EXPERIMENT NO.

:
DATE:

FAMILIRIZATION OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

AIM
To familiarize with electronic components
EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED
Active and passive components
THEORY
Basic components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, light
emitting diodes (LED) and transistors can be divided into 2 categories.
i. Passive components like resistors, capacitors and inductors.
ii. Active components like diodes, transistors and ICs.
The electric/electronic components having signal processing capabilities like
amplification, rectification, modulation etc. are called active components
and those do not have these capabilities may call passive components. Most
of the active components may require biasing voltge for proper operation.
Passive Components
Resistors
In general, the resistors are the components which offers electric resistance.
Resistance is the property of a substance, which opposes the flow of an
electric current through it. Resistance is measured in ohms (). They allow
current conduction in either direction.
The resistors are broadly classified as shown in the figure 1 below.

Fixed resistors are the resistors whose electrical resistance value cannot be
adjusted whereas for variable resistors whose electrical resistance value can
be adjusted as per requirement by adjustable component attached to it is
called variable resistors. Fixed resistors and variable resistors are classified
as shown in table 1.
Main specifications of a resistor are Nominal value, power rating and
tolerance. Nominal value represents the resistance value of a resistor. Power

rating maximum power that the resistor can dissipate safely. Beyond this,
the temperature rise would be so high as to damage the resistor. Tolerance
indicates the maximum deviation in the resistance from its nominal value. It
is expressed as a percentage of its nominal value.
Resistor Colour codes
Instead of printing the nominal value and tolerance of a resistor directly on its body, a coding
method by different colours are usually used.
a. 4 band colour code system.
b. 5 band colour code system.

CAPACITORS

Capacitor consists of two metal plates kept a part by an insulating material

between the plates. It is used to store and release charge when desires. A
capacitor offers low impedance to AC and high impedance to DC. Due to this
property capacitors are used to couple the AC signal from one circuit to
another at the same time blocking DC and it is used for signal generation,
tuning, filtering etc.
Charge stored depends on 1. Capacitance of the capacitor
2.
Voltage applied across it. Q = CV
A
C

For a parallel plate capacitor ,

where = dielectric const. A=Area under dielectric and d = thickness of
dielectric material

1
CV 2
2
Energy

stored in the capacitor,

E

Specifications of Capacitor
Value of capacitance and Voltage rating. Voltage rating of capacitor is the
max. voltage that can be applied across it. It depends on breakdown
strength of the dielectric material thickness of the dielectric material.
These two specs are generally printed on cap body by Direct printing and
Colour coding.

Capacitors

Fixed capacitors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Paper capacitor
Ceramic capacitor
Mica capacitor
Polymer film capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitors

1. Mechanically Variable Capacitor

a. Linear b. Rotary c. Trimmer
2. Electrically Variable Capacitor

Electrically Variable Capacitor

i) Electrolytic capacitor
The important characteristic of electrolytic capacitor is that they have
polarity. They posses positive and negative electrodes. Electrolytic
capacitor consists of aluminium foil electrodes with an aluminium
oxide film covering one side. Aluminum plates serve as electrodes and
oxide as dielectric. The oxide is in contact with a paper saturated with
an electrolyte. The electrolyte forms the second plate of the capacitor.
Another layer of aluminium without oxide coating is also provided for
making electrical contact between one of the terminals and
electrolyte.

ii) Ceramic capacitor

Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium
and barium as dielectric. This type of capacitor consists of a ceramic
disc with silver or copper plating deposited on opposite faces of the
ceramic leads are attached to these plates.
INDUCTORS
Inductance is the property of inductors by which it opposes any change in
the current flowing through it. When current flows through a coiled wire, an
emf will be generated, which will oppose the flow of current.
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer consists of two inductors having the same core. Transformers
are used to increase or decrease the amplitude of an AC voltage, keeping the
frequency of the signal same. It works on the principle of mutual induction.
The input winding is called primary winding and output winding is called
secondary winding. In step up transformers, the number of turns in
primary winding is less than that of secondary winding. In step down
transformers the number of turns in secondary is less than that of primary
winding.
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Semi conductor diode
It is also called pn junction diode. It is fabricated by joining together p-type
and n-type semiconductor which conducts currents in one direction only.
The lead attached to p-type is called anode and the lead attached to n-type
is called cathode. Polarity of the leads is indicated on the diodes.
Zener diode
Zener diode makes use of Zener breakdown phenomena. In forward bias
mode, it functions as ordinary diode. In the reverse bias mode, it conducts a
particular voltage and the voltage across the zener remains constant. Zener
diodes are used as voltage regulators.
LED Light Emitting diode
When a pn junction diode is forward biased electron-hole recombination
take place and energy is released in the form of light. Colour of light is
varied by using different impurities by doping.
Transistors
It is basically a Si or Ge crystal containing three separate layers. It is also
being considered as two diodes connected back to back. Transistors are of 2

types: npn and pnp and the three layers are emitter, base, collector. The
middle portion is base and the collector layer made larger than emitter.
These are also called bipolar junction- transistors or BJT. The emitter is
heavily doped and base lightly doped.
JFET
It is a uni polar device. Conduction of current takes place either due to
holes or electrons. It has 4 terminals;
i) Source(S)
ii) Drain(D)
iii) Gate(G) and
iv) Shield or substrate(s).
It is of two types: n-channel and p-channel.
RESULT
Familiarized with electronic components.

EXPERIMENT NO. :
DATE:

TESTING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

AIM:
To test electronic components using multimeter
EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor, JFET and Multimeter.

THEORY:
1. Test a Resistor with a Multimeter
Take 5 resistors of different values, a bread board or the whit prototyping area including from the bread board, a suitable digital
multimeter with ohms measurement capability.
Start with the probe set to the highest value of resistance, and work
your way down to get the most accurate reading.
1) Test 5 different resistors from your kit and, one by one, place them in
the bread board.
2) Make sure you have the resistors oriented so that you can easily get
your multimeter probe tips to make a solid connection.
3) First use the colour chart to read and compute the value of the
resistor and the tolerance and write them down below in the blank
spaces to the left notated A,B,C etc
4) Now use your multimeter to read the same resistor you calculated
using the colors and write the value in the column to the right of the
column you wrote the value in. Compare your multimeter value to the
color chart value.
2. Test a Capacitor with a Multimeter
To check a capacitor with multimeter, set on the ohmmeter setting, by
taking the capacitors resistance, we can determine whether the
capacitor is good or bad.
To do this test, take the ohmmeter and place the probes across the
leads of the capacitor. The orientation doesnt matter, because
resistance isnt polarized, if read a low resistance (near 0 ) across the

capacitor, it means capacitor is defective. If read a high resistance

(near M ) across the capacitor, it means capacitor is defective. A
normal capacitor would have a resistance value between the two
extremes, i.e., 0 and 100 M.
Test a Capacitor with a Multimeter in capacitance setting
Read the capacitance on the exterior of the capacitor and take the
multimeter probes and place them on the leads of the capacitors,
polarity doesnt matter. It should read a value near the capacitance
rating of the capacitor. Due to the tolerance, it may read a little less in
value than the capacitance of the rating. If it is a significantly lower
capacitance or none at all, it means capacitor is defective.
3. How to Test a Diode
Test a diode with the Ohmmeter of a Multimeter
To check a diode with multimeter set to the ohmmeter setting, take
the ohm meter and place it across the leads of the diode. The
orientation is very important.
Anode-Cathode Resistance Test of Diode
First take the ohmmeter and place the positive probe on the anode of
the diode (the black part of the diode) and the negative probe on the
cathode (the silver strip). In this setup the diode should read a
moderately low resistance, may be a few tens of thousands or low
hundreds of thousands of ohms.
Cathode Anode Diode Resistance Test
Now take the ohmmeter and switch the probe around so that the
positive probe of the multimeter is now on the cathode of the diode
and negative lead on the anode. In this setup now the diode should
read a much high resistance over 1M . It may even indicate 0L for
an open circuit, since the resistance is so high.
If you read a moderately low resistance on the diode one way and high
resistance with the other, this is a sign that the diode is good. A diode
should relatively low resistance in the forward biased direction and
very high resistance in the reverse biased direction.
4. Test a Transistor with a Multimeter
First set the multimeter on the transistor testing mode. Now take the
leads of the multimeter and connect it to the leads of the transistors,
the negative terminal to the negative lead and positive lead to positive
terminal. There will be a reading in multimeter. Now connect the
negative lead to the other negative terminal. Again the multimeter
shows a reading. The reading in the both the cases are almost equal.

5. Test JFET with Diode mode

Step I
Connect digital multimeter positive lead to GATE, negative lead to
DRAIN. Display reading shows 0.715V.negetive test lead to SOURCE.
Display reading shows 0.7030 V.
Step II
Connect the negative test lead of the digital multimeter to GATE.
Positive test lead of the digital multimeter to DRAIN. Display leading
shows 0L (0L means over load). Connect the positive test lead of the
digital multimeter to the SOURCE. Display reading shows 0L.
6. Testing of Transformers
Transformers are nothing but two coils wound on an iron core one at
primary and another at secondary. To test the condition of a
transformer, continuity of the primary and secondary windings
should be tested separetly. Each winding has a finite resistance.
Resistance is proportional to the number of turns and gauge of wire
used for winding. Its resistance can be checked using a multimeter.
Infinite resistance shows that is shorted.
RESULT
Testing of electronic components (resistor, capacitors, diode, transistor,
JFET, transformer) using Multimeter completed

EXPERIMENT NO. :
DATE:

FAMILIRIZATION OF CABLES
AIM
To familiarize different types of cables
EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED
Different types of cables
THEORY
There are many different types of electronics cable that can be used in
electronics equipment. Much of it comprises a single wire covered with
insulation, but other types of wire are also used in large quantities.
The type of electronics cable or wire required depends upon the
application. Some may require to be screened whereas others may need
several wires in parallel to carry a data bus. Of course there are also many
other types of wire that can be used according to the application.
Types of Cables
There are several types of electronics cable or wire that can be used in
electronics construction. Some of the major types are outlined below:
Connecting wire

RF coaxial feeder

Screened cable
Ribbon cable
Data cable

Each of these types of electronics cable or wire is used in a different type of

application. By using the correct type of electronics cable it is often possible
to save a considerable amount of time during the electronics construction
phase of a project, or ensure that the right performance is obtained.
Electronics connecting wire
This type of wire is normally thought of as being a single wire covered
in some form of insulation. It is normally used for point to point

connections, or a variety of wires may be used for different connections.

Under these circumstances the wires may be bundled together in a wiring
loom.
RF Coaxial feeder
RF coaxial cable is used to carry radio frequency signals. The cable is
designed specifically for radio signals and its properties enable it to carry
them with a minimum amount of loss.
As the name implies a coax or coaxial feeder consists of concentric
circular layers. The inner most layer is a circular cross section conductor.
Outside this is an insulating dielectric which spaces the inner conductor
from an outer shielding conductor. This is normally in the form of a braid.
The outermost layer is a protective sheath.
The coaxial cable transmits radio frequency signals from one location
to another with a minimum level of loss. The signal propagates along the
cable and is confined within the outer conductor which is normally a braid.
In this way no power can escape or additional signals be picked up.
Coax cable is the most widely used form of feeder for RF signals.
Although other forms of feeder are used in some circumstances, coax is very
convenient and easy to use and is tolerant of being taken through a variety
of environments. An RF feeder has what is known as characteristic
impedance - this is the impedance a source would see if it fed its power into
an infinitely long length of the feeder. To obtain maximum power transfer,
the source impedance of the generator, the characteristic impedance of the
feeder and the impedance of the load should all be the same. The most
common values for impedance of RF coax cable is 50 ohms (used for
commercial / industrial RF applications as well as CB and ham radio) and
75 ohms which is the standard for domestic television and hi-fi antenna
systems.
Screened cable
Screened cable is very different to coaxial cable in its properties. It
cannot be used for carrying radio frequency signals as its properties are not
commensurate with this application.
Typically screened cable is used for applications where one or more
wires needs to have a screen to protect it from stray radiation. It is widely
used for low level audio and may be used for microphones, and even for
connections between phono plugs for audio systems.
For some audio applications, two wires may be used to provide a
balanced system where neither wire is earthed. This additionally helps
ensure that any pickup is reduced. If any signals are picked up, then they

will appear on both lines and the input to the amplifier will not see these - it
should only respond to any differences between the two lines. However an
additional screen ensures that the maximum amount of immunity to stray
pick-up is provided.
Data cable
With the large usage of computers and computer technology, there is
an increasing requirement to send data from one point to another. There are
many types of data cable in use.
The main requirement of a data cable is that it must be able to transfer data
over the length with the minimum number of data errors at the receiving
end. This means that there must be a minimum of radiation of the signal
and pick-up of interference and also the waveform must remain intact. To
achieve this a twisted wire format is normally used. This protects the wire
from stray pick-up and radiation while still enabling the waveform to travel
along it intact.
A variety of forms of data cable assembly can be bought ready made
up. RS232 cables are often available along with other types. Possibly the
most widely used cable these days is for Ethernet style applications and the
"Cat 5" or "Cat 5e" formats are easily available at very competitive process.
These cables can be used for many of the computer network style
connections.
Cable

Port

How it's used

Transmits data at various
speeds.
USB 1.0 @ up to 12MB/second
USB 2.0 @ up to
480MB/second
USB 3.0 @ up to 5GB/second
USB cables are backward
compatible, but a 3.0 cable is
required to get 3.0 speeds.
Transmits data and delivers
power (USB 1.0 does not deliver
power). Commonly seen on
devices with permanently
attached cables.
Example: A keyboard to a PC.

Transmits data and delivers

power to peripherals.
Example: A printer to a PC

Transmits data and delivers

power to smaller devices. MiniA has been superseded and is
no longer being used for new
devices.
Example: A digital camera to a
printer
Transmits data and delivers
power to smaller devices.
Example: A digital camcorder to
a PC
Transmits data and delivers
power to portable devices.
Similar width to mini USB but
approximately half as thick.
Example: A smartphone to a PC
Transmits data and delivers
power to portable devices.
Similar width to mini USB but
approximately half as thick.
Example: A PDA to a PC
Transmits high-speed data. A
branch of the Serial ATA
interface. Faster than FireWire
and USB 1.0 and 2.0.
Example: An external hard drive
to a PC
Transmits high-speed data. The
six-pin version delivers power;
the four-pin does not. FireWire
is also called i.LINK and
IEEE1394. Faster than USB 1.0
and 2.0.
Example: A digital camcorder to

a PC
Transmits high-speed data on
local area networks (LANs),
including Internet and intranet
networks.
Example: A PC to a router
Transmits faxes and data on
local area networks via phone
line. Much slower than
Ethernet.
Example: A PC to a fax machine.
Transmits and protects
copyrighted digital video and
audio at speeds up to
4.9GB/second, with a refresh
rate fast enough for 1080p
video.
Example: A DVD player to an
HDTV.
Transmits and protects
copyrighted digital video and
audio at speeds up to
10.2GB/second, with a refresh
rate fast enough for 1080p and
3D video.
However, HDMI 1.3 will display
3D content in 1080i and 1.4
will display 3D in full 1080p.
Example: A 3D Blu-ray player to
a 3D-capable HDTV.
Transmits and protects
copyrighted digital audio and
video with bi-directional
communication.
Example: A PC to an HD monitor
Transmits and protects
copyrighted digital audio and

video with bi-directional

communication for smaller
devices.
Example: A laptop to an HD
monitor.
DVI-D transmits digital video
without audio.
DVI-I transmits digital and
analog video without audio.
Example: An HD tuner to an
HDTV
Transmits video and comes in
standard definition and high
definition (HD). Higher quality
than S-video and composite.
Example: A DVD player to an
HDTV
Transmits video as two separate
signals: lumen (luminance) and
chroma (color). Higher quality
than composite but cannot
deliver HD video.
Example: A video game console
to a TV
Transmits analog video. Cannot
be used for HD or digital video.
Example: A DVD player to a TV
Transmits analog video from a
PC to a monitor or TV.
Example: A laptop PC to a
monitor

Transmits digital audio.

Example: Stereo speakers to a
receiver

Transmits digital audio.

Example: A video game console
to a receiver

Transmits up to six specific

audio channels (such as left,
right, center, left surround,
etc.) from your DVD player to
an external device.
Example: A DVD player to a
receiver
Transmits left and right
channel audio.
Example: Stereo speakers to a
receiver

Transmits analog audio.

Example: A subwoofer to a
home theater system