WHAT ARE ATOMS?

Atoms are the fundamental structure of matter.

Inside the nucleus, there are two types of subatomic particles of equal weight:
protons and neutrons.
Protons: positively charged
Neutrons: uncharged
Electrons: lighter + negatively charged
They also orbit the atomic nucleus.
An atom has an equal amount of electrons and protons and is electrically neutral.
The atoms that occur naturally form the structural unit of an element.
An element is a substance that isnt broken down or converted to other substances
by ordinary chemicals.
Atomic number-number of protons in the nucleus
Each element has unique chemical properties due to number of subatomic
particles.
Ex: Oxygen and hydrogen are gases at room temperature, lead is a dense solid.

Element

Symbol

Atomic
Number

Percent in
Universe

Percent in
Earth

Percent in Human
Body

Hydrogen

91

0.14

9.5

Helium

He

Trace

Trace

Carbon

0.02

0.03

18.5

Nitrogen

0.04

Trace

3.3

Oxygen

0.06

47

65

Sodium

Na

11

Trace

2.8

0.2

Magnesium

Mg

12

Trace

2.1

0.1

Phosphorus

15

Trace

0.07

Sulfur

16

Trace

0.03

0.3

Chlorine

Cl

17

Trace

0.01

0.2

Potassium

19

Trace

2.6

0.4

Calcium

Ca

20

Trace

3.6

1.5

Iron

Fe

26

Trace

Trace

Isotopes-when atoms of the same element have different numbers of neutrons.

 Some isotopes are radioactive-they break apart, forming different atoms and
releasing energy.
Electrons repel one another but are attracted to the positively charged protons.
Electron shells-the electrons orbits correspond to different energy levels
Electron shell closest to the atomic nucleus-only holds 2 electrons
Second electron cell-only holds 8 electrons
Electrons usually fill the shell closest to the nucleus and then occupy the next
shell.
The nucleus provide stability while the electron shells allow bonds with other
atoms.
Even though the nucleus is stable, the electron shells are dynamic as atoms bond
together by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.

HOW DO MOLECULES INTERACT TO FORM MOLECULES?

Molecules are made up of atoms that bond together.
When two different atoms bond to create a molecule, that molecule is called a
compound.
Atoms with completely full or empty valence shells will not react to other atoms.
These atoms are referred to as stable or inert.
Atoms will only bond when their outermost electron shell or valence shell, is
partially full. These atoms are referred to as unstable or reactive.
To become stable, an atom uses chemical bonds (gaining, losing and sharing
electrons).
Making and breaking chemical bonds to form new substances, or chemical
reactions, are essential to life.
Three major types of chemical bonds: covalent bonds, ionic bonds and hydrogen
bonds.

COVALENT BONDS
Sharing of electron pairs; strongest bond
Some examples include hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and water (HO)
Equal sharing of electrons are nonpolar; unequal sharing is polar
A nonpolar covalent bond consists of atoms with similar charges and
electrons that spend equal time near each nucleus. The bond is
symmetrical and each pole of the molecule is neutral.
A polar covalent bond one nucleus has a larger positive charge than the
other, which attracts electrons, giving the poles different charges.

Methane molecule (nonpolar)

Water molecule (polar)
IONIC BONDS
Gaining and losing electrons; weaker bond
Common example is table salt (NaCl)
An ionic bond occurs between an atom with an almost empty outer shell
and another atom with an almost full outer shell.
The atom with an almost empty outer shell transfers an electron to the
other electron with an almost full outer shell, emptying its valence shell
and completing the other atoms valence shell.
The transfer of electrons causes the atoms to charged. Charged atoms are
referred to as ions.
With an extra electron, the atom that received the electron becomes
negatively charged. The atom that lost an electron becomes positively
charged, since the number of protons now outnumber the electrons.
The two atoms with opposite charges are attracted to each other and form
an ionic compound.

Formation of NaCl, an ionic compound.

HYDROGEN BONDS
Attractive forces between negatively charged poles and positively charged
poles; weak bond
Polar covalent bonds that have differently charged poles cause hydrogen

bonds.

WHY IS WATER SO IMPORTANT TO LIFE?

Water is an extremely good solvent
Water is a polar molecule
Hydrophilic molecules (polar molecules) have electrical attraction toward water
molecules while hydrophobic is the opposite
Liquid water has high cohesion and thus water molecules have tendency to stick
together, which produces surface tension, the ability for the water surface to
resist being broken.
Water has another property called adhesion, the tendency to stick to polar
surfaces, which allows water to move within small spaces
Water has high specific heat because it has a greater ability to resist change in
temperature and requires more energy than other substance to raise its
temperature.
To break the hydrogen bonds heat must be absorbed while heat must be released
to form hydrogen bonds
Ice is less dense than water because the water molecules in ice are arranged in a
crystal form which keep them apart from each other while water molecules in
liquid ice are jumbled up together
A small fraction of water molecule is broken into hydrogen ions and hydroxide
ions and if the amount of hydrogen ion exceeds the amount of hydroxide ions in a
substance the substance is acidic. However, if the amount of hydroxide ions
exceeds the number of hydrogen ions the substance is basic. The acidic degree is
expressed in pH scale.
Base is a substance that combines with hydrogen ions to reduce their number.
Buffer is a compound that maintains the constant pH level of a substance by
releasing or accepting hydrogen ions.