Flocculation Basin

Flocculation is the operation in which the coagulated water must be gently mixed at a propeller speed
of 15 to 20 rpm to promote the growth of the floc. Slow mixing is resorted to agglomerate the flocs to
grow to sizes in the range of 0.1 to 2.0 mm that can be removed by sedimentation. Slow mixing is the
hydrodynamic process, which results in the formation of large and readily settles able flocs by
bringing the finely divided matter into contact with the micro-flocs formed during rapid mixing.
These flocs can be subsequently removed in clarifier and the residues in filters. Flocculation typically
lasts for about 30 to 60 minutes. The flocculation basin often has a number of compartments with
decreasing mixing speeds as the water advances through the basin. This compartmentalized
chamber allows increasingly larger flocs to form without being broken apart by the mixing blades.
Macro flocs are the end product of a well-regulated coagulation and flocculation process by
converting and forming clusters of majority of the turbidity causing particles, clumps of bacteria and
particulate impurities. The floc will then settle out in the sedimentation basin, with remaining floc will
be removed in the filter. The best floc size for settling is 0.1 to 3 mm. Larger floc does not settle as
well and is more subject to breakup in the flocculation basin. Smaller floc also may not settle.
The rate at which flocculation proceeds, depends on physical and chemical parameters such as
charges on particles, exchange capacity, particle size and concentration, pH, water temperature,
electrolyte concentration, time of flocculation, size of mixing basin and nature of mixing device.
Slow mixing is meant to bring the particles to collide and then agglomerate. The rate of collision
among the particles is dependent upon the number and size of particles in suspension and the
intensity of mixing in the mixing chamber.
Gravitational or Hydraulic type Flocculator
There are two types of gravitational type baffled Flocculator in practice as follows:
1.

Horizontal flow baffled Flocculator

2.

Vertical flow baffled Flocculator

Horizontal flow baffled Flocculator

The horizontal flow flocculator consists of several around the end baffles with in between spacing of
not less than 45 cm to permit cleaning. Clear distance between the end of each baffle and the wall is
about 1.5 times the distance between the baffles, but never less than 60 cm. Water depth shall not be
less than 1.0m and the water velocity is in the range of 10 to 30 cm/s. The detention time is between
15 to 20 minutes. This type of Flocculator is well suited for very small treatment plants. It is easier to
drain and clean.
Vertical flow baffled Flocculator
This type of Flocculator is used for medium to large size treatment plants. In vertical flow baffled
Flocculator the distance between the baffles is not less than 45 cm. Clear spaces between the upper
edge of the baffles and the water surface or lower edge of the baffles and the basin bottom is almost
1.5 times the distance between the baffles. Water depth varies between 1.5 to 3 times the distance

between the baffles and the water velocity is in the range of 10 to 20 cm/ s. The detention time is
between 10 to 20 minutes.
Mechanical Flocculator
Mechanical paddle mixers in a flocculation basin with a detention time of 20 to 60 minutes are widely
used in practice. Mechanical flocculators, consist of revolving paddles connected to horizontal or
vertical shafts, driven by electric motor.
Design criteria for Mechanical flocculator are furnished below.

Detention times for flocculation = 20 to 60 minutes

Shape of the tank = Circular or rectangular

Depth of the tank = 3 to 4.5m

Total area of paddles = 10 to 25% of the vertical cross-sectional area of the tank

Velocity gradient, G = 20 to 75 / s

G x t values = 10,000 to 150,000, where t is the detention time in sec

Power consumption = 10 to 36 W /MLD

Peripheral speed of paddle = 0.2 to 0.6m/s (typical 0.4 m/s)

Velocity of flow
1.

From rapid mixing unit to flocculation basin = 0.45 to O. 9m/ s

2.

Through flocculation basin = 0.2 to 0.8 m/ s

In the conduit to transfer flocculated water to the sedimentation basin = 0.15 to 0.25 m/ min
Types of Suspended Particles in WATER
There are three types of particles which can be found in water in suspension and cause turbidity. In
the order from smallest to largest, these particles are chemicals in solution, suspended colloidal
solids, and suspended discrete solids.
Some discrete particles of sizes bigger than 0.01 mm such as silt and fine sand causing turbidity
would settle out of the water on their own by gravity, if retained for enough time. But other particles
would resist settling for days or months due to small particle size and electrical charges between
them.
Chemicals in solution have been completely dissolved in the water. They are electrically charged and
can interact with the water, so they are completely stable and will never settle out of the water.
Chemicals in solution are not visible, either with the naked eye or using a microscope, and are less
than one milli-micron (1 mil) in size. An example of a chemical in solution is sugar in water. Colloids,
also known as nonsettleable solids, do not dissolve in water although they are electrically charged.
Still, the particles are so small that they will not settle out of the water by gravity even after several
years of retention and they cannot be removed by filtration alone. Colloidal solids range between
0.001 and 0.5 micron (11) in size and can be seen only with a high-powered microscope.
Examples include bacteria, fine clays, and silts. Colloidal solids often cause colored water, such as
the tea color of swamp water.

Suspended settle able solids will settle out of water over time, though this may be so slow that it is
impractical to merely allow the particles to settle out in a water treatment plant. The particles are more
than 0.001 mm (1 /-1) in size and can be seen with a microscope or, sometimes, with the naked eye.
Examples of suspended solids include sand and heavy silts.
PURPOSE OF COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
The primary purpose of the coagulation and flocculation is to destabilize the charged colloidal
particles in water and make them to settle so as to remove turbidity from the water. In addition to
removing turbidity from the water, coagulation and flocculation process removes many bacteria which
are suspended in the water and can be used to remove color from the water.

Characteristics of Colloids

The principal phenomena that control the behavior of the colloids are zeta potential (electrostatic
force), Vander Walls forces and Brownian motion. The amount of coagulant to be added to the water
will depend on the zeta potential, a measurement of the magnitude of electrical charge surrounding
the colloidal particles. The zeta potential is the amount of repulsive force or electric charge, which
keeps the particles in the water. If the zeta potential is large, then more coagulants will be needed.
Van der Waals forces refer to the tendency of particles in nature to attract each other weakly if they
have no charge.
Once the particles in water are not repelling each other, van der Waal s forces make the particles drift
toward each other and join together into a group.
Colloids have a sufficiently small mass that collusions with molecular size particles in water will cause
constant movement of the colloids. The phenomenon of constant random movement of colloids is
known as Brownian motion. The combination of positive and negative charge, results in a neutral, or
lack of charge. As a result, the particles no longer repel each other. When enough particles have
joined together, they become floc and will settle out of the water.

Process of Coagulation
Chemistry of Coagulation and Flocculation
The chemistry of coagulation and flocculation is primarily based on electricity. Electricity is the
behavior of negatively and positively charged particles due to their attraction and repulsion. Like
charges (two negatively charged particles or two positively charged particles) repel each other while
opposite charges (a positively charged particle and a negatively charged particle) attract.

Most particles dissolved in water have negative charge, so they tend to repel each other. As a result,
they stay dispersed and dissolved or Coagulation process colloidal in the water. Addition of positively
charged particles in the coagulation process is aimed to destabilizing the colloids. So treatment
involving coagulation and flocculation is typical of surface water.
The purpose of addition of coagulant chemicals is to neutralize the negative charges on the colloidal
particles to prevent those particles from repelling each other. Coagulants due to their positive charge
attract negatively charged particles in the water.
Coagulation is a unit process of addition of coagulant chemicals to water and rapid mixing so as to
neutralize the electrical charges of the colloidal particles in the water, and allow them to come closer
and form fine clumps or micro flocs.
Types of Coagulation
TYPES OF COAGULANTS
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and coagulant aids. Primary
coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes the particles to
clump together. Chemically, coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum) or polymers.
Polymers are man-made organic compounds made up of a long chain of smaller molecules. Polymers
can be either cationic (positively charged), anionic (negatively charged), or nonionic (neutrally
charged.)
The common coagulant chemicals used are:

Aluminum Sulphate (ALUM)

Ferrous Sulfate (copperas)

Ferric Sulfate

Ferric Chloride

The choice of the coagulant to be used for any particular water should preferably be based upon
experiment on different coagulants.
Alum
One of the earliest, and still the most extensively used coagulant, is aluminum sulfate (Al/S04)3 14
HP), also known as alum. Alum is acidic with light tan to grey in color and available in blocks, lumps
and powder with a density of 1000 -1100 kg/ m3 and specific gravity of 1.25 to 1.36. Alum can be
bought in liquid form or in dry form. It is readily soluble in water. When alum is added to water, it
reacts with the water and results in positively charged ions. The ions can have charges as high as +4,
but are typically bivalent (with a charge of +2.) The bivalent ion resulting from alum makes this a very
effective primary coagulant.
Advantages and disadvantages of Alum
Advantages of alum are:

It readily dissolves with water, and

It does not cause the unsightly reddish brown staining of floors, walls and equipment like
ferric sulphate.

Disadvantages of alum are:

It is effective only at certain pH range, and

good flocculation may not be possible with alum in some waters.

Ferrous Sulphate or Copperas

Ferrous sulphate, ordinarily known as copperas, is granular acid compound and green to brownish
yellow color available in granules, crystals and lumps. This is fed usually in solution form with strength
of 4 to 8 %. The alkalinity and pH value of natural water are too low to react with copperas to form the
desired ferric hydroxide floc, because the reaction involves oxidation by the dissolved oxygen in the
water, which does not occur when pH value is less than 8.5. It is necessary, therefore, to add lime
with copperas to secure coagulation. For this reason, copperas is not used in coagulation of high
colored water, which coagulates best at pH values less than 6.0. The dose of lime required is
approximately 0.27 mg/L to react with 1.0 mg/L of copperas. Generally the floc formed by the reaction
of copperas and lime is feathery and fragile, but has a high specific gravity.
Ferric sulphate
Ferric sulphate is available as a commercial coagulant in the form of an anhydrous material that may
be transported and stored in wooden barrels. The material will dissolve readily in a limited quantity of
warm water so a special solution pot must be used with chemical feeders, in which 1 part ferric
sulphate by volume is dissolved in 2 parts water to produce a solution of about 40% strength.
Advantages of Ferrous sulphate
Ferric hydroxide is formed at low ph values, so that coagulation is possible with ferric sulphate at pH
values as low as 4.0.
Ferric hydroxide is insoluble over a wide range of pH values than aluminum hydroxide except for the
zone of 7.0 to 8.5.
The floc formed with ferric coagulants is heavier than alum floc.
The ferric hydroxide floc does not re-dissolve at high pH values.
Ferric coagulants may be used in color removal at the high pH values required for the removal of iron
and manganese and in softening of water.
Reaction between alum and natural constituents of various waters are influenced by many factors, so
it is impossible to determine accurately the amount of alum that will react with a given amount of
alkalinity. Theoretically 1 mg/L of alum reacts with 0.45 mg/L of natural alkalinity expressed as CaCO3
0.30 mg/L of 85% quicklime as CaO, and 0.35 mg/L of 95% hydrated lime as Ca(OH)3 Alum is
generally fed in solution form with 8 to 10% strength. If no alkali is added then the acidity of 1.0 mg/L
alum will lower the natural alkalinity of the raw water by 0.45 mg/L.
This lowering of natural alkalinity is desirable in most cases as the pH range for coagulation of turbid
waters being 5.7 - 8.0. The alkali required for corrosion prevention, therefore, would be added to the
filtered water, the required dose being influenced but not governed by the alum dose.
1 mg alum will produce approximately 0.26 mg of insoluble Al(OH)3 precipitates and will consume
approximately 0.51 mg of alkalinity (expressed as Ca C03)
1 mg of ferrous sulphate will produce approximately 0.64 mg of insoluble Fe (HC03)2 precipitates and
will consume 0.56 mg of alkalinity .

1 mg of ferric sulphate will produce approximately 0.54 mg of insoluble Fe(OH\ precipitates and will
consume 0.75 mg of alkalinity.
Because of the consumption of alkalinity, CO2 is produced during coagulation. The pH value may also
be lowered after the coagulation process, depending on the amount of coagulant applied and the total
alkalinity in the raw water.
Coagulant Aids
Coagulant aid is an inorganic material, when used along with main coagulant, improves or
accelerates the process of coagulation and flocculation by producing quick forming, dense and rapidsettling flocs. Coagulant aids when added increase the density to slow-settling flocs and toughness to
the flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling processes. Primary coagulants
are always used in the coagulation/ flocculation process. Coagulant aids, are generally used to
reduce flocculation time and when the raw water turbidity is very low. The particles of coagulant aids
may become negatively charged making them subject to attraction by positively charged aluminum
ions. It is especially useful for clear water with very low turbidity that does not coagulate well with
usual processes. Nearly all coagulant aids are very expensive, so care must be taken to use the
proper amount of these chemicals. In many cases, coagulant aids are not required during the normal
operation of the treatment plant, but are used during emergency treatment of water which has not
been adequately treated in the flocculation and sedimentation basin.
Common coagulant aids are
Bentonite
Calcium carbonate
Sodium silicate
Anionic polymer
Non ionic polymer
Lime is a coagulant aid used to increase the alkalinity of the water. The increase in alkalinity results in
an increase in ions (electrically charged particles) in the water, some of which are positively charged.
These positively charged particles attract the colloidal particles in the water, forming floc.
Bentonite is a type of clay used as a weighting agent in water high in color and low in turbidity and
mineral content. The bentonite joins with the small floc, making the floc heavier and thus making it
settle more quickly.
Polyelectrolyte, which are polymers containing ionisable units have been used successfully as both as
coagulant aids and coagulants but care should be taken to guard against their toxicity.
Polyelectrolyte creates extraordinary slippery surfaces when spilled on floor and are difficult to clean
up.
FACTORS INFLUENCING COAGULATION
Coagulation will be affected by changes in the waters pH, salt content, alkalinity, turbidity, and
temperature. Within the plant, mixing effects and coagulant effects will influence the coagulation/
flocculation process. The levels of pH, salts, and alkalinity in water are all ways of measuring the
amounts of positively charged particles (cations) and negatively charged particles (anions) in the

water. As al result, all three factors influence the amount of coagulants which must be used to remove
the turbidity in the water.
pH
The pH range of the water may be the single most important factor in proper coagulation. The
optimum pH range varies depending on the coagulants used, but is usually between 5 and 7. These
lower pH values mean that there are more positively charged particles loose in the water to react with
the negatively charged colloids.
Coagulation should be carried out within this optimum zone using alkalis and acids for correction of
pH where necessary. For many waters, which are low in colors and well buffered and having pH in the
optimum zone, no adjustment of pH is necessary when alum is used as coagulant. Failure to operate
within the optimum pH zone may be a waste of coagulants and may be reflected in the lowered
quality of the plant effluent.
When ferrous sulphate is used as a coagulant, the pH should be maintained above 9.5 to ensure
complete precipitation of the iron. This is done by the addition of hydrated lime. The treated water
should be corrected with the addition of carbon dioxide.
Salt
Salts are compounds which contain both a cation and an anion. In water, the cation and the anion
come apart and can interact with other charged particles in the water. All natural waters contain some
concentration of cations and anions, such as calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, manganese,
sulphate, chloride, phosphate, and others. Some of these ions may affect the efficiency of the
coagulation process.
Alkalinity of water
The alkalinity of water is related to both the pH and the salts in the water. Alkalinity is the capacity of
the water to neutralize acids, based on the waters content of carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide,
borate, silicate, and phosphate. Water with a high alkalinity is preferred for coagulation since ittends
to have more positively charged ions to interact with the negatively charged colloids. To provide
artificial alkalinity to water so as to have effective coagulation quick lime or hydrated lime are added to
water.
Quick lime
Quicklime or calcium oxide (CaO) may be used to provide artificial alkalinity to water when necessary.
Quicklime varies in quality from 75 to 99% calcium oxide (typically 85%). The slaking of quick lime
should be done carefully, as the success of the treatment depends to great extend on this process.
The slaking requires 15 - 30 minutes under optimum conditions. The slaked lime is diluted with water
and stored in solution tanks. As the calcium hydroxide formed by the slaking process is only slightly
soluble, the solution in reality a suspension of the chemical. It is therefore necessary to agitate the
contents of the tank continuously to maintain a uniform suspension.

The diluting water should be cold, because calcium hydroxide is more soluble in cold water than in
warm water. Quicklime is used in water softening plants and at large treatment plants because of its
lower cost.
Hydrated lime
Hydrated lime, also known as calcium hydroxide, is a white powder formed when quicklime is slaked
in water. It does not deteriorate when stored, does not have to be slaked, and contains fewer
impurities than most quicklime. The materials can be mixed directly in solution tanks and fed in dry
form. Hydrated lime varies in quality between about 80% and 99% (typical 95%). Because hydrated
lime is easily handled, its use is preferable in the smaller water-purification plants where lime is
required to supply additional alkalinity to the water.
The alkalinity ratio of pure calcium oxide (CaO) to pure calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is 1 : 1.32.

Coagulation Dosage
COAGULANT DOSAGE
Although there is some relation between turbidity of the raw water and the coagulant dosage, the
exact quantity can be determined only by trial. Even thus determined amount will vary with other
factors such as time of mixing and water temperature. The use of minimum quantity of coagulant to
be effective in producing good flocculation in any given water will usually require a fairly long stirring
varying from 15 to 30 minutes in summer and 30 to 60 minutes in the colder months.
Water of low turbidity with very finely divided suspended matter is more difficult to coagulate than
water with high turbidity and coarse particles, necessitating a larger quantity of coagulant.
Jar Test
The coagulant dose in the water treatment should be judiciously controlled based on the results of jar
test as the turbidity level is continuously changing. The jar test apparatus is shown below.
Jar Test Apparatus

Procedure for jar test

Analyze the collected natural surface water for pH, turbidity, and alkalinity. Record both the water
temperature at time of test and ambient air temperature.
Place water samples in one liter beakers on the six-jar laboratory stirrer and check stirrer operation.
At the start of a one minute rapid mix at 100 rpm, add coagulant solutions at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50
mg/L respectively to each of 5 beakers and use one beaker as a control
Fig. 12.2 Jar Test apparatus (i.e., no coagulant added).
Flocculate at slow mix at 15 rpm for 20 minutes. Record the elapsed time before a visible floc is
formed. If large flocs are formed, it may be desirable to reduce the paddle speed. Note the size and
appearance of the floc formed.
After flocculation, remove the paddles and allow for a settling period of 30 minutes or wait until most
of the floc is removed from suspension.
Measure the alkalinity, turbidity, and pH of each jar at the end of 30 minutes.
Select the optimum dosage on the basis of supernatant clarity and settleability of floc with secondary
considerations to cost and sludge production.
In bulk water treatment, the jar tests are repeated with varied alum dose until the ideal dose is found.
The needed dose varies with the pH of the water and the size of the particles. The usual range of
alum dose is 10 to 50 mg/L of water.
FEEDING DEVICES
A well engineered feeding device is an integral part of an effective water treatment program. If a feed
system is not designed properly, chemical control will not meet specifications, program results may be
inadequate, and operating costs will probably be excessive. Some of the costly problems associated
with poor chemical control include:

high chemical costs due to overfeed problems;

inconsistent product quality, reduced throughput, and higher steam and electrical costs in
heating system due to waterside fouling;

high corrosion rates and resultant equipment maintenance and replacement in heating
systems (i.e. plugging or replacing corroded heat exchanger tubes or bundles);

high labor costs due to an excessive requirement for operator attention.

A significant investment in a chemical feed system can often be justified when compared with the high
cost of these control problems. When a chemical feed system is not properly engineered, chemical
levels are often above or below program specifications. The use of a proper feed system can prevent
this situation. Chemical feed systems can be classified according to the components used, the type of
material to be fed (powder or liquid), the control scheme employed, and the application. Feeding of
chemical for coagulation is either through dry feeding device or wet feeding devices.
Dry Feeding Device
The chemicals can be fed into water directly by dry feeding in the powder form. Alum being fairly fine
and uniform in size can be fed easily by dry feeding. However, copperas and lime can not be fed by
dry feeding. Dry feeding devices are generally in the form of a tank with hopper bottom.

Agitating plates are placed inside the tank, so as to prevent arching of the coagulant. The coagulant in
the powder form filled in the tank, and is allowed to fall in the mixing basin. The dose is regulated by
the speed of a toothed wheel or a helical screw. The speed of the toothed wheel or the helical screw
is, in turn controlled by connecting it to a venture-device installed in the raw water pipes feeding water
to the mixing basin. The quantity of coagulant released is, thus controlled in proportion to the quantity
of the raw water entering the mixing basin. Dry feeding devices are utilized in smaller plants.
Wet Feeding Device
In wet feeding, the solution of required strength of coagulant is prepared and stored in a tank, from
where it is allowed to trickle down into the mixing tank through an outlet. The level of coagulant
solution in the feed tank is maintained constant by means of a float controlled valve, in order to
ensure a constant rate of discharge for a constant feed rate of raw water flow into the mixing basin.
When inflow of raw water changes, the rate of coagulant feed is adjusted by a conical type
arrangement. The working of a conical plug type arrangement is very simple. The mixing basin and
the float chamber are interconnected together, so that the water level remains the same in both of
them. As the rate inflow of raw water increases the depth of water in the mixing basin as well as float
chamber increases, thereby lifting the float. As the float rises, the pinion and pulley rotates in the
same direction, thereby lifting the conical plug and allowing more quantity of coagulant solution to
release to the mixing basin. When the rate of flow decreases the conical plug descends down and
reduces the feeding rate of coagulant to lower rate. Larger water treatment plants are generally use
wet feeding devices since they are costlier than dry feeding devices.
RAPID MIX OR FLASH MIX
In the flash mixer, coagulant chemicals are added to the water and the water is mixed quickly and
violently to evenly distribute the chemicals through the water. Flash mixing typically lasts for 30 to 60
see. If the water is mixed for less than 30 seconds, then the chemicals will not be properly mixed into
the water. However, if the water is mixed for more than 60 seconds, then the mixer blades will shear
the newly forming floc back into small particles. After flash mixing, coagulation occurs.
Mixing is an important unit operation where one substance must be completely intermingled with
another. In water treatment coagulant is mixed into water by rapid mixing. The process of dispersing
chemical by mixing is known as rapid mix or flash mix.
Design Criteria for Rapid Mix Tank
The detention time in rapid-mixers should provide sufficient time for complete homogenization of the
chemicals with water and also provide sufficient time for the floc to reach particle-size equilibrium.
Typical detention time for rapid mixer ranges from 20 to 60 seconds.