation.
o

The responses sought were perspective in nature, thus, the influence of the
respondents' worldview on questionnaire items are unknown, although the
items were selected to eliminate bias and misinterpretation.

There is no knowledge whether the non-respondents and respondents are

similar in characteristics; however, since the questionnaires were only sent

to human resource managers, it is assumed that a strong similarity exists

between respondents and non-respondents, thus, discounting bias from

stakeholder groups.
o

Since survey studies rely on self-reported data, where the participants are
expected to report

truthfully and accurately on their attitudes and

characteristics without committing errors of omission, confusion, or false

memory, it is assumed that only minimum deviation has occurred, if at all,
from the stated expectation.
o

This survey may establish whether or not a relationship exists between two
variables but may not provide sufficient evidence to determine the direction
of causality.

(c)

The subject of employment opportunities for disabled people in Malaysia was

found to contain limited literature pertaining to Malaysia, this has made the
interpretation of some findings rather challenging, particularly in the areas of work
characteristics of disabled workers.

(d)

The theme and terms of this research may be rather exclusive to most respondents
in Malaysia where the topic of employment opportunities for disabled people seems

to be outside the mainstream of social issues. Despite this leaning, it is assumed

that the respondents (mainly human resource professionals) had the insight and
understanding to accurately interpret the questions for accurate responses.

176

Due to the distance from the chosen organisations, and the geographical

(e)

distribution of East and West Malaysia, the questionnaire survey was supported by

e-mail, telephone and facsimile communications. Other means of support by

interviews, observation and other methods were not utilized.

Classification of disability into various categories was not available in the

(f)

questionnaire. Thus the study does not reveal findings based on categories of
disability.

This study may be affected by other factors not used in this research; it does not

(g)

delve into all aspects of disability that has a bearing on employability. The study
focuses only on the stated factors of the research in order to study the opportunities
for employment of disabled people in Malaysia.

Recommendations

5.3

The first part of this section presents recommendations that assist in the employment of
disabled people. The second part lists recommendations for future research. The
recommendations for the first part are based on the research findings of this study.

A synopsis of research findings which are related to the recommendations, are shown
below:

A large percentage of organisations (90%) do not have specific policies for hiring
disabled persons,

A similar percentage (92%) does not have designated departments or individuals to

deal with disabled employees.

About half the numbers of organisations (46%) that employ disabled staff engage
do indeed practice in recruitment of disabled people through liaison with external
agencies, and through in-house advertisements.

177

As for the issue of training of employees on disability issues, more than threequarters of the numbers of organisations (79%) reported the absence of such a
training.

The most significant perceived barrier to employment opportunities of the disabled

people is the lack of related experience in managing disability issues; other barriers

in descending order are the lack of education on disability topics, lack of required

skill and training for disabled people, cost of supervision of disabled workers,
attitude towards disabled personnel, lack of knowledge about accommodation
issues, cost of training, and the cost of accommodation.
o

The organisational commitment to employment of disabled people was rather

favourable. The organisations which employ disabled workers were perceived to
have higher organisational commitment to the employment of disabled people.

Organisations' perception on attitude towards disabled workers was found to be not

really favourable, and in particular, the perception on work attendance was not
favourable.
o

The general perception on the current organisational policy for the employment of

disabled workers was not really favourable although organisations that employ
disabled workers perceived their organisations to have a more favourable policy
with regards to employing disabled workers.
o

Concerning the current level of employment opportunity for disabled people,

findings show that

it

is not favourable at present. However organisations that

employ disabled workers provide more opportunities for hiring disabled workers.
5.3.1

Recommendations for Employment of Disabled People

Hiring policies, specifically designed for the recruitment of disabled persons, need

to be formulated and implemented amongst a large percentage of organisatious. In

this respect, the policy should address issues such as methods of recruitment,
modes of vacancy advertisements, and the creation/appointment of a department or

person to be in charge of disabled employees. The success of such policies would

guarantee gains for the national economy, and thus compensates for losses due to

178

social exclusion of disabled people. The losses due such exclusion are expected to

be in the range of US$1.18 to US$1.68 billion to the GDP of Malaysia (Khor

2002).

Training of employees on disability issues should be undertaken by a wider number

of organisations. Essential training should include disability awareness training, as

well as training to identify and secure accommodations for disabled employees.

Overall, the training must bring about understanding of organisational disability

policy to all employees, setting of organisational values and commitment to

disability training, accessibility

of the disabled employees to organisational

services, and improved contact with the public (Directgov 2005). Training will also

serve to improve organisational attitude towards disabled people. Furthermore,

disability training for higher level managers will instil in them additional abilities
to better manage disability issues.

[t is imperative to introduce disability studies in institutions of higher learning.

One of the significant barriers to employment opportunities of disabled people,
ranked by respondents of this study, was the lack of education in disability topics.

Academic emphasis on disability would further enhance awareness and

understanding of it. Academic debates could further establish the positive role of
disabled persons in mainstream society and in doing so would hasten the process of
integration of disabled people into the populace.

In order to broaden opportunities for disability related employment, organisations

should adopt telecommuting (also known as telework) as a method of flex-time

work schedule.

The company profile of this study shows that only 16% of

organisations provided flex-time work schedule, and another 1% of organisations

provided telecommuting. For the right jobs, telecommuting work may be ideal for a
large category of disabled people. To further ensure success of this method of flex-

time work, the cost of essential equipment should at least be leased to the user if
not subsidised or sponsored by organisations. This process is necessary because,

179

generally, the high cost of Internet-adaptive technologies makes internet

prohibitively expensive for many disabled individuals who earn smaller income in
comparison to non-disabled individuals (Washington File 2003). By the

quarter

of 2004, Malaysia had 9.4 million Internet users and about 175,000 broadband
users for a population of 25 million (Yong, 2005); of these users, how many belong

to the disabled group is not available, but it is clear that the infrastructure for
telecommuting is in place.

5.3.2

Recommendations for Future Research

(a)

The findings and conclusions of this research were based on the perception of
human resource managers towards employment opportunities of disabled persons
in Malaysia. It is proposed that a similar study be conducted based on the

perception of supervisors of disabled employees. Such a study would add further

depth and scope to the findings of the original study especially in the area of
barriers to employment.

(b)

Three factors that may have a major bearing on employment opportunities of

persons with disability are education (including training), accessibility and
transportation. It is proposed that research be done on these factors to determine the
state of preparedness of the nation towards these factors.

(c)

This research did not address the issue of self-employment by disabled people. It is

recommended that a study be conducted to investigate the opportunities of selfemployment, whether be it brick-and-mortar, or online category.

(d)

Another area often mentioned for employment of disabled persons

is the

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector. It is proposed that a

study be carried out to look into the employment opportunities in this sector.

180

(e)

The change in the nature of work, both globally and locally, may produce farreaching implications for the employment prospects of disabled persons. A research

into this area would be beneficial to identify factors within the changing nature of
work that affect employability of disabled people.

(f)

The retention of jobs by disabled people is another interesting area of study. Thus,

a study of perceptions of disabled Malaysians in and out of employment would

enhance disability research within the framework of social policy.

(g)

Beneficial to the Government of Malaysia and society would be a study that

accesses the effectiveness of disability legislation. The interpretation and

implementation of such legislation may be documented for this purpose.

(h)

Accessibility influences the reach of disabled people towards their own

employment. A research investigating the levels of accessibility for persons with

disability into areas of employment, transport and other relevant factors would
benefit the disabled people as well as the nation.

In an overall conclusion, the current employment opportunities for disabled people are not

favourable. Findings show that organisations employing disabled people provide more

employment opportunities when compared to those not employing disabled people.

Although organisational commitment to the employment of disabled people is somewhat
favourable, the attitude towards disabled people is not favourable. Organisations

employing disabled people seem to prefer greater supervision of their disabled workers; the

organisations also perceive themselves to have a favourable policy towards disability

employment.

The winding path to emancipation of disabled people seems to a long one though not
necessarily a dark one. The lights are in place and they shine with hope: hope that the
bright rays of humanism will touch all peoples for a better understanding of themselves;
hope that the non-disabled people will not build dark fortresses to exclude others who are

181

not like them, hope that dignity, self-esteem and respect are not the privileges of only the
majority but also of the minority, and hope that all of humankind learn to live together as
one in this special home called Earth.

182

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.

197

APPENDIX A
INFORMATION SHEET
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
[NTERNATIONAL GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT

Critical Factors influencing Employment of Disabled Persons in Malaysia

(Employment prospects in Malaysia for people with disability)
Prabha Ramakrishnan, MPA (Master in Public Administration)

The disabled community is an integral part of every society and thus their welfare becomes as important as
that of other members. This questionnaire survey attempts to collect data on the employment prospects
available in Malaysia for people with disability.
It is hoped that the findings from the research will provide an insight into the job market for persons with
disability. The report of findings can be in part a catalyst to hasten the framing of dynamic policies (private
or public) to serve this particular section of society.
You are invited to participate in this research by completing this questionnaire. This process may take a
maximum of 20 minutes. Please read carefully and select the answers that you deem best for the questions.
Your participation is voluntary.
This is an anonymous survey where your questionnaire will not be individually identified. The survey data
collected shall be kept confidential and stored securely in a bank safe by the researcher for seven years. The
report derived from the data shall only indicate summaries and cumulative figures required to support the
findings. The report will be readily available to you as soon as the project is completed.
The result of the survey shall be used by the researcher for academic submission towards the Doctorate of
Business Administration (DBA) program of the University of South Australia (UniSA), Adelaide.
For questions or concerns please contact (Mr) Prabha Ramakrishnan, at 0 19-8574422 (Mobile), 082-677677
(Office), 082-414233 (Residence) or e-mail at
orprab60@sarawak.uitm.edu.my

If you have any ethical concerns about the conduct of this research, please contact
Ms Sachiko Hidaka, Executive Officer
Divisional Human Research Ethics Committee
Division of Business and Enterprise
University of South Australia
GPO BOX 2471
Adelaide SA 5000
Email: sachiko.hidaka@unisa.edu.au
Tel: +61 8 8302 0907
Thank you very much for your co-operation and assistance
Prabha Ramakrishnan
MPA (Master in Public Administration), USA
Telephone: 082-414233 (Home); 019 8574422 (Mobile); 082-677677 (Office)

DBA Student No: 00112659G, Intake: DME 1

198

APPENDIX B

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INTERNATIONAL GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT

In your position, which functions are you responsible for? (Please tick
Administrative
Compensation (Salary, Wages, etc)
Health / Safety/ Security
Disability (Disabled Staff)
Diversity (Multicultural, special issues, etc)
Benefits Management
Employment/Recruitment
Employee Relations

2.

Are you reporting for:

Corporate or HQ
(Please tick your response)

3.

Number of years in your current position?

4.

Type of Industry: (Please tick

Management
Labor/Industrial Relations
Organizational Development
Training and Development
HR

Legal
Others, please specify:

Retail sales

Data processing/Information

Industrial (manufacturing)

technology
Temporary services/employeeleasing company

Custodial, janitorial, building maintenance,

repairs, etc
Hospitality (food, lodging, etc)
Healthcare

6.

Branch or Department

your response)

Human services (religious, private agency, etc.)

Construction

5.

all that apply.)

Childcare
Wholesale
Management corporation
Government agency
Other, please specify:

Does your organization hire workers under any of the following arrangements?
(Please tick all that apply)
Part-Time

Apprenticeship

Contingent Labor (e.g., temporary

workers, on-call employees)

Paid Internships
Other, please specify:

Does your organization offer the following benefits?

(Please tick

all that apply.)

Health Insurance
Dental Insurance

Child/Elder Care
Alternative Work Schedules /

Sick Leave
Vacation

Flexi-time
Employee Assistance Programs
Telecommuting/ Home-working
Other, please specify:

Holidays

Study /Course Reimbursement

199

7.

Do you have any personal experience related to disability or know someone with a disability
(other than your employee with a disability)? (Please tick "I all that apply.)
have no personal experience related to anyone with a disability
have an immediate family member with a disability
I have a relative with a disability
I have a friend with a disability
I know a neighbor or community member with a disability
I have a disability
I
I

8.

Number of employees at your location:

8a.

Size of workforce (including temporary, disabled and non-disabled):

8b.

Number of staff with disability:

Indicate the extent to which you feel that the policies of your organization reflect: Please respond
to the best of your knowledge even if no disabled persons are employed (please circle your
response. N/A stands for Not Applicable).
9.

a.

A visible top management commitment to

include workers with disabilities in the
organization.

The elimination of bias through education and

training on disability-related factors.

Agree

An attempt to attract qualified applicants with

disabilities.

N/A

Agree

A commitment to retaining existing employees

with disabilities.

N/A

A commitment to return workers who are

temporarily disabled back to work.

(N/A

10.

A commitment to provide employees with

disabilities higher levels of responsibilities
through cross training and development.

Managers /Supervisors exercise as much discretion

as needed in implementing policies and procedures
for employees with disabilities.

200

IN/Al

Strongly
Agree

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

IN/A

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

f.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

e.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
d.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
c.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

b.

[N/A

Strongly
Disagree

____Yes
_______Advertisements
_______Recommendations
____Yes____No

11.

Your organization's travel policies and procedures

are accessible to employees with disabilities.

NIA

13.

The services offered/available through your

organization's information technology department
are accessible to persons with disabilities.

N/A

Your organization recognizes persons with

disabilities in attracting applicants to
apply for job openings.

N/A

Strongly

Your organization participates in or provides

activities to the disabled community.

Strongly

Your organization has far-reaching programs

that include persons with disabilities.

N/A

Strongly
Agree

Does your organization have a specific policy for hiring candidates with disabilities?
(Please tick your response)

17.

Is there a designated individual or department established in your organization to deal with

aspects related to applicants/employees with disabilities? (Please tick your response)
No

18.

Has your organization engaged in practices to recruit applicants with disabilities?

(Please tick your response)

19.

What recruitment methods are practiced in your organization to attract disabled candidates?
(Please tick all that apply)

201

Strongly
Disagree

16.

in the physical news media (Newspapers, etc)

in electronic news media (Television, radio, etc)
within the organization
from external agencies

Strongly
Disagree

Agree
15.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

14.

Strongly
Disagree

Agree
1

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

12.

_______Cost
_______Others:

20.

Are you familiar with any programs or agencies, external to your organization that assist
individuals in obtaining employment? (Complete by using the scale below: please select a
number that corresponds to your response and write it in the space preceding the statements
below)

Very familiar <

21 a.
21 b.

21c.
21d.
21e.
2 if
21g.
21.

>

Very unfamiliar

State vocational rehabilitation agencies

Government supported employment programs
State employment commission/agency
One-Stop Career Centers / Employment Agencies
Disability Services Offices at colleges and universities
Non-Governmental Organizations
Other, please specify:

Have any of your employees been trained in the following topics: (please tick iJ the response)
Topic
a.

b.

Procedures for identifying

and securing accommodations
for employees with disabilities.

Yes

Disability awareness training

Yes

No

Don't Know

No

Don't Know

LPlease answer Questions 22 and 23, only if you employ disabled persons:
22.

Are offices within your organization accessible to persons with disabilities?

(Please tick your response)
All of the officers are accessible
The majority of the offices are accessible
The majority of the offices are not accessible

Don't know
23.

When an accommodation (office alterations, equipment and special devices) is provided to an

employee with a disability, who bears the cost of the accommodation?
(Please tick all that apply)
is attributed to the employee
is attributed to the employee's unit
is attributed to an outside source
is shared among a variety of sources
is attributed to the organization

202

For questions 24-30, please indicate your level of agreement/disagreement with the following
statements. Please respond to the best of your knowledge even no disabled persons are employed
(Please circle your response)
24.

25.

26.

27.

Co-workers of employees with disabilities would express concern about the provision of accommodations (office alterations, equipment and special devices)
for employees with disabilities.
Co-workers of employees with disabilities would express concern about the work performance of
employees with disabilities.

Employees with disabilities request accommodations

when the accommodations are not needed to perform
the essential functions of the job.
Employees with disabilities request accommodations to
justify inadequate job performance.

Strongly

Strongly
Disagree

Agree

Strongly

Strongly
.

Disagree

Agree

Employees with disabilities tend to have better

attendance and punctuality records

The recruitment/retention of an employee who is or

becomes disabled has a positive effect on staff relations
and morale

Strongly

Employees with disabilities need more attention from

personnel/HR staff management and Supervisors.

Strongly

Strongly
Disagree

Agree
31.

Strongly
Disagree

Agree
30.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree
29.

Strongly
Disagree

Agree

Strongly
28.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

Indicate your level of agreement with the following statements regarding employees with physical
or other disabilities in general. Please respond to the best of your knowledge even if no disabled
persons are employed (Please circle your response).
a.

Employers feel that they would have to monitor

continuously an employee with a disability.

Strongly

Strongly
Disagree

Agree
b.

It is difficult for workers with disabilities to

comprehend and follow directions.

Strongly
Agree

203

Strongly
Disagree

c.

Many employers do not have the resources to spend

on an employee with a disability.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

d.

An employer should hire anyone who meets its

employment standards.

Agree

Employers are concerned about the absenteeism

of workers with disabilities.

Strongly

It is somewhat more difficult to fire or terminate an

employee with a disability.

The costs of accommodating a worker with a disability

is often too high to make business sense.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree
32.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
Agree

g.

Strongly
Disagree

Agree
f.

Strongly
Disagree

Strongly
e.

In your opinion, do any of the following pose a barrier to employment or advancement for
persons with disabilities in your organization? Please respond to the best of your knowledge even
no disabled persons are employed. (Please circle your response.)
a.

cost of accommodation

Major Barrier
1

b.

cost of training

additional cost of supervision

attitudinal/stereotyping

f.

lack of knowledge about which

accommodation is/are needed

Major Barrier

lack of requisite skills and training

Major Barrier

g.

lack of related experience in

managing disability issues

204

Minor Barrier
4

Minor Barrier
4

Minor Barrier
4

Minor Barrier

Major Barrier
1

Minor Barrier

Major Barrier
1

e.

Major Barrier
1

d.

Major Barrier
1

c.

Minor Barrier
2

Minor Barrier
4

h.

lack of education that encompassed

disability topics

Minor Barrier

Major Barrier
1

Thank you very much for your co-operation and assistance.

205

APPENDIX C

SETTING UP OF STANDARDISED VALUES OF RkNMNGS FOR

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
The Malaysian and American rankings of barriers to employment were standardised so
that a graphical representation will display higher rankings at higher levels. The
formula used is: Standard Value of Rank = Inverse of Rank x 100. The values obtained
are shown in the table below:
o

Setting up of Standardised Values of Rankings for Figure 5.1 (Page 165).

Barriers to Employment of
Disabled People: Malaysia & USA

Ranking Standardised
Values of
for
ranking for
USA
USA

Ranking Standardised
for
Values of
ranking
for
Malaysia
Malaysia

Lack of related experience

100.00

100.00

Lack of required skills/training

50.00

50,00

Cost of supervision

16.67

33.33

Attitudes/stereotypes

25.00

25.00

Supervisor knowledge of
accommodation / Lack of
knowledge about accommodation
issues
Cost of training

33.33

20.00

14.29

16.67

Cost of accommodations

20.00

14.29

206

APPENDIX D

An Introduction to the Models of Disability

The evolution of models of disability is traced from the late 1 940s to the present. The

progression of models is discussed from the works of Vic Finkelstein who presented

them at a workshop organised for the 'Breaking The Moulds' conference in

Dunfermline, Scotland, on 16-17 May 1996. He discussed the evolution of disability
models along four approaches:

(a) the Classic Model of Disability and Intervention,

(b) the Administrative Model of Disability and Intervention,
(c) the Equal Rights Model of Disability and Intervention, and
(d) the Social Model of Disability and Intervention.

Characteristics of the Individual or Medical Model of Disability are shown through

the first two models of Finkelstein, i.e.

the Classic Model of Disability and

Intervention, as well as the Administrative Model of Disability and Intervention. As

for the characteristics of the Social Model of Disability, they are exhibited through the

last two models of Finkelstein, i.e. the Equal Rights Model of Disability and
Intervention, as well as the Social Model of Disability and Intervention.

Care must be taken to follow the internal relationships when examining these four
models of Finkeistein since he has embedded further models (more in the fashion of
modules) within each of the four models.

Finkelstein (1996, p.1) began his presentation of his models of disability by

cautioning the audience that:
Models should not be confused with theories or hypothesis, which do attempt

to reveal the inner, or hidden, laws governing the nature of things and
relationships. Models, on the other hand, work best when they are used as
tools to give us insight into situations which otherwise are difficult to begin
explaining.

207

(a)

The Classic Model of Disability and Intervention

Finkelstein (1996) explains that the key components of this model, which were in

place by the late 1 940s, are disablement, impairment, intervention, cure, care,
disability and handicap (Figure 1.1). Disablement is used as 'a global term which is

meant to include all the physical and mental aspects of both disability and
impairment, as well as the personal and social components' (Finkeistein 1996, p.1).

DISABLEMENT

INTERVENTION

-p

Figure D. 1:

The Classic Model of Disability and Intervention

Source: Adaptedfrom overhead 1,

Modelling Disability" by Vic Finkelstein, 1997

In almost all situations, as soon as disablement is identified, it is the impairment that

gets the first concern. Once the impairment is identified, then various forms of
intervention are selected to cure the impairment through medical or therapeutic
208

methods. Finally, when all the cure options are exhausted, then care approach begins.
The interventions are generally focused on the impairment.

Thus, rehabilitation became the dominant medical approach to support impairment,

disability and handicap. However, the personal and social components were mainly

neglected because the disabled person's identity had been reduced to a number of
health problems.

Concern for impairment (with its associated disability and handicap) activates
interventions (for cure or care) resulting in two areas of emphasis: disability and
intervention. These areas lead to the formation of the next model

the Administrative

Model of Disability and Intervention.

(b)

The Administrative Model of Disability and Intervention

The Administrative Model of Disability and Intervention consists of two main models

side by side: the Model of Disability and the Model of Intervention. The former
consists of one sub-model, the Social Death Model which is made up of two further
models - the Individual Deficit Model and the Medical Model. The latter, the Model

of Intervention, consists of one sub-model, the administrative model, with two

components - the Welfare Model and the Rehabilitation model (Figure 1.2).

The Social Death Model emerged when disabled people were segregated from society

and placed into residential accommodation, whereby the disabled people were
transformed into non-social beings (social death), where chosen interventions were

administered towards the passive disabled person by others. This gave rise to the
Administrative Model.

209

O'ENTION

EOFSABI'
SOCIAL DEATH MODEL

ADMINISTRATIVE MODEL

A "HEALTHY LIVING" CULTURE

Figure D. 2:

and

A "CRADLE TO GRAVE"
CULTURE

The Administrative Model of Disability and Intervention: Dependent

Secure in the Welfare State

Source: Adaptedfrom overhead 2, 'Modelling Disability" by Vic Finkelstein, 1997

The Welfare Model of Intervention counter-balances the Individual Deficit Model to

provide compensatory "care" for deficit concerns. The Rehabilitation Model of

Intervention joins forces with the Medical Model to steer medical intervention
approaches. Finkeistein (1996, p.8) notes that '...the development of the rehabilitation
specialism explicitly for the treatment of disabled people in the health service context

is a significant reminder of just how isolated disabled people are from all mainstream

statutory and voluntary provision.' Thus, the Social Death Model is embedded in a

culture of "healthy living" where disability is seen as a health issue and 'the
prevention of disability very easily becomes the global catchphrase for this cultural

approach to disability and, of course, euthanasia becomes increasingly significant

within this culture' (Finkeistein, 1996, p.8).

210

The Administrative model lies in the "cradle to grave" cultural approach which views
the disabled people as recipients of life-long assistance from others. The population is
viewed to be dependent but secure in this welfare state.

Nevertheless, the disabled users of health and welfare services were disenchanted

with cultures of the welfare state; they begun a search for alternative systems and
found one in the Equal Rights Model of Disability and Intervention, which, while
maintaining individualised intervention services of the earlier model, also brought in
citizen- participation in society.

(c)

The Equal Rights Model of Disability and Intervention

Finkelstein refers to the Equal Rights Model as today's model where significant
elements defining disability and providing services are retained from the earlier
model. This model is designed for the integration of disabled people into society

the

presence of disabled people in the local community is more accepted and for equal

rights of disabled people, their individuality, and diverse needs. Thus, this model

seems best suited for creating equal opportunities for employment, among other
things.

The Equal Rights Model of Disability and Intervention consists of two main models,

side by side: the Model of Disability and the Model of Intervention, similar in
structure to the earlier model. The Model of Disability consists of one sub-model, the

Disabling Barriers Model, which is made up of two further models the Restricted

Citizen Model and the Dysfunctional Model. The Model of Intervention consists of
one sub-model, the Care in the Community Model which has two components the
Independent Living Model and the Bioengineering Model (Figure 1.3).

211

MODEL OF DISABILITY
I

Disabling Barriers Model

I

Care in the Community

Model

HH

Restricted
Citizen Model

Dysfunctional
Model

..

An "Equal Opportunity" Culture

I

Figure D3:

Independent
Living Model

A "Person Centred" Culture

I

The Equal Rights Model of Disability and Intervention: Independent

but insecure in the Chartered State

Source: Adaptedfrom overhead 3, "Ivlodelling Disability" by Vic Finkelstein, 1997

The Disabling Barriers Model views disabled people not as stereotyped individuals

who 'are unable to function, who deviate from the normal, or who naturally have a
poor quality of life, but they are viewed as citizens who are prevented from realising

their personal and civil rights that are supposed to be common to all people'
(Finkelstein 1999, p.10). The Care in the Community Model of intervention counter-

balances the Disabling Barriers Model by focusing on problems of citizenship rights

rather than those related to the individual. This results in the enablement of the
disabled people to "live in" the community and to be involved in service
development.

The Disabling Barriers Model's approach impacts the welfare and health rights by

creating two inner models: the Restricted Citizen Model (where disabled people
should be treated as equal citizens but their rights are restricted by environmental and

social barriers that have evolved over the years) and the Dysfunctional Model (where

impairments are considered as personal and not social). As for interventions to

balance the disabling barriers, the Care in the Community Model provides within it
212

two more models, namely the Independent Living Model (provides guide for social

services) and the Bioengineering Model (provides right of access to interventions

such as surgery, genetics and the declining field of rehabilitation). The interventions

of these two sub-models are primarily concerned with supporting the disabled
individual achieve self-sufficiency, autonomy, physical perfection and competitive
skills, to name a few, alongside non-disabled people. Thus, the two models under the

main Disability Model, i.e. the Restricted Citizen Model and the Dysfunctional
Model, form an "equal opportunity" culture.

Intervention services still focus on the individual, but 'citizen participation replaces
the passivity that was expected from the population dependent upon 'cradle to grave'
services. In this climate, then, a "person centred" culture emerges (Finkelstein 1996,
p. 13). Therefore, in the Equal Rights Model, independence is the ultimate objective

and insecurity is the price. An overall balance of the entire system is achieved by
laws, regulations, standards, rules, codes of practice and charters. Thus, in this model,
the disabled people are independent but insecure in the chartered state.

The Equal Rights Model seems to reflect the present state of affairs of the disability
environment. When examining opportunities such as for the employment for disabled

persons, this model may bring about equity in the quest for jobs due to its inherent
provision of competitive independence for all citizens.

(d)

The Social Model of Disability and Intervention

Finkelstein (1996, p. 15) calls the Social Model of Disability as tomorrow's model

and explains that its purpose '...is to avoid the artificial separation between our
[disabled

living situation (models of disability) and what support we need

(models of intervention)'. According to him, such divisions were put in place when

one group of people exerts power over others in the allocation of resources to meet
their needs.

'Welfare State services were constructed within cast-iron boundaries between

statutory provision for disabled people and people with abilities'; he explains
(Finkeistein 1996, p. 17). Finkelstein adds that 'the Chartered State maintains these
213

boundaries while employing the legal profession to manage and supervise policing the
boundaries

...'

(Finkeistein 1996, P.

17). For this reason, the model's dynamic

approach will stress on "lifestyles" rather than "needs" or "services", which used to

divide the disabled people into diagnostic categories (such as in the World Health
Organisation classificatory system of disablement) where each of these categories
then becomes the concern of a different professional worker.

The "lifestyle" concept gives rise to the Interactive Diversity in Lifestyles Model,

which assumes the combined role of both the models of disability and models of
intervention. The Interactive Diversity in Lifestyles Model is composed of two sub-

models, the Diverse Interactive Model, and the Resource Consultant Model. The

former model consists of two other models, namely, the Diverse Lifestyles and
Diverse Illness. The Resource Consultant Model is also made up of two models,
namely, the National Amelioration Service, and the National Medical Service (Figure
1.4).

Resource Consultancy Model provides access to knowledge workers who can be

consulted about appropriate resources required in overcoming disabling barriers faced

by the disabled population. This will help erode the rigid boundaries between
inappropriate models of disability and intervention, thereby freeing professionals so
that they can provide holistic social services.

214

INTERACTIVE DIVERSITY IN LIFESTYLES

I

Diverse Interactive Model

I

Resource Consultant Model

I

A National

Amelioration
I

Service

I
I

I
I

A National
Medical Service

,
I

I
I
I

I
I

Figure D4.

An

"Aspirational" Culture

The Social Model of Disability and Intervention: Independent and

secure in the Integrated State

Source: Adaptedfrom overhead 4, "Modelling Disability" by V/c Finkelstein, /997

Diverse lifestyles interpret social functioning to include all humans, out of which the

disabled people form one of the many equal but diverse groups. The result is that the
importance of disability models diminishes.

The Diverse Lifestyles model thus interacts with the National Amelioration Service
whose goal is to improve human life and to help achieve personal aspirations, not just

for the disabled persons, but for all people. The diverse illnesses that the disabled
people may contract in their lifetime are managed by the National Medical Service,
whose concern range from cure to mitigation of illness. Thus, most physiotherapy and

all occupational therapy could be integrated in new professions located in the

community to be managed by National Amelioration Services (in Centres for
Integrated Living, set up by disabled people). As a consequence, the Medical Model
of Disability would cease to exist.

215

In conclusion, this model reflects a new society in which (a) all people have equal

access to national medical and amelioration services which allow them to be

independent and secure in the integrated state, and (b) the goals set by the disabled
people would be respected; a multiplicity of services would support everyone realise

their aspirations without being disabled by the values and structure of a society
designed for able-bodied living. This is a departure from the values of the Welfare
State that created dependency among disabled people. It is also a departure from the
competitive independence provided in the Chartered State. This model of Interactive

Diversity in Lifestyles, enables disabled people to take a leading role in the creation
of a more humane society.

Vic Finkeistein's models have introduced most of the pressing issues found in the
present disability environment. The first two models of Finkeistein produced a set of
issues that dealt with impairment and its associated care and cure, in addition to issues

of welfare and rehabilitation for the disabled people. The models fit into the attributes

of the Individual (or Medical) Model of Disability. The second and third models of
Finkeistein produced a set of issues dealing with integration of disabled people into
the society, their rights, access to independent living, respect for their goals and equal
access. These two models, therefore, become part of the Social Model of Disability.
Table Dl:

The Individual and Social Models of Disability

Social model

Individual/Medical model
o
o
o
o
o

Personal tragedy theory

Personal problem
Individual treatment
Medicalization
Professional dominance

o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Expertise

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Individual identity
Prejudice

Care
Control
Policy

Individual adjustment

Social oppression theory

Social problem
Social action
Self-help
Individual and collective
responsibility
Experience
Collective identity
Discrimination
Rights
Choice
Politics
Social change

Source: adaptedfrorn Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare, 1999: Table 2.2, p.30

216

The salient points from the two models of disability are contrasted against each other
to illustrate the radical implications ushered in by the social model of disability (Table

Dl).
These models of disability explain the disability phenomenon in practical terms to

foster a clearer understanding of its causes and effects. Such an understanding of

disability helps in the formulation of appropriate measures and their implementation
towards the building of improved environment for the disabled population.