Contents

1.

SI UNITS ................................................................................................ 4
1.1
BASE UNITS .................................................................................. 1-1
1.2
DERIVED UNITS ............................................................................. 1-2

2.

FORCES ................................................................................................ 2-1

2.1
DEFINITION ................................................................................... 2-1
2.2
TRIANGLE OF FORCE ..................................................................... 2-1
2.2.1
Graphical Method .......................................................... 2-1
2.3
POLYGON OF FORCE ..................................................................... 2-2
2.4
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FORCES ....................................... 2-3
2.5
VECTORS ..................................................................................... 2-3
2.6
RESULTANTS ................................................................................ 2-3
2.7
EQUILIBRIUMS............................................................................... 2-3
2.8
RESOLUTION ................................................................................ 2-3
2.9
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS ................................................................. 2-4
2.10 SOLUTIONS BY CALCULATION ......................................................... 2-5
2.11 MOMENTS AND COUPLES ............................................................... 2-7
2.12 CENTRE OF GRAVITY ..................................................................... 2-8
2.13 1ST MOMENT OF AREA .................................................................... 2-11
2.14 STRESS ........................................................................................ 2-12
2.15 STRAIN ......................................................................................... 2-12
2.16 SHEAR ......................................................................................... 2-13
2.17 TORSION ...................................................................................... 2-13
2.18 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAMS .............................................................. 2-14
2.19 BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS ........................................................ 2-16

3.

ENERGY ................................................................................................ 3-1

3.1
WORK .......................................................................................... 3-1
3.2
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY .......................................................... 3-2
3.3
POWER ........................................................................................ 3-2
3.4
MOMENTUM .................................................................................. 3-2
3.5
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM ..................................................... 3-2
3.6
CHANGES IN MOMENTUM ............................................................... 3-3
3.7
IMPULSE OF A FORCE .................................................................... 3-3
3.8
INERTIA ........................................................................................ 3-3
3.9
MOMENT OF INERTIA ..................................................................... 3-3
3.10 2ND MOMENT OF AREA .................................................................... 3-4

4.

GYROSCOPES ..................................................................................... 4-1

4.1
PRINCIPLES .................................................................................. 4-1
4.2
RIGIDITY ....................................................................................... 4-1
4.3
PRECESSION ................................................................................ 4-1
4.4
TORQUE ....................................................................................... 4-1

5.

FRICTION .............................................................................................. 5-1

5.1
PRINCIPLES .................................................................................. 5-1
5.2
FRICTION CALCULATION ................................................................. 5-1

6.

KINEMATICS ......................................................................................... 6-1

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6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

PRINCIPLES .................................................................................. 6-1

6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10

VECTORS ..................................................................................... 6-2

SPEED ......................................................................................... 6-1

VELOCITY ..................................................................................... 6-1
ACCELERATION
ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
LINEAR MOTION ............................................................................ 6-3
DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH ................................................................. 6-3
VELOCITY TIME GRAPH .................................................................. 6-3
AREA ........................................................................................... 6-4
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF EQUATIONS

....................................... 6-5

7.

ROTATIONAL MOTION ........................................................................ 7-1

7.1
CIRCULAR MOTION ........................................................................ 7-1
7.2
CENTRIPETAL FORCE .................................................................... 7-1
7.3
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE .................................................................... 7-2

8.

PERIODIC MOTION .............................................................................. 8-1

8.1
PENDULUM ................................................................................... 8-1
8.2
SPRING MASS SYSTEMS .............................................................. 8-1

9.

HARMONIC MOTION ............................................................................ 9-1

10. VIBRATION THEORY ........................................................................... 10-1

11. FLUIDS.................................................................................................. 11-1
11.1 DENSITY ...................................................................................... 11-1
11.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY ........................................................................ 11-1
11.3 BUOYANCY ................................................................................... 11-1
11.4 PRESSURE ................................................................................... 11-1
11.5 STATIC AND DYNAMIC PRESSURE ................................................... 11-3
11.6 ENERGY IN FLUID FLOWS ............................................................... 11-3
12. HEAT
12.1
12.2
12.3

12-1
TEMPERATURE SCALES ................................................................. 12-1
CONVERSION................................................................................ 12-1
EXPANSION OF SOLIDS .................................................................. 12-1

12.3.1
12.3.2
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9

Linear ........................................................................... 12-2

Volumetric..................................................................... 12-2
EXPANSION OF FLUIDS .................................................................. 12-2
CHARLES LAW .............................................................................. 12-2
SPECIFIC HEAT ............................................................................. 12-3
HEAT CAPACITY ............................................................................ 12-3
LATENT HEAT / SENSIBLE HEAT ...................................................... 12-3
HEAT TRANSFER ........................................................................... 12-3

13. GASES .................................................................................................. 13-1

13.1 LAWS ........................................................................................... 13-1
13.2 RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS ............................................................. 13-1
13.3 WORK DONE BY , OR ON, A GAS...................................................... 13-2
14. LIGHT 14-1
14.1 SPEED OF LIGHT ........................................................................... 14-1
14.2 REFLECTION ................................................................................. 14-1
14.3 PLAIN AND CURVED MIRRORS ........................................................ 14-1
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14.4
14.5
14.6

................................................................................ 14-2
REFRACTIVE INDEX ....................................................................... 14-3
CONVEX AND CONCAVE LENSES ..................................................... 14-4
REFRACTION

15. SOUND .................................................................................................. 15-1

15.1 SPEED OF SOUND ......................................................................... 15-1
15.2 FREQUENCY ................................................................................. 15-1
15.3 INTENSITY .................................................................................... 15-1
15.4 PITCH........................................................................................... 15-1
15.5 DOPPLER EFFECT ......................................................................... 15-2
16. MATTER ................................................................................................ 16-1
16.1 STATES OF MATTER....................................................................... 16-1
16.2 ATOMS ......................................................................................... 16-1
16.2.1 The Structure of an Atom .............................................. 16-1
16.2.2 The Fundamental Particles ........................................... 16-2
16.2.3 Particle Function ........................................................... 16-2
16.3 PERIODIC TABLE
ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

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1. SI UNITS
Physics is the study of what happens in the world involving matter and energy.
Matter is the word used to described what things or objects are made of. Matter
can be solid, liquid or gaseous. Energy is that which causes things to happen.
As an example, electrical energy causes an electric motor to turn, which can
cause a weight to be moved, or lifted.
As more and more 'happenings' have been studied, the subject of physics has
grown, and physical laws have become established, usually being expressed in
terms of mathematical formula, and graphs. Physical laws are based on the
basic quantities - length, mass and time, together with temperature and
electrical current. Physical laws also involve other quantities which are derived
from the basic quantities.
What are these units? Over the years, different nations have derived their own
units (e.g. inches, pounds, minutes or centimetres, grams and seconds), but an
International System is now generally used - the SI system.
The SI system is based on the metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s) system.

1.1 BASE UNITS

To understand what is meant by the term derived quantities or units consider
these examples; Area is calculated by multiplying a length by another length,
so the derived unit of area is metre2 (m2). Speed is calculated by dividing
distance (length) by time , so the derived unit is metre/second (m/s). Acceleration
is change of speed divided by time, so the derived unit is:

m s s m s

(metre per second per second)

Some examples are given below:

Basic SI Units
Length

(L)

Metre

(m)

Mass

(m)

Kilogram

(kg)

Time

(t)

Second

(s)

Celsius

()

Degree Celsius (C)

Kelvin

(T)

Kelvin

(K)

Ampere

(A)

Temperature;

Electric Current (I)

Derived SI Units
Area

(A)

Square Metre

(m2)

Volume

(V)

Cubic Metre

(m3)

Density

()

Kg / Cubic Metre

(kg/m3)

Velocity

(V)

Metre per second

(m/s)

Acceleration

(a)

Metre per second per second

(m/s2)

Kg metre per second

(kg.m/s)

Momentum

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1.2 DERIVED UNITS

Some physical quantities have derived units which become rather complicated,
and so are replaced with simple units created specifically to represent the
physical quantity. For example, force is mass multiplied by acceleration, which is
logically kg.m/s2 (kilogram metre per second per second), but this is replaced by
the Newton (N).
Examples are:
Force

(F)

Newton

(N)

Pressure

(p)

Pascal

(Pa)

Energy

(E)

Joule

(J)

Work

(W)

Joule

(J)

Power

(P)

Watt

(w)

Frequency

(f)

Hertz

(Hz)

Note also that to avoid very large or small numbers, multiples or sub-multiples
are often used. For example;
1,000,000 = 106 is replaced by 'mega'
3

1,000

= 10

is replaced by 'kilo'

1/1000

= 10-3 is replaced by 'milli'

1/1000,000 = 10-6 is replaced by 'micro'

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(M)
(k)
(m)
()

Page 1-2

2. FORCES
If a Force is applied to a body, it will cause that body to move. A body that is
already moving will change its speed or direction. Note that the term 'change its
speed or direction' implies that an acceleration has taken place.
This is usually summarised in the formula;
F = ma
Where F is the force, m = mass of body and a = acceleration.
The units of force should be kg.m/s2 but this is replaced by the Newton.

2.1 DEFINITION
Hence, "A Newton is the unit of force that when applied to a mass of 1 kg. causes
that mass to accelerate at a rate of 1 m/s2.
Forces can also cause changes in shape or size of a body, which is important
when analysing the behaviour of materials.

2.2 TRIANGLE OF FORCE

Two or more forces can be added or subtracted to produce a Resultant Force.
If two forces are equal but act in opposite directions, then obviously they cancel
each other out, and so the resultant is said to be zero. Two forces can be added
or subtracted mathematically or graphically, and this procedure often produces a
Triangle of Force.
Firstly, it is important to realise that a force has three important features;
magnitude (size), direction and line of action.
Force is therefore a vector quantity, and as such, it can be represented by an
arrow, drawn to a scale representing magnitude and direction.
2.2.1 GRAPHICAL METHOD
Consider two forces A and B. Choose a starting point O and draw OA to
represent force A, in the direction of A. Then draw AB to represent force B.

The line OB represents the resultant of two forces.

Note that the line representing force B could have been drawn first, and force A
drawn second; the resultant would have been the same.

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Note how the two forces added together have formed 2 sides of the triangle; the
resultant is the third side.
Also note that if a third force, equal in length but opposite in direction to the
resultant is added to the resultant, it will cancel the effect of the two forces. This
third force would be termed the Equilabrant.

2.3 POLYGON OF FORCE

This topic just builds on the previous Triangle of Forces.
Consider three forces A, B and C. A and B can be added by drawing a triangle to
give a resultant.

If force C is joined to this resultant, a further or "new" resultant is created, which

represents the effect of all three forces.
Now this procedure can be repeated many times; the effect is to produce a
Polygon of Forces.

Again, the resultant can be derived mathematically. This will be considered in a

later topic.

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2.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FORCES

The topic dealing with Triangle of forces in effect adds and subtracts forces.
(subtraction just means that the second force is drawn in a direction such that
the resultant is smaller than the first force).
So if the forces are drawn correctly, the terms Addition and Subtraction become
un-important.

2.5 VECTORS
Again, a vector quantity is one that has magnitude and direction.
It has been seen that force is such a quantity. Velocity and acceleration are
further examples.

2.6 RESULTANTS
Resultants are created when vector quantities are added or subtracted as seen
previously.

2.7 EQUILIBRIUMS
In chapter 2.1, it was defined that a force applied to a body would cause that
body to accelerate or change direction.
If at any stage a system of forces is applied to a body, such that their resultant is
zero, then that body will not accelerate or change direction. The system of
forces and the body are said to be in the equilibrium.
Note that this does not mean that there are no forces acting; it is just that their
total resultant or effect is zero.

2.8 RESOLUTION
This topic is important, but is really the opposite to Addition of forces.
Recalling that two forces can be added to give a single force known as the
Resultant, it is obvious that this single force can be considered as the addition of
the two original forces.

Therefore, the single force can be separated or Resolved into two components.
It should be appreciated that almost always the single force is resolved into two
components, that are mutually perpendicular.

This technique forms the basis of the mathematical methods for adding forces.
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Note that by drawing the right-angled triangle, with the single force F, and by
choosing angle relative to a datum, the two components become F sin and F
cos .

2.9 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS

This topic looks at deriving graphical solutions to problems involving the Addition
of Vector Quantities.
Firstly, the quantities must be vector quantities. Secondly, they must all be the
same, i.e. all forces, or all velocities, etc. (they cannot be mixed-up).
Thirdly, a suitable scale representing the magnitude of the vector quantity should
be selected.
Finally, before drawing a Polygon of vectors, a reference or datum direction
should be defined.
To derive a solution (i.e. a resultant), proceed to draw the lines representing the
vectors (be careful to draw all lines with reference to the direction datum).
The resultant is determined by measuring the magnitude and direction of the line
drawn from the start point to the finish point.
Note that the order in which the individual vectors are drawn is not important.

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2.10 SOLUTIONS BY CALCULATION

This topic achieves the same resultant as 2.9, but by mathematical methods.
Remember the topic dealing with Resolution (2.8). One vector was resolved into
two mutually perpendicular components.

So if there are several vectors each can be resolved into two components.
e.g. F1 in direction 1, gives F1 sin 1, and F1 cos 1
F2 in direction 2, gives F2 sin 2, and F2 cos 2
F3 in direction 3, gives F3 sin 3, and F3 cos 3
etc, etc.
Once the components have been resolved, they can be added to give a total
force in the Datum direction, and a total force perpendicular to the Datum.

These additions can be done laboriously 'by hand' but the modern scientific
calculator renders this unnecessary.
Each vector should be entered and multiplied by the cosine of its direction and
added consecutively to arrive at a total, F cos .
This procedure should be repeated, by multiplying each vector by the sine of its
direction, and added consecutively to give F sin .
To calculate the Magnitude of the resultant,
Add (F sin )2 + (F cos )2

(= F2)

And find the square root of the addition (=F)

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To calculate the Direction of the resultant,

Divide (F sin ) by (F cos ) (= Tan )
and find the Angle (direction) that has that resultant,
= tan-1

F sin
F cos

Note that the values of sine and cosine take both positive and negative values,
depending on the direction.
The calculator automatically takes account of this during the procedure.
The only occasion when ambiguity can arise is when finding the angle of the
direction (there may be an error of 180). This can be resolved by inspection.
Note the following:

With reference to the ambiguity of direction,

- F sin
F sin
= (A) gives the same angle (direction) as
= (B).
F cos
-F cos
Thus, F sin and F cos have to be inspected to see which is negative. Solution
(A) or (B) can then be selected.
note that

F sin
-F sin
gives the same result as -F cos
F cos

Similarly,

Again, inspect the values of F sin and F cos to see whether both are positive
or negative.

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2.11 MOMENTS AND COUPLES

In chapter 2.1, it was stated that if a force was applied to a body, it would move
(accelerate) in the direction of the applied force.
Consider that the body cannot move from one place to another, but can rotate.
The applied force will then cause a rotation. An example is a door. A force
applied to the door cause it to open or close, rotating about the hinge-line. But
what is important to realise is that the force required to move the door is
dependent on how far from the hinge the force is applied.
So the turning effect of a force is a combination of the magnitude of the force
and its distance from the point of rotation. The turning effect is termed the
Moment of a Force.

Moment (of a force) = Force x distance

In SI units, Newton metres = Newton x metres
Note: It is important to realise that the distance is perpendicular to the line of
action of the force.
When several forces are concerned, equilibrium concerns not just the forces,
but moments as well. If equilibrium exists, then clockwise (positive) moments are
balanced by anticlockwise (negative) moments.

When two equal but opposite forces are present, whose lines of action are not
coincident, then they cause a rotation.
Together, they are termed a Couple, and the moment of a
couple is equal to the magnitude of a force F, multiplied by
the distance between them.

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2.12 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Consider a body as an accumulation of many small masses (molecules), all

subject to gravitational attraction. The total weight, which is a force, is equal to
the sum of the individual masses, multiplied by the gravitational acceleration
(g = 9.81 m/s2).
W = mg
The diagram shows that the individual forces all act in the same direction, but
have different lines of action.

There must be datum position, such that the total moment to one side, causing a
clockwise rotation, is balanced by a total moment, on the other side, which
causes an anticlockwise rotation. In other words, the total weight can be
considered to act through that datum position (= line of action).

If the body is considered in two different position, the weight acts through two
lines of action, W 1 and W2 and these interact at point G, which is termed the
Centre of Gravity.
Hence, the Centre of Gravity is the point through which the Total Mass of the
body may be considered to act.
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For a 3-dimensional body, the centre of gravity can be determined practically by

several methods, such as by measuring and equating moments, and thus is done
when calculating Weight and Balance of aircraft.
A 2-dimensional body (one of negligible thickness) is termed a lamina, which only
has area (not volume). The point G is then termed a Centroid. If a lamina is
suspended from point P, the centroid G will hang vertically below P1. If
suspended from P2 G will hang below P2. Position G is at the intersection as
shown.
A regular lamina, such as a rectangle, has its centre of gravity at the intersection
of the diagonals.

Other regular shapes have their centre of gravity at known positions, see the
table below.

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A triangle has its centre of gravity at the intersection of the medians.

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The centre of gravity can also be deduced as shown.

If the lamina is composed of a several regular shapes, the centre of gravity of that
lamina can be deduced by splitting it into its regular sections, calculating the
moments of these areas about a given datum, and then equating the sum of
these moments to the moment of the composite lamina.

Expressed as an algebraic formula,

A, X, + A2 X2 + A3 X3 = (A1 + A2 + A3)
x
Where
x is the position of the centroid, with respect to the datum.
This is the principle behind Weight and Balance.

2.13 1ST MOMENT OF AREA

In chapter 2.12, the last section introduced the formula;
A, X, + A2 X2 + A3 X3 = (ATotal)
x
The product Area x distance is termed the 1st moment of area. Any datum (and
associated distanced) can be chosen, but once chosen, must be maintained as
long as the moments are being calculated.
The principle is used for Weight and Balance calculation as already stated, but 1st
moment of area is also important in other calculations, usually involving stress
analysis.

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2.14 STRESS
When an engineer designs a component or structure he needs to know whether it
is strong enough to prevent failure due to the loads encountered in service. He
analyses the external forces and then deduces the forces or stresses that are
induced internally.
Notice the introduction of the word stress. Obviously a component which is twice
the size in stronger and less likely to fail due an applied load. So an important
factor to consider is not just force, but size as well. Hence stress is load divided
by area (size).
(sigma) =

Force
(= Newtons per second metre).
area

Components fail due to being over-stressed, not over-loaded.

The external forces induce internal stresses which oppose or balance the
external forces.
Stresses can occur in differing forms, dependent on the manner of application of
the external force.
Torsional stress, due to twist, is a variation of shear.

Bending stresses are a combination of tensile and compressive stresses.

All have the same SI unit i.e. N/m2.

2.15 STRAIN
If a length of elastic is pulled, it stretches. If the pull is increases, it stretch more;
if reduced, it contracts.
Hookes law states that the amount of stretch (elongation) is proportional to the
applied force.
The degree of elongation or distortion has to be considered in relation to the
original length. The distortion is in fact a distortion of the crystal lattice.

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The degree of distortion then has to be the actual distortion divided by the
original length (in other words, elongation per unit length). This is termed Strain.
(epsilon)

Strain =

change in dimension
original dimension

Note that strain has no units, it is a ratio and is then expressed as a percentage.

2.16 SHEAR
In chapter 2.15, different stresses were introduced, including shear stress.
Shearing occurs when the applied load causes one 'layer' of material to move
relative to the adjacent layers etc. etc.
Shear stress is still expressed as load/area but is usually represented by another

Greek symbol (tau).

Shear strain differs from direct strain. Whereas direct strain is expressed as
change in length / original length, shear strain is expressed in angular terms.
Shear strain = tangent of (gamma)
When a riveted joint is loaded, it is a shear stress and shear strain scenario.

The rivet is being loaded, ultimately failing as shown

2.17 TORSION
In chapter 2.15 Torsional stress was mentioned as a form of shear stress
resulting from a twisting action.
If a torque, or twisting action is applied to the bar shown, one end will twist, or

deflect relative to the other end.

Obviously, the twist will be proportional to the applied torque. Torque has the
same effect and therefore the same unit as a Moment, i.e. Newton metres.

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If the bar is considered as a series of adjacent discs, what has happened is that
each disc has twisted, or moved relative to its neighbour, etc, etc. Hence, it is a
shearing action.

The shear strain is equal to the angular deflection multiplied by radius r divided
by the overall length L,
r
= L

2.18 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAMS

Engineers need to consider the effect of Shear Force and Bending moments
when designing components and structures. These are often considered
graphically. In this topic, only simple, beam-type will be considered.

The beam AB is loaded with force F, and simply supported at A and B. It is in

equilibrium. Hence, the forces and the moments balance.
Taking moments about A, Reaction at B, RB balances the effect of F.
Hence

Similarly

RB. (a + b) = F.(a)
RB

a
= Fa + b

RA

b
= Fa + b

The effect of these forces is to create shear along the beam.

But

must be differentiated from

The first diagram is defined as +ve shear, the second diagram as ve shear.
This can be shown on a shear force diagram (SFD).
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Considering the beam AB, the SFD is drawn as

Note that each change to the SFD is equal to the load or force applied at that
position or point. In this diagram only concentrated or point loads exist.

Now consider an uniformly distributed load. The SFD will look like this.

Note: Point loads create BMDs that are triangular.

Distributed loads create BMDs that are curved.
(It is obviously possible to have loading patterns which are a combination of
both).

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2.19 BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

The diagram in 2.18 created shear forces, but the applied forces also create
bending.

Consider a section x x at a distance x measured from end B. Then RB creates a

moment about x x, which causes a bending effect.
The Bending moment = RB . x
As with shear force, moments causing
have to be differentiated from
moments causing
. The first case is +ve bending, the second case is ve
bending.
is commonly termed Sagging
is commonly termed Hogging.
Note that as distance x increases, the Bending moment also increases.
Variations in Bending Moment are often shown on a Bending Moment Diagram
(BMD).
Considering the beam AB, the BMD is drawn as;

Note that in this case, the BMD is all +ve (i.e. the beam is sagging everywhere)
and note also that it increases from zero as x increases to the left of B, up to a
maximum and then decreases as the effect of RB
is reduced by the effect of
F
, finally becoming zero at A.

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(Note that BMD can be treated in the same way by considering distances
measured to the right of A - the solutions are exactly the same).

A uniformly distributed load, whilst obeying the same principles, modifies the
BMD.
As x increases left of B, RB causes , but the distributed load also increases and
causes .
The BMD now looks like this.

Note: Point loads create BMDs that are triangular.

Distributed loads create BMDs that are curved.

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3. ENERGY
3.1 WORK
It has been stated that a Force causes a body (mass) to move (accelerate) and
that the greater the force, the greater the acceleration. But consider the case
where a man applied a force to move a small car. He applied a force to overcome
its inertia, and then maintains a somewhat lesser force to overcome friction, and
to maintain movement.
Now clearly he will become progressively more tired the further he pushes the
car. This suggests that there is another aspect to force and movement that must
be considered.
This introduces Work, which is defined as the product of Force x Distance (i.e.
the greater the distance, the greater the work). As with force, the derived unit of
work becomes complicated i.e. Work = Newtons x metres, and so is
replaced by a dedicated unit the Joule, defined as:
The work done when a force of 1 Newton is applied through a distance of
1 metre.
A further question arises. Work may be "done", but it doesnt just happen,
where does it come from? The answer is by expending Energy.
Energy can be thought of as stored work. Alternatively, work is done when
Energy is expended. The unit of Energy is the same as for Work, i.e. the Joule.
Energy can exist or be stored in a number of different forms, and it is the change
of form that is normally found in many engineering devices.
Energy can be considered in the following forms.
Electrical
Chemical
Heat
Pressure
Potential
Kinetic - and there are other.
They will all be expressed in Joules.
One important principle underlies the conversion of one form to another. It is
known as the Conservation of Energy, which is:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form
to another.
This allows scientific equations to be derived, after investigation and analysis
involving physical experiments.

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3.2 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

This also suggests something most of us suspect there is no such thing as a
free lunch. Put another way, you dont get anything for nothing, and very often,
you get less out than you put in. (So somewhere losses have occurred, this is
to be expected). So a comparison between work out and work in is obviously a
measure of the systems efficiency.
Efficiency =

Work output
Work input

It is usually expressed as a percentage, and so will clearly always be less than

100%..

3.3 POWER
Recalling the man pushing the car, it was stated that the greater the distance the
car was pushed, the greater the work done (or the greater the energy expended).
But yet again, another factor arises for our consideration. The man will only be
capable of pushing it through a certain distance within a certain time. A more
powerful man will achieve the same distance in less time. So, the word Power
is introduced, which includes time in relation to doing work.
Power =

Work done
Time

= Force x distance = Force x speed

time

Again, for simplicity and clarity, a dedicated unit of power has been created, the
Watt.
The Watt is the Power output when one Joule is achieved in one second.

3.4 MOMENTUM
Momentum is a word in everyday use, but its precise meaning is less well-known.
We say that a large rugby forward, crashing through several tackles to score a
try, used his momentum. This seems to suggest a combination of size (mass)
and speed were the contributing factors.
In fact, momentum = mass x velocity (mv).

3.5 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

The principle of the Conservation of Momentum states:
When two or more masses act on each other, the total
momentum of the masses remains constant, provided no
external forces, such as friction, act.
Study of force and change in momentum lead to Newton defining his Laws of
Motion, which are fundamental to mechanical science.
The First law states a mass remains at rest, or continues to move at constant
velocity, unless acted on by an external force.
The Second law states that the rate of change of momentum is proportional to
the applied force.
The Third law states if mass A exerts a force on mass B, then B exerts an equal
but opposite force on A.

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3.6 CHANGES IN MOMENTUM

What causes momentum to change? If the initial and final velocities of a mass
are u and v,
then change of momentum = mv - mu
= m (v - u).
Does the change of momentum happen slowly or quickly?
The rate of change of momentum = m

(v - u)
t

Inspection of this shows that force F (m.a) = m

(v - u)
t , so, a force causes a

change in momentum.
The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the magnitude of the force
causing it.

3.7 IMPULSE OF A FORCE

Note also that for a given force, the change of momentum will depend on the time
period, during which the force is applied. The product of force and time (Ft) is
termed the impulse of a force.

3.8 INERTIA
Inertia is resistance to a change of momentum. We are familiar with this, e.g. a
person standing in a moving vehicle; if the vehicle stops, the person lurches
forward, as his mass contains momentum. The greater the mass, the greater will
be its inertia.

3.9 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of Inertia considers the effect of mass on bodies whose moment is
rotational.
This is important to engineers, because although vehicle move from on place to
another (i.e. the moment of the vehicle is translational) many of its components
are rotating within it.
Consider two cylinders, of equal mass, but different dimensions, capable of
being rotated.

It will be easier (require less torque) to cause the LH cylinder to rotate. This is
because the RH cylinder appears to have greater inertia, even through the
masses are the same.
So the moment of inertia () is a function of mass and radius. Although more
detailed study of the exact relationship is beyond the scope of this course, it can
be said that the M of I is proportional to the square of the radius.
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3.10 2ND MOMENT OF AREA

In a previous topic, mention was made of the First moment of area (important for
determining positions of centres of gravity) which was the product of Area x
distance.
The Second moment of area is an extension of this concept, and is proportional
to Area x distance2.
The second moment of area is important when calculating Moment of Inertia, and
can be done mathematically, although for simple shapes or areas, standard
formulas exist to allow straight forward calculation.
Moment of Inertia (rather than mass) and Angular velocity combine together to
represent Angular Momentum (instead of mv, the symbols become )

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4. GYROSCOPES
4.1 PRINCIPLES
Gyroscopes are rotating masses (usually cylindrical in form) which are
deliberately employed because of the particular properties which they
demonstrate. (note, however, that any rotating mass may demonstrate these
properties, albeit unintentionally).
Basic concepts can be gained by reference to a hand-held bicycle wheel.
Imagine the wheel to be stationary; it is easy to tilt the axle one way or another.

4.2 RIGIDITY
Now rotate the wheel. Because the mass of the wheel is rotating, it now has
angular momentum. Two properties now become apparent.
The rotating wheel is now difficult to tilt, this is resistance is termed Rigidity.

4.3 PRECESSION
If sufficient force or torque is applied to tilt the wheel, the manner or direction in
which it tilts or moves is interesting.

The movement of a gyroscope resulting from an applied torque is known as

Precession.
To calculate the manner or direction in which a gyroscope will precess, a simple
rule applied.

Assuming the force is applied at A, then the

gyroscope will behave as though the force had
been applied at a point B, 90 onward in the
direction of rotation.

4.4 TORQUE
The torque required to cause precession, or the rate of precession resulting from
applied torque, depends on moment of inertia and angular velocity. Remember
that direction of rotation will determine direction of precession.

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5. FRICTION
5.1 PRINCIPLES
Friction is that phenomenon in nature that always seems to be present and acts
so as to retard things that move, relative to things that are either stationary or
moving slowly. How large that frictional force is depends on the nature of the two
surfaces of the object concerned. Rough surfaces generally produce more
friction than smooth surfaces, and some materials are naturally 'slippery'.
Friction can operate in any direction, but always acts in the sense opposing
motion.

The diagram shows a body (mass m) on an inclined plane. As the angle of the
plane () is increased, the body remains stationary, until at some particular value
of , it begins to move down the plane. This is because the frictional force (F)
opposing motion has reached its maximum value.

5.2 FRICTION CALCULATION

At this maximum value, the force opposing motion
Fmax = mg sin ,
and the normal reaction between the body and the plane
R = mg cos .
F
mg sin
=
= tan
R
mg cos
F
(tan ) is termed the Coefficient of Friction. It is generally considered
R
in mechanics to have a value less than 1, but some materials have a 'stickiness'
associated with them which exceeds this value.
This ratio

Note also that cases occur where static friction (friction associated with
stationary objects) is greater than running friction (where objects are now in
motion).
A useful example is in flying-control systems, where engineers have to perform
both static and running friction checks.

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6. KINEMATICS
In previous topic, we have seen that a force causes a body to accelerate
(assuming that it is free to move). Words such as speed, velocity, acceleration
have been introduced, which do not refer to the force, but to the motion that
ensues. Kinematics is the study of motion.

6.1 PRINCIPLES
When considering motion, it is important to define reference points or datums (as
has been done with other topics). With kinematics, we usually consider datums
involving position and time. We then go on to consider the distance or
displacement of the body from that position, with respect to time elapsed.
It is now necessary to define precisely some of the words used to describe
motion, (which are common in everyday speech).
Distance and time do not need defining as such, but we have seen that they must
relate to the datums. Distance and time are usually represented by symbols
x and t (although s is sometimes used instead of x).

6.2 SPEED
Speed

rate of change of displacement or position

change of position
time

x s
t t

where v represents speed.

A word of caution - this assumes that the speed is unchanging (constant). If

not, the speed is an average speed.

6.3 VELOCITY
Velocity is similar to speed, but not identical. The difference is that velocity
includes a directional component; hence velocity is a vector (magnitude and
direction - the magnitude component is speed).
Acceleration

rate of change of velocity

change of velocity
time

v2 - v1
t

where a represents acceleration.

(In the above, v, represents the initial velocity, v2 represents the final velocity
during time period t).

6.4 ACCELERATION
Note that as acceleration = rate of change of velocity, then it must also be a
vector quantity. This fact is important when we consider circular motion, where
direction is changing.
Remember,

speed is a scalar, (magnitude only)

Velocity is a vector (magnitude and direction)

If the final velocity v2 is less than v1, then obviously the body has slowed. This
implies that the acceleration is negative. Other words such as deceleration or
retardation may be used.
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6.5 VECTORS
In exactly the same way as force vectors were added (either graphically or
mathematically), so velocity vectors can be added. A good (aeronautical)
example is the vector triangle used by pilots and navigators when allowing for the
effects of wind.

Here the pilot intended to fly from A to B (the vector AB represents the speed of
the aircraft through the air), but while flying towards B the effect of the wind
vector BC was to 'blow' the aircraft off-course to C. So how is the pilot to fly to B
instead of C?

Obviously, the answer is to fly (head) towards D, so that the wind blows the
aircraft to B (see diagram).
Note that this is a vector triangle, in which we know 4 of the components;
i.e.

the wind magnitude and direction

the air speed (magnitude)
the track angle (direction)

The other two components may therefore be deduced, i.e. the aircraft heading
and the aircraft groundspeed. Note that the difference between heading and
track is termed drift. The aircraft groundspeed, (i.e. the speed relative to the
ground) is used to compute the travelling time.
This is a particular aeronautical example. More generally, if there are two vectors
v1 and v2, then we can find relative velocity.

Note the difference in terminology and direction of the arrows. V2 relative to v1

means that to an observer moving at velocity V1, the object moving at velocity V2
appears to be moving at that relative velocity. (V1 relative to V2 is the apparent
movement of V1 relative to V2).
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6.6 LINEAR MOTION

Linear motion means motion in a straight line, i.e. there is no change of direction.
This type of motion is relatively easy to analyse and compute. Speed,
acceleration and displacement can e deduced mathematically or graphically.
Graphical analysis introduces Distance / time and velocity / time graphs.

6.7 DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH

Velocity / time graphs are more versatile than distance / time graphs

although both may be considered.

Speed =

displacement
x
= slope of the graph. t
time

6.8 VELOCITY TIME GRAPH

Straight line = constant slope = constant speed.
(A straight line would clearly represent a stationary body)
(Note - using symbols of calculus, v =

Acceleration a =

dx
).
dt

change of velocity
v2 - v1
=
time
t , this is usually re-arranged so

v2 = v1 + at.

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(Note again - using symbols of calculus, a =

dv
d2x
= 2 ).
dt
dt

The mathematical analysis of variable acceleration is beyond the scope of this

course, therefore the only graphs considered consist of straight lines only.

6.9 AREA

One important concept - velocity =

therefore distance

distance
time ,

velocity x time

area under the velocity - time graph.

Therefore, for a body changing velocity from v1 to v2 at constant rate of

acceleration.

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Distance x

= area =

1
(v + v1)t + v1.t
2 2

(triangle + rectangle)

1
2 (v2 + v1)t

or, (where v2 = v1 + at)

x

= v1t +

1 2
at
2

6.10 CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF EQUATIONS

The equation of linear motion, assuming constant acceleration,
are

and

v2

v1 + at

1
(v1 + v2)t
2

v1t +

v 22

v 12 2ax

1 2
at
2

(v1 and x may appear as u and s, and x may appear as x2 x1 = difference

between position x2 and position x1).

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7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
7.1 CIRCULAR MOTION
Rotational motion means motion involving curved paths and therefore change of
direction. As with linear - motion, it may analysed mathematically or graphically
and both types of motion are very similar in this respect, but employ different
symbols. Again, only cases of constant acceleration are considered here, and
cases involving linear translation and rotation are definitely ignored!
Firstly, consider the equation representing rotation. They are equivalent to those
linear equations of motion.
Linear

Rotational

v2 = v1 + at

2 = 1 + t

= (v1 + v2)t

2 = (1 + 2)t

= v1t + at2

= 1t + t2

22 = 12 + 2

v22 = v12 + 2ax

Where = distance (angular displacement)
1, 2

initial and final angular velocity

angular acceleration

N.B. It is important to realise that the angular units here must employ
measurements in radians.

7.2 CENTRIPETAL FORCE

Consider a mass moving at a constant speed v, but following a circular path. At

one instant it is at position A and at a second instant at B.
Note that although the speed is unchanged, the direction, and hence the
velocity, has changed. If the velocity has changed then an acceleration must
be present. If the mass has accelerated, then a force must be present to cause
that acceleration. This is fundamental to circular motion.

v2
The acceleration present = r , where v is the (constant) speed and r is the
radius of the circular path.

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The force causing that acceleration is known as the Centripetal Force =

mv2
,
r

and acts along the radius of the circular path, towards the centre.

7.3 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

More students are familiar with the term Centrifugal than the term Centripetal.
What is the difference? Put simply, and recalling Newton's 3rd Law, Centrifugal is
the equal but opposite reaction to the Centripetal force.

This can be shown by a diagram, with a person holding a string tied to a mass
which is rotating around the person.
Tensile force in string acts inwards to provide centripetal force acting on mass.
Tensile force at the other end of the string acts outwards exerting centrifugal
reaction on person.
(Note again - cases involving changing speeds as well as direction are beyond
the scope of this course).

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8. PERIODIC MOTION
Some masses move from one point to another, some move round and round.
These motions have been described as translational or rotational.
Some masses move from one point to another, then back to the original point,
and continue to do this repetitively. The time during which the mass moved away
from, and then returned to its original position is known as the time period and
the motion is known as periodic.
Many mechanisms or components behave in this manner - a good example is a
pendulum.

8.1 PENDULUM
If a pendulum is displaced from its stationary position
and released, it will swing back towards that position.
On reaching it however, it will not stop, because its
inertia carries it on to an equal but opposite
displacement. It then returns towards the stationary
position, but carries on swinging etc, etc. Note that the
time period can be measured from a any position,
through to the next time that position is reached, with
the motion in the original direction

8.2 SPRING MASS SYSTEMS

If the mass is displaced from its original position and

released, the force in the spring will act on the mass so as to
return it to that position. It behaves like the pendulum, in
that it will continue to move up and down.

The resulting motion, up and down, can be plotted against time and will result in
a typical graph, which is sinusoidal.

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9. HARMONIC MOTION
Analysis of oscillating systems such as the pendulum or the spring-mass will
show that they often obey simple but strict laws. For example, the instantaneous
acceleration is given by the term -2x.
d2x
a = dt2 = -2x

(This basically states that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement
from the neutral (undisturbed) position, and in the opposite sense to the direction
of the velocity)
The constant is the frequency of the oscillation. (The period of the oscillation
2
=
).

Such motion is often referred-to as Harmonic motion and analysis reveals the
sinusoidal pattern of such motion (beyond the scope of this course).

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10. VIBRATION THEORY

Vibration Theory is based on the detailed analysis of vibrations and is essentially
mathematical, relying heavily on trigonometry and calculus, involving sinusoidal
functions and differential equations.
The simple pendulum or spring-mass would according to basic theory, continue
to vibrate at constant frequency and amplitude, once the vibration had been
started. In fact, the vibrations die away, due to other forces associated with
motion, such as friction, air resistance etc. This is termed a Damped vibration.
If a disturbing force is re-applied periodically the vibrations can be maintained
indefinitely. The frequency (and to a lesser extent, the magnitude) of this
disturbing force now becomes critical.
Depending on the frequency, the amplitude of vibration may decay rapidly (a
damping effect) but may grow significantly.
This large increase in amplitude usually occurs when the frequency of the
disturbing force coincides with the natural frequency of the vibration of the system
(or some harmonic). This phenomenon is known as Resonance. Designers
carry out tests to determine these frequencies, so that they can be avoided or
eliminated, as they can be very damaging.

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11. FLUIDS
Fluid is a term that includes both gases and liquids; they are both able to flow.
We will generally consider gases to be compressible and liquids to be
incompressible.
When considering fluids that flow, it is obvious that some flow more freely than
others, or put another way, some encounter more resistance when attempting to
flow. Resistance to flow introduces the word Viscosity, highly viscous liquids do
not flow freely. Gases generally have a low viscosity.

11.1 DENSITY
mass
Density of a solid, liquid or gas is defined as = volume

m
= V

A large mass in a small volume means a high density, and vice versa. The unit
of density depends on the units of mass and volume; e.g. density = kg/m3 in SI
units.
Solids, particularly metals, often have a high density, gases are of low density.

11.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density may be expressed in absolute terms, e.g. mass per unit volume, or in
relative terms; i.e. in comparison to some datum value. The datum which forms
the basis of Relative Density is the density of pure water, which id 1000 kg/m3.
Relative Density =

density of substance
.
density of water

Note that relative density has no units, it is a ratio.

RD. =

mass of substance
(often referred to a Specific Gravity)
mass of equal volume of water

The RD. of water is 1, and so substances with an RD. less than 1 float in water;
with RD. greater than 1, they sink.

11.3 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy implies floatation, and may involve solids immersed in liquids or gases,
one liquid in another, one gas in another and so on. It is a function of relative
Densities.
An object that floats has a R.D. less than the medium in which it floats. Its
weight is obviously supported by some interactive force (upthrust) between the
object and that medium.
Archimedes states that the upthrust is equal to the weight of the volume of the
medium that was displaced by the floating object, i.e. the volume of object below
the surface.

11.4 PRESSURE
Previous topics have introduced forces or loads, and then considered stress,
which can be thought of as intensity of load. Stress is the term associated with
solids. The equivalent term associated with fluids is pressure, so pressure =
force
F
p = A.
area .

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Pressure can be generated in a fluid by applying a force which tries to squeeze it,
or reduce its volume. Pressure is the internal reaction or resistance to that
external force. It is important to realise that pressure acts equally and in all
directions throughout that fluid. This can be very useful, because if a force
applied at one point creates pressure within a fluid, that pressure can be
transmitted to some other point in order to generate another force. This is the
principle behind hydraulic (fluid) systems, where a mechanical input force drives
a pump, creating pressure which then acts within an actuator, so as to produce a
mechanical output force.

F1
In this diagram, a force F1 is input to the fluid, creating pressure, equal to A

throughout the fluid. This pressure acts on area A2, and hence an output force F2
is generated.
If the pressure P is constant, then

F1
F2
=
and if A2 is greater than A1, the
A1
A2

output force F2 is greater than F1.

A mechanical advantage has been created, just like using levers or pulleys. This
is the principle behind the hydraulic jack.
But remember, you don't get something for nothing; energy in = energy out or
work in = work out, and work = force x distance. In other words, distance moved
by F1 has to be greater than distance moved by F2.

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11.5 STATIC AND DYNAMIC PRESSURE

Static and Dynamic pressure.

In this diagram, the pressure acting on x x1 is due to the weight of the fluid (in this
case a liquid) acting downwards.
This weight W

mg (g = gravitational constant)

But mass

volume density

height cross-sectional area density

h.A.

Therefore downward force

Therefore, the pressure

=
=

h..g. A. acting on A
hg.A/
A/
hpg

This is the static pressure acting at depth h within a stationary fluid of density p.
This is straightforward enough to understand as the simple diagram
demonstrates. (we can "see" the liquid)
But the same principle applies to gases also, and we know that at altitude, the
reduced density is accompanied by reduced static pressure.
We are not aware of the static pressure within the atmosphere which acts on our
bodies, the density is low (almost 1000 times less than water). Divers, however,
quickly become aware of increasing water pressure as they descend.
But we do become aware of greater air pressures whenever moving air is
involved, as on a windy day for example. The pressure associated with moving
air is termed dynamic pressure.
In aeronautics, moving air is essential to flight, and so dynamic pressure is
frequently referred-to.
Dynamic pressure

v2 where = density, v = velocity.

Note how the pressure is proportional to the square of the air velocity.

11.6 ENERGY IN FLUID FLOWS

So the pressure energy found in moving fluids, i.e. fluids that are flowing, has at
least two components, static and dynamic pressure. This is of fundamental
importance when considering Theory of Flight.
(Note - if the fluid flow is not horizontal, then differences in potential energy, i.e.
changes in "head" of pressure are theoretically present, but are generally ignored
when air is considered, because of its low density).

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12. HEAT
Heat is not the same as temperature (in a similar way that force is not the same
as pressure) but the two are often related. Heat is energy, while temperature is
related to the kinetic energy (speed or movement) of the molecules of the body
considered. But as heat transfer is of importance in physics and engineering,
and knowing that heat travels from hot to cold bodies, a means of assessing
temperature becomes essential.

12.1 TEMPERATURE SCALES

Several different temperature scales have evolved, the most common are the
Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin scales. A diagram may be used to make
comparisons.
Boiling Point of water

+212

100

373

+32

273

(at standard pressure)

Melting ice

Fahrenheit

Centigrade

Kelvin

12.2 CONVERSION
An engineering student should be able to convert from one temperature to
another;
e.g. convert F to C -

Subtract 32, then multiply by

convert C to F -

9
Multiply by 5 , then add 32

convert C to K -

add 273

Example #1:

Convert 20C to Fahrenheit.

9
20 x 5 + 32
Example #2:
15 + 273

5
9

36 + 32

68F

Convert 15C to Kelvin

=

288K

Note also that when thermodynamic principles and calculations are considered, it
is usually vital to perform these calculations using temperatures expressed in
Kelvin.
Note also that 0K is often termed absolute zero (it is the lowest temperature
theoretically possible).

12.3 EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Engineers are familiar with the effect of temperature on structures and
components, as the temperature increases, things expand (dimensions
increase) and vice versa. Expansion effects solids, liquids and gases.
But how much does a component expand? The answer should be obvious.
Expansion is proportional to the increase in temperature to the original
dimension and depends on the actual material used.
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12.3.1 LINEAR
L1 (2 - 1)

So

L2 - L1

Where

L2 and L1 are final and initial lengths,

2 and 1 are final and initial temperatures

And

is a material constant (coefficient of linear expansion).

12.3.2 VOLUMETRIC
Expansion can be considered as a change in length (see above), a change in
area or change in volume.
The change in volume,

v2 - v1

v1 (2 - 1)

Where = the coefficient of volumetric expansion. (note that = 3 (see

above)).
Different materials expand at different rates, and this may be used, for
example, when shrink fitting components

12.4 EXPANSION OF FLUIDS

Liquids behave in a similar way to solids when heated, but (a) they expand more
than solids, and (b) they expand volumetrically. Note that when heated, the
containers tends to expand as well, which may or may not be important to a
designer.
Gases however, behave in a rather more complex way, as volume and
temperature changes are usually accompanied by pressure changes.

12.5 CHARLES LAW

If a fixed mass of gas (e.g. air) is heated from temperature T1 to T2, its initial
volume V1 increases to V2. Note that the increase is linear (the graph follows a
straight-line). Note that if the line is extended back, it crosses the T (x) axis at
-273C, or absolute zero.
V
V1
V2
The slope is constant, therefore T is constant, or T = T (temperature must
1
2
be expressed in K).
This illustrates Charles Law.
"The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is proportional to the
absolute temperature".

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12.6 SPECIFIC HEAT

Heat is a form of energy, so how much heat is needed to increase the
temperature of a substance? Again, the answer is obvious.
The heat required depends on the temperature rise, the amount or mass of the
substance, and on the actual substance being heated. As a formula,
Q

mc (2 - 1)

Where Q is the heat energy supplied (in joules), m is the mass (kg) 2 and 1 are
final and initial temperatures, and c is the specific heat of the substance
.
considered in J
kg.k

12.7 HEAT CAPACITY

Here specific heat c is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1K.
Heat capacity (C) of a body is the mass of the body x specific heat.
C

mc

12.8 LATENT HEAT / SENSIBLE HEAT

If water, for example, is heated at a constant rate, the temperature will rise,

shown by AB. At B, corresponding to 100C (the boiling point of water) the graph
follows BC, which represents the constant temperature of 100C. After a time,
the graph resumes its original path, CD.
What was happened to the heat supplied during the time period between B and
C?
The answer is that it was used, not to raise the temperature, but to change the
state from water into steam. This is termed latent heat, and also features when
ice melts to become water.
So latent heat is the heat required to cause a change of state, and sensible
heat is the heat required to cause a change of temperature.

12.9 HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer, where a substance at high temperature looses heat to a substance
at a lower temperature, is important as we may want it to occur, or not, as the
case may be.
Heat transfer may occur by conduction, convection or radiation.
Conduction is transfer of heat through the stationary substance.
Convection is transfer by motion of the substance (this happens by fluid flow).
Radiation is by electro-magnetic radiation or wave propagation.

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For this module, the study is limited to conduction. Materials such as metals are
good conductors (e.g. silver, copper, aluminium) whilst other materials do not
conduct readily and are termed insulators (e.g. wood, plastics, cork).
Note that there appears to be a similarity between thermal and electrical
conduction or insulation.

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13. GASES
13.1 LAWS
Charles Law has already been referred to. Boyles law assumes constant
volume.
Boyle's Law states that "the pressure of a given mass of gas at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to its volume".

Summarised:
V
T

is constant

V1 = V2
T2
T1

p
T

is constant

p1 = p2
T2
T1

pV

is constant

p = p1V1
V2
2

These laws are often combined to give:

pV
T

is a constant

p1V1 = p2V2
T2
T1

= mR where m is the mass of gas considered, and R is the Gas Constant.

13.2 RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS

We have already defined the term specific heat as a quantity of heat supplied etc,
and this is sufficient when considering solids and liquids. Gases can be a
different case however, and the heat supplied to produce a temperature rise will
vary, depending on whether the gas is allowed to expand or not, whilst being
heated.
This leads to the two specific heat values.
Cp is the specific heat of the gas which is maintained at constant pressure, but
allowed to expand.
Cv is the specific heat of the gas which is maintained at a constant volume.
In the first case, the heat input raises the temperature, and causes the gas to
expand, during which the gas does work (gives out energy).
In the second case, the heat input only raises the temperature.
Cp
The ratio of the specific heats, symbol = Cv , in which Cp is greater than Cv,
Cp
hence Cv 1.

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This particular relationship is frequently used in thermodynamics. pv = constant.

13.3 WORK DONE BY , OR ON, A GAS

Put simply, work is done by a gas that is expanding; work is done on a gas that
is being compressed.
This is a simplification but reference to a p.v. diagram is helpful.

The work done by or on the gas is given by the area under the p-v curve.
If we go from v1 to v2 (expansion) work is done by the gas.
If we go from v2 to v1 (compression) work is done on the gas.
The exact amount of work depends on the exact nature of the expansion /
compression, i.e. is the relevant gas law pv = constant or pvn = constant or
= constant?

pv

These different equations give different curves, and hence different work values,
but this is beyond the scope of this module.
Note also that an expanding gas tends to cool; a gas being compressed tends to
heat-up.

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14. LIGHT
14.1 SPEED OF LIGHT
Light is one form of transmission of electro-magnetic energy. Light travels at high
speed (about 3 x 108 metres per second) and in straight lines, although it can be
'bent' or reflected.

14.2 REFLECTION
Light can also be reflected, usually by mirrors, which are made by depositing a
thin layer of metal on one side of a piece of glass. Some interesting facts may be
obtained.

Observation and measurement will show that a.

the incident and reflected rays lie in the same plane.

b.

the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

14.3 PLAIN AND CURVED MIRRORS

When you look in a mirror, you see a reflection, usually termed an image. The
diagram above shows 2 reflected rays, viewing an object O from two different
angles. Note the reflected rays appear to come from I which corresponds to the
image, and lies on the same normal to the mirror as the object, and appears the
same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Note also that the image is a virtual image, it can be seen, but cannot be shown
on a screen.
Note also that it appears the same size as the object, and is laterally inverted.
These are features of images in plane mirrors.
Mirrors can also be curves, sometimes they are spherical, sometimes parabolic.
The basic law, incidence equals reflection - still holds, but the curved surface
allows the rays to be focussed or dispersed.

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FP is known as the focal length.

Note the rays actually pass through F, and a
real image can be formed.

FP is still the focal length, but the image is

virtual.

The size of the image depends on the

position of the object.

The image may be smaller or larger.

image height
Magnification = object height

image distance (V)

(It can be shown for spherical mirrors that magnification = object distance (u) .
Concave mirrors (e.g. shaving mirrors) give a magnified, erect (right way up)
image, if viewed from close-to.
Convex mirrors (e.g. driving mirrors) give a smaller, erect image, but with a wide
field of view.
Parabolic reflectors can focus a wide parallel beam. By placing the bulb at the
focus, they can produce a strong beam of light. (Conversely, they can focus
microwave signals when used as an aerial).

14.4 REFRACTION

Many people have noticed a strange optical phenomenon when looking at

submerged objects. Such an object often appears to be at a reduced depth.

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The rays appear to have been bent at the water / air boundary. This is known
as Refraction.

14.5 REFRACTIVE INDEX

The angles of incidence and refraction are not equal, but they are related, shown
as:
sine i
sine r

a constant =

is known as the refractive index and depends on the 2 mediums involved.

speed of light in medium 1

It can be shown that = speed of light in medium 2

Another phenomena may occur. In the diagram, ray (1) has been refracted
across the boundary, but ray (2) has been internally reflected at the boundary.
There is a critical angle of incidence when the ray in the denser medium does not
emerge, but travels along the boundary.

The relationship

sine C =

1
exists.

Refraction is the basic principle which explains the workings of prisms and
lenses.

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14.6 CONVEX AND CONCAVE LENSES

Lenses can be made of glass or plastic, and like mirrors, have spherical surfaces
so as, to give concave or convex lenses. The light rays then meet the surface of
the lens at an angle to the normal, and are then refracted. As the rays exist the
lens, a second refraction takes place.

As with mirrors, images can be real or virtual, erect or inverted, and larger or
smaller. The nature of the image will depend on the type of lens, and the
position of the object in relation to the focal length of the lens, (the focal length
is a function of the curvature of the lens surfaces).

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15. SOUND
15.1 SPEED OF SOUND
Sound is transmitted by a wave motion that is unlike light or heat radiation, in that
it is not electro-magnetic, but relies on the transmission of pressure pulses - the
molecules vibrate backwards and forwards about their mean position, and this
vibration transmits the pressure wave.
Sound travels much slower than light, only about 760 miles per hour at sea level
or 340 m/s.
The speed of sound is primarily affected by temperature, the lower the
temperature, the lower the speed of sound.
A formula exists, where;
RT

speed of sound =
where

ratio of specific heats of the gas

gas constant

gas temperature (in Kelvin)

Speed of sound is of utmost importance in the study of aerodynamics, because it

determines the nature and formation of shock waves. Because of this, aircraft
speed is often compressed in relation to the speed to sound.
True Airspeed of aircraft
speed of sound (allowing for temperature)

Mach N

(Aircraft travelling at speeds greater than Mach 1 are supersonic, and generating
shock waves).

15.2 FREQUENCY
Frequency (f) of sound is related to the number of vibrations that the molecules
perform in a unit of time. The amount (or distance) which the molecules vibrate
about their main position is termed the amplitude.
Another term exists, i.e. wavelength (). A formula exists, linking frequency and
wavelength.
f.

constant

speed of sound

High-pitches sounds are of high frequency, and vice versa.

15.3 INTENSITY
The intensity of sound (its 'loudness) is dependent on the intensity of the
pressure variations, and thus is related to the amplitude. The amplitude of the
vibration is proportional to the energy input into the generation of the wave.

15.4 PITCH
Pitch is another word for frequency (see previous paragraph).

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15.5 DOPPLER EFFECT

Doppler effect is the effect that is noticeable when for example, a car is heard
speeding towards the listener, then speeding away. The sound is initially at a
high-pitch, which then becomes lower. This is because the source of the sound
(the car) is moving, which causes a change in the time interval between
successive pressure variations in the ear of the listener (i.e. there appears to be a
change in frequency, which is proportional to the speed of the car).

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16. MATTER
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and may be classified in a
number of ways.

16.1 STATES OF MATTER

There are three normal states of matter:
Solid. A solid has definite mass, volume and shape.
Liquid. A liquid has definite mass and volume but takes the shape of its
container.
Gas. A gas has definite mass but takes the volume and shape of its
container.

16.2 ATOMS
If a water molecule could be magnified sufficiently it would be seen to consist of
three smaller particles closely bound together. These three particles are
ATOMS, two of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The water is a compound, the oxygen and hydrogen are elements. Every
element has atoms of its own type. There are 92 naturally occurring elements
and therefore 92 types of naturally occurring atoms.
Every molecule consists of atoms. Molecules of elements contain atoms of the
same types, for example the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of
hydrogen joined together, the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen
joined together, but the molecules of compound contain different atoms joined
together.
Most molecules contain more than one atom but some elements can exist as
single atoms. In such a case the atom is also the molecule. For example the
Helium atom is also the Helium molecule.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical change.
16.2.1 THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
The Nucleus and Electrons. Atoms themselves are also composed of even
smaller particles. Let us take an atom of hydrogen as an example. A hydrogen
atom is very small indeed (about 10 10 in diameter), but if it could be magnified
sufficiently it would be seen to consist of a core or nucleus with a particle called
an electron travelling around it in an elliptical orbit.
The nucleus has a positive charge of
electricity and the electron an equal negative
charge; thus the whole atom is electrically
neutral and the electrical attraction keeps
the electron circling the nucleus. Atoms of
other elements have more than one electron
travelling around the nucleus, the nucleus
containing sufficient positive charges to
balance the number of electrons.

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Protons and Neutrons. The particles in the nucleus each carrying a positive
charge are called protons. In addition to the protons the nucleus usually contains
electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Neutrons have the same mass as
1
protons whereas electrons are very much smaller only
of the mass of a
1836
proton
16.2.2 THE FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
Although other atomic particles are known, the three fundamental ones are:
Protons. The proton has unit mass and carries a unit positive charge.
Neutron. The neutron has unit mass but no electrical charge.
1
Electron. The electron has only 1836 unit of mass but it carries a unit
negative charge.
Thus although we have 92 types of naturally occurring atoms, they are all built-up
from different numbers of these three fundamental particles.
Thus our picture of the structure of matter is as shown below.
16.2.3 PARTICLE FUNCTION
16.2.3.1 Protons
The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of material:
Eg.

Hydrogen

1 proton

Helium

2 protons

Lithium

3 protons

Beryllium

4 protons

etc
Copper
etc

29 protons

Uranium

92 protons

The number of protons is referred to as the atomic number, thus the atomic
number of copper is 29.
16.2.3.2 Neutrons
The neutron simply adds to the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom. There
is no simple rule for determining the number of neutrons in any atom. In fact
atoms of the same kind can contain different numbers of neutrons. For example
chlorine may contain 18 20 neutrons in its nucleus.
The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are called isotopes. The weight
of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in
weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the sum of the protons and the
neutrons.
16.2.3.3 Electrons
The electron orbits define the size or volume occupied by the atom. The
electrons travel in orbits which are many times the diameter of the nucleus and
hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty! The electrical properties
of the atom are determined by how tightly the electrons are bound by electrical
attraction to the nucleus.
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16.3 PERIODIC TABLE

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