Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
,--.
r:
r
r:
r:
r:
r:
Module 15
Gas Turbine Engine
for
Part-66
Licence
Category
81
Volume 1
Exclusively from
www.eirtecnbooks.com
Preface
Thank you for purchasing the Total TrainingSupportIntegrated TrainingSystem. We are
sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module.
These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for
practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those
who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet
the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their
examinations.
The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the
chapters in these course notes and is used as the "Learning Objectives".
--
We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if
only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using
your club66pro.commembership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and
continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to
answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real
Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their
explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the
subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice
questions.
We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the
notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate
your feedback, whether positive or negative.
So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not
particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the 'contact-us' feedback page of
the club66pro.comwebsite. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any
changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you.
Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very
hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide,
and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono
printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the
club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy,
and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing
with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright
abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the
future, and makes them more expensive too.
Module 15 Preface
1fri.y,
~~/
Intentionally Blank
ii
Module 15 Preface
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
r . ,~-
. r,
1 .
'
:l
Module 15 Chapters
Volume 1
1.
Fundamentals
Engine Performance
3. Inlet
4. Compressors
5. Combustion Section
6. Turbine Section
7. Exhaust
8. Bearings and Seals
9. Lubricants and Fuels
10. Lubrication Systems
11 . Fuel Systems
12. Air Systems
13. Starting and Ignition Systems
2.
Volume 2
14. Engine Indication Systems
15. Power Augmentation Systems
16. Turbo-prop Engines
17. Turbo-shaft engines
18. Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)
19. Powerplant Installation
20. Fire Protection Systems
21. Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation
22. Engine Storage and Preservation
Module 15 Preface
iii
Intentionally Blank
iv
Module 15 Preface
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 201'
.,lt,t>bbp 0.
I,
av~
,-
'
CA d
TTS Integrated
Training System
---
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.1 Fundamentals
1.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
1.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
_,
I
Ii 1
'-tu
t-'
>
C(
Table of Contents
9
9
5
6
10
11
15
Constructional Arrangements
Single Spool Axial Flow Engine
Multi-Spool Design
Twin Spool Axial Flow Turbo Fan
By-Pass Engines
Turbo Prop Engines
Summary of Engine Types
ns
11
13
15
16
16
17
19
23
1.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1{ri,'r.!---Y,
~/
Objective
Fundamentals
Potential energy, kinetic energy, Newton's laws of motion,
Brayton cycle;
The relationship between force, work, power, energy,
velocity, acceleration;
Constructional arrangement and operation of turbojet,
turbofan, turboshaft, turboprop.
1.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EASA66
Reference
15.1
Level
81
2
"lubfi&ro.
r , .,
r.
e 1J
Second Law
Third Law
The first law is of little importance to the function of the gas turbine engine.
The second law is the law which is used to determine exactly the amount of thrust achieved by
the gas turbine engine. The second law can be written as a formula:
Force= Thrust= Mass x Acceleration
-
The third law is of most importance to us in understanding the gas turbine engine. What it is
saying is that if a mass of air is propelled backwards, the object which propelled it will be
propelled forwards at an equal rate. It follows then that the more air that the gas turbine engine
can propel backwards, the greater will be the forward thrust of the engine. The second law also
tells us that the greater the mass propelled backwards (m), the greater is the forward force (F).
1.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Velocity-increasing
Pressure - decreasing
Temperature - decreasing
~-
---
1.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,..
c.tut>t.op-o.cc r ..
The Choked
II
--
II
..~
c e a,d
Nozzle
There is one, and only one, exception to the above rule, and that is when the gas is at the
speed of sound(Sonic Velocity) just before it enters the DIVERGENT part of the duct.
It is extremely difficult to accelerate a gas to supersonic speed - the only way to do it is to have
a very high pressure to begin with and increase its speed in a CONVERGENT duct. Once it
has reached sonic speed, it is impossible to increase its speed any further - the duct (or
nozzle) is then said to be CHOKED
If this procedure is carried out in a CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT duct, an additional form of
thrust (additional to Newton's Third Law) can be achieved.
--
This can be visualised more easily if you think of a beach-ball being forced and compressed
through a convergent-divergent duct. As it expands through the divergent duct, it will cause a
forward reaction on the wall of the duct.
-MACH
NOZZLE
CHOKED
VELOCITY
11\JCRE ASING
PRESSURE
Dt CREA0I \JG
PRESSURE
DECREASING
VFLOCITY
INCRL~SING
1.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
De igred rr
Intentionally Blank
1.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
clubfop o.c
IT i'!:>t.
n.,
! {
ice aio
LIQUID !=UEL
.-
PROPELLING
NOZZLE
1.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
AIR INTAKE
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
-,
PROPELLING NOZZLE
The intake is convergent I divergent in shape and therefore the air flowing
through it will decrease/increase in pressure.
Combustion
At a certain pressure, the air is mixed with fuel and ignited. Its temperature
will increase and it will expand. This expansion takes the form of an
increase in velocity.
If the gas increases in velocity inside the jet, it will obey Newton's
which is that:
2nd
Law,
Before entering the exhaust nozzle, the gas may be of high enough
pressure to be accelerated to supersonic speed. The exhaust nozzle would
then be choked. The force produced as a result of the acceleration is
known as momentum or kinetic thrust. A second type of thrust is produced
in the divergent part of the exhaust nozzle and is called pressure thrust.
The total force produced will, according to Newton's 3rd Law, produce an
equal and opposite reaction on the inner workings of the engine. This is
known as Thrust
1.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
System
.
,;
c ub66pro.c ., . ,..
f'
tc
..i
FUEL BURNER
JET PIPE AND
AIR INTAKE
PROPELLING NOZZLE
1.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,...
The gas turbine can also be compared with the piston engine where fuel and air are burned
inside a cylinder to cause a piston to move and turn a crankshaft. The working cycle of the gas
turbine engine is indeed similar to that of the 4-stroke piston engine as in each gas turbine
engine there is induction, compression, combustion and exhaust. In the piston engine cycle the
combustion cycle is intermittent where as in the gas turbine engine it is continuous. The gas
turbine engine has a separate compressor, combustion chamber, turbine wheel, and exhaust
system with each part concerned only with its function. Thus the combustion in a gas turbine
engine takes place as a continuous process at a constant pressure. This, combined with the
absence of reciprocating parts, provides a much smoother running engine that can be of a
lighter structure, enabling more energy to be released for useful propulsive work.
The modern gas turbine engine is basically cylindrical in shape because it is essentially a duct
in which a mass airflow is the same from the intake to the exhaust nozzle. Into this duct the
necessary parts are fitted. The parts from front to rear are an air compressor, a combustion
chamber, a turbine wheel, and an exhaust duct. A shaft connects the turbine wheel to the
compressor, so that turning the turbine will also turn the compressor. In side the combustion
chambers are fuel burners and the means of igniting the fuel.
Because the jet engine is basically an open ended duct it is not satisfactory to ignite the fuel in
static air, because this would allow the gas to expand equally forwards and backwards without
doing any useful work; when the air was used up the flame would die out. Before lighting the
fuel it is, therefore, essential that the air is moving, and the moving columns of air must be
moving through the engine from the front towards the rear. This movement is brought about by
using a starter motor to spin the compressor and the turbine wheel in excess of 1 SOOrpm; this
drives a large volume of air through the combustion chamber. When the airflow is sufficient,
fuel is injected into the chambers through spray nozzles, and is ignited by means of ignitor
plugs. (Note that the gas turbine engine is not an alternate firing engine. The spark ignitors are
only used for the initial firing, and the fuel in all the combustion chambers burns continuously
like a blowtorch). This burning will cause the airflow towards the rear to increase in velocity
and drive the turbine wheel as it flows over the turbine blades in its headlong rush through the
exhaust system out to atmosphere. The spinning turbine wheel turns the compressor through
the drive shaft, and the compressor feeds more air into the combustion chamber to complete a
cycle of operations that continues as long as fuel is fed to the burners. The turbine wheel also
originates a drive to a gearbox that provides external drives for items such as:
Fuel pumps
Hydraulic pumps
Electrical generators
Other engine accessories
1.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.c r . , .
1c
d ct
-----
:.u
:x:
(1hrovgh
::>
EXPANSIO~
turoine and nozzle}
J)
./)
.JJ
l.
l.
./
COMPRESSION
AIR 1:IIIA!<.E
1.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
bborC'. o .
'I;,.
. ,
ce
f'
Constructional Arrangements
The basic design of Whittles gas turbine engine exists in all gas turbine engines. However
various applications have been derived over the past 60 years to suit the airframe and industrial
requirements.
COMPRESSION
COMBUSTION
EXHAUST
~~'----------.-----------'
~'---------,
---------'-'-,..--'~'~~.!'""--Car,pr~
Cot11hu rt0n Ch 111 r~
Tu1b
Exh 11
An In I
Ho: S" ,
1.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
tfueY
~,,'
Multi-SpoolDesign
Dual and triple spool axial compressors were developed for the operational flexibility they
provide to the engine in the form of high compression ratios, quick acceleration, and better
control of stall characteristics. This operational flexibility is not possible with single spool axial
flow engines.
For any given power lever setting, the high pressure (HP) compressor speed is held fairly
constant by a fuel control governor. Assuming that a fairly constant energy level is available at
the turbine, the low pressure (LP) compressor will speed up and slow down with changes in
aircraft inlet conditions resulting in changes in atmospheric changes or manoeuvres in flight.
The varying LP compressor output therefore, provides the HP compressor with the best inlet
condition within the limits of the design. That is, the LP compressor tries to supply the HP
compressor with a fairly constant air pressure for a particular air pressure for a particular power
setting.
To better understand when the low pressure compressor speed up and slow down, consider that
when ambient temperature increases, the air's molecular motion increases. In order to collect
air molecules at the same rate as temperature increases, the compressor would have to change
either its blade angles, which it cannot do, or its speed, which it in fact does.
COMPRESSOR
ANDlURBINE
1.16
Use and/or disclosure ls
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'i"
_..
. ~ uv
1r.e ad
By-Pass Engines
Twin Spool Low By-Pass Turbo Fan
This type of engine has a twin spool layout with the addition that the LP. compressor is of larger
diameter than before and thus handles a greater mass of air than is required by the H.P.
compressor. The airflow which is not required by the H.P. compressor is fed into the by-pass
duct and it rejoins the normal gas flow behind the turbines. The airflow is split approximately 50
% each way. The mixing of the "hot" and "cold" gas streams promotes very rapid expansion of
the gasses, which gives good power output with a low fuel consumption. Low bypass engines
are defined as having a bypass ratio of 3:1 or less
1.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
aic
H19h-preuur
compreuor
High.pr
tuiblN'
High-p,es.s.ur
shaft
Combunlon
ch.tmbe,
Figure 1.11:
Low-pressure Nollie
turbine
1.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,,.
fril!.J
~,
- ubbbp .
r.,
'1"'
r,
ce ad
Shaft
Exhaust
Combustion
chamber
Copyright 2011
1.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,:j
..
I;
nm ',!<:fnn nmctic1. ~ u
(a)
(b)
This type of gas turbine engine is used wherever the direct thrust from the engine is not
required,
All the energy in the gasses is absorbed by the turbines and transformed into a rotational force or TORQUE.
There is usually little or no thrust produced in the exhaust.
The reduction gearbox is required because the gas turbine engine is most efficient at high RPM,
but the device which it drives (propeller, helicopter rotor etc.) becomes inefficient at such high
speed.
1.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~L_c"-.
:--:-=-/
LL-
L,
r
r. ,-
ti
"l
, , .... ice <.ld
~u
--
Figure 1.15: Twin Spool Turbo Shaft engine with free power turbine
Gas Turbines
TURBOSHAFT ENGINE
1.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
A turbo-shaft engine is used to drive any industrial application that requires high torque output.
For example:
Helicopter rotors
Ship Drive shafts
Hovercraft engines
Oil pumps
Generator sets
This example uses a free or powerturbine. All the energy not required to drive the gas
generator compressor is used to drive the free turbine which drives the output shaft. The output
shaft is shown above coming out o the front of the engine but it can be geared to come out at
any angle, even through the exhaust directly connected to the rear of the turbine.
1.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,bobpr .
l.::;
, .. ~
, "'
E dd
LOW PR[SSURC
COMPRE:SSOR
PROrn
TWO
[R [NGIN[
LOW PHESSURE
COMPRESSOR
ENGJNE
LOW
TWIN-SPOOL
TUn80SHAFT
EI\GINE (wrrn
HIGh PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR
TWIN~SPOOL
AXIAL
fr;,e
powe,
turbinn'
gas stream
1.23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
LOW PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR
INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR
. , . 1/
~===:;:;:.===-- ...
TRIPLE-SPOOL
AXIAL
/
-:
PROP-FAN
COMPRESSOR
--~
AXIAL FLOW CONTRA-ROTATING PROP-FAN(with
TWIN-SPOOL
-~
1.24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,('
1uc-oopro.~or:,,..
. ,.. ~
E d
,...
1.25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
1.26
Use and/or disclosure
c ,: topro.r ,,
_11
~l
,.;
nee ,.i'<1
TTS Integrated
Training System
--
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.2 Performance
2.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1gn, ir cs v, ti
,.;11, I
ciuoecp c.,o n question pracucc aid
t
CopyrightNotice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
2.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'"
, v,.
ce 11d
Table of Contents
4
Thrust
Momentum Thrust
Choked Nozzle Thrust or Pressure Thrust
Net Thrust
Gross Thrust
Gas Turbine Working Cycle and Airflow
Thrust Distribution
5
6
6
6
7
8
9
9
9
Efficiency
Propulsive Efficiency
Propulsive Efficiency Graphs
Thermal Efficiency
Overall Efficiency
Engine Compression Ratio
Specific Fuel Consumption
11
Thrust Factors
The International Standard Atmosphere
Variation of Thrust with Altitude, Temperature and Airspeed
16
Engine Ratings
Flat Rating
Engine Power Ratings
21
11
11
13
13
14
15
21
21
16
17
2.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~ ,i JI d i1 asso, id ., Y Ir ti
clutd,p,C.uv,'l quesnon pracncc ~
2.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
rt'
c JbbbprO.t;O . ...
..
,..
it
'
e <lid
Figure 2.1: Inlet velocity (Va), outlet velocity (Vj), and inlet mass flow rate ( m)
Momentum Thrust
From Newton's Second Law
Force = Mass x Acceleration
But Thrust is a Force
Therefore
Thrust
= Mass x Acceleration
2.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated
Training System
- .
Net Thrust
Net thrust takes into account the term Va in the momentum thrust formula therefore net thrust
varies with airspeed.
Gross Thrust
When the aircraft is stationary on the ground the value of Va is zero
Therefore Gross thrust=
m Vj + pressure thrust
Gross thrust is that thrust developed when the engine is stationary on the ground or on the test
bed
Gross Thrust is sometimes known as Static Thrust
2.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c' b&opr
,)
1i'.
.<"O ,
AIR
INTA.KE
__ L
COMPRESSION
.--
Ocg C
Ft/
3000
3000
500
2000
2500
2000
500
000
500
0
ieoo
1CO:)
500
0
COMBUSTION
EXPANSION
EXHAUST
b /r;q
'50
25
I
TOT AL PRESSuRE
100
75 - -
so
75
0
!'.'.'. _,.
___,,,
../'I
TYPICAL
IF d
I
/~
- -T
VCLO:f:11
----~--SINGLE-SPOOL
....
EM PERA URE~
I
I
AXIAL
I
AXIAL
~ ten perature
---
r\
I\ .
cf-l
I
....__
--,
I
--
Fl OW TURBO-JET
ENGINE
Figure 2.2: Pressure, temperature and velocity distributions through a turbo-jet engine
As the air is induced into the compressor the pressure and temperature rise. Note that velocity
which you would expect to decrease remains almost constant due to the convergent annulus
formed by the compressor casing and the compressor rotor.
Fuel is added to the combustion chamber and ignited. Flame temperature rapidly increases to a
level far greater than the melting point of the turbines, so the remainder of the air is added to the
combustor and the temperature reduces as the air reaches the turbines.
Note that the pressure through the combustor remains almost constant. (See the Constant
Pressure cycle diagram in section 15.1) . Velocity of the gases increases as the gases pass
through the convergent nozzles of the turbine and pressure decreases
If the pressure is above atmospheric as it leaves the jet pipe then pressure thrust will be
generated in addition to the momentum thrust.
It is worth noting at this point that the Speed of Sound (and its associated shock waves) rises as
temperature rises. At ISA conditions Speed of Sound= 315 m/s. Due to the high temperatures
the hot section of the engine will not suffer shock effects until the exit nozzle is reached. The
nozzle being sized to just choke the nozzle to enable maximum momentum thrust to be
obtained with little or no pressure thrust.
2.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
) si r,ed i 1 as -o 1ticr w, h t~
clubv...,prl,.COm question practice
u,~
Thrust Distribution
Ui=t
PROPELLING
NOZZLE
COMPRESSOR
DIFFUSER
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
TUR~NE
I
EXHAUST UNIT
ANO JET PIPE I
I I
Figure 2.3: Forward loads and rearward loads on a turbo-jet engine
At the start of the cycle, air is induced into the engine and is compressed. The rearward accelerations through the compressor stages and the resultant pressure rise produces a large reactive
force in a forward direction. On the next stage of its journey the air passes through the diffuser
where it exerts a small reactive force, also in a forward direction.
From the diffuser the air passes into the combustion chamber where it is heated, and in the
consequent expansion and acceleration of the gas large forward forces are exerted on the
chamber walls.
When the expanding gases leave the combustion chambers and flow through the nozzle guide
vanes they are accelerated and deflected on to the blades of the turbine. Due to the acceleration and deflection, together with the subsequent straightening of the gas flow as it enters the jet
pipe, considerable 'drag' results; thus the vanes and blades are subjected to large rearward
forces, the magnitude of which may be seen on the diagram. As the gas flow passes through
the exhaust system, small forward forces may act on the inner cone or bullet, but generally only
rearward forces are produced and these are due to the 'drag' of the gas flow at the propelling
nozzle.
It will be seen that during the passage of the air through the engine, changes in its velocity and
pressure occur.
Where the conversion is to velocity energy, 'drag' loads or rearward forces are produced; where
the conversion is to pressure energy, forward forces are produced.
2.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Training System
Copyright 2011
=2
NT
2 NT
33000
Brake Horsepower
To measure shaft horsepower it is usual to use a brake dynamometer. Hence,
Horsepower is sometimes known as Brake Horsepower. Numerically it is the same.
Shaft
= SHP
+ Jet Thrust
If the aircraft is in flight then the efficiency of the propeller must be taken into account.
ESHP
= SHP
2.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
[ si ne J in ~- ,c'c.1tir., w1tr ti
clubo6p1~.uvl'1 question pracncc u;J
Intentionally Blank
2.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ot this chapter
l'lllbt>t:,pr
.CO .. -.
. p
u-. CE lid
Efficiency
Propulsive Efficiency
Propulsive efficiency is concerned with the efficiency of the engine to drive the aircraft in flight.
If Pett = propulsive efficiency
Va = Aircraft speed
Vi = Exhaust Velocity
Then
Pett
2.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c
41
c,._
80
>-
60
Sd
u.
u.
w
w
40
>
(/')
_J
::,
0..
20
a:
n,
200
400
600
AIRSPEED m p.h.
800
JOOO
2.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,l
, f-'
1.
'Cl
Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency is the ratio of net work produced by the engine to the fuel energy input. As
with propulsive efficiency it cannot be measured in the cockpit but can be calculated by utilizing
a fuel flow indication
Thermal Efficiency
Overal I Efficiency
It is necessary to combine both of the above efficiencies when looking for a powerplant to suit a
particular application.
Overall Efficiency= Propulsive Eff. x Thermal Eff.
For example if Pett = 70% and Thermal Eff. = 40% then
Overall efficiency = 70% x 40%
= 28%.
Thermal Efficiency Curves
OVERALL
AIRBPEEO
Figure 2.5: Propulsive, thermal and overall efficiencies, variation with speed
Propulsive efficiency increases as airspeed approaches exhaust velocity values.
2.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EFFICIENCY OI' C IT
1:
I
--------~0-'"-----------------i------.....-------,.O
I
11
24
32
COIIPRE890R PRESSURE RATIO
2.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
4u.:.
I-'
del
SpecificFuel Consumption
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) is sometimes called 'the engine man's efficiency'.
SFC is defined as the ratio of fuel consumed per pound of thrust produced. SFC is inversely
proportional to efficiency. In other words the lower the SFC the higher the efficiency.
Units of SFC in a pure Jet engine are - lb/hr/lb thrust
In a Turbo Jet Engine - lb/hr/SHP
>u
eCl)
v
I.:
.....
w
v
s::
ro
o
u..
(/)
\1I
I
I
__
' . . ._,
,,........:-.
.,. Efficiency
'
',
//
SFC
~-
2.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Thrust Factors
The International Standard Atmosphere
ALTITUDE
(h)
AHIIIENT TEMPERATURE
(To)
Deg. K. Deg. C. Deg. F.
Feet
Metres
-1,000
-304,8
0
4 104.8
609.6
914.4
1219,'Z
1521.0
290.13
209.15
286.17
28'1.19
28221
280 23
2.78.2'1
+ 16.<JB
IS.00
13.lU
11.04
9.06
9,000
10,000
1828.8
2133.6
2-438.4
2743.2
30'18.0
276.26
274.29
272 30
270.32
268.34
11,000
12,000
13,000
1-4,000
15.000
3352.8
3657.6
3962,<f
4267.2
-4572.0
2.66.36
16'438
262.39
160 ... 1
259.43
16,000
4876..S
17,000
5181.6
18,000
19,000
20.000
5486.'I
5791.2
6096.0
21,000
6-400.8
6705.6
7010.4
7315.2
7620.0
216.54
?.44.56
242.58
240.60
136.62
-26.61
-28.5'1
-30.57
792-4.8
8229.6
8534.4
883').2
91-44.0
236.64
234.66
232.68
230.69
128.71
9HB,O
9753.6
10058.4
10363.2
10{.68.0
10972.8
0
... 1.000
2.000
3,000
4,000
s.eoo
6,000
7,000
8,000
22.000
23,000
24.000
25,000
zs.eoo
27.000
28,000
29,000
30,000
31,000
32.000
33,000
34,000
3$,000
36,000
36,089
)7,000
JS,000
39,000
40.000
11000.0
11177.6
11582.4
118871
12192.0
45,000
13716,0
S0,000
55,000
60,000
ss.ooo
15240.0
1676-4.0
18288.0
198120
AMBleNT PRESSURE
(Po)
lh./sq. in.
millibars
15.24
1469
14 !7
),09
62.6
590
55.4
51.9
48 3
-447
ii 2
J.11
1.13
-0.85
-2.83
37.6
3-4.0
30 5
26.9
-4.81
-6.79
-8.77
23)
II 78
I l.34
1092
10.51
7.08
13.66
13.17
12.69
12 23
10 If
1050.4
1013.2
977.1
942.1
908.1
875.J
843,0
811.9
781.8
752.6
724.3
696.8
-10.76
-12.7'1
-14.72
19.8
16.2
12.6
9,1
SS
9.72
9JS
8.98
8.GJ
156.45
-1.70
1.9
25'1.47
252.'19
-18.68
-20.66
-22.64
-24.62
-L6
-S.2
7 97
7.65
7.3'4
549.J
527.2
-8,8
-12.3
7.04
6.48
6.21
5.95
S.69
-34.53
-15.9
-19.5
-:23.0
-16.6
-30.2
-36.51
-3U<J
-33.7
-37.3
-40.47
-42,46
-44.44
226.7.3
22475
222.77
220.79
218.81
216.83
?16.65
250.SI
2"8.53
670.2
644,4
6l'M
59S.t
571.7
SP5ED Of SOUN.ll
(ao}
ft.fs0c..
knots
m.isec.
1120.J
1116.6
111:2.6
1108.7
J 104.9
3<1!.5
66).3
66(.1
658.9
656.S
.H0.3
319.1
337.9
1100.9
1097.1
654.2
651.9
33.6.8
335.6
6'19.6
.334.4
1093.2
1089.3
1085.J
1081.4
1077.4
647.&
61-1,9
6-1.U
6'10.3
637.9
333.2
332.0
330.8
329.6
J28.4
1073.4
1069.4
635.6
633.2
325.9
327.l
IO&S.<t
630.S
1061.1
1057.l
628:4
626.0
48~.6
"!65.6
JOSJ.3
1049.2
1045.1
1040.9
1036.9
623.6
621.2
61S.8
616.4
613.9
5.45
446.4
427.9
409.9
391.7
375.9
1032.7
1028.6
1024.4
1020.2
1015,9
611.S
609.0
606.S
604.1
601.6
314.8
313.5
Jl2.2
310.9
3C9.7
5.22
359.9
10} l.8
1007.S
599.1
314.3
-40.9
4.99
4.78
329.3
1003.2
308.4
307.1
-+'1:4
-48.0
4.57
4.36
3"4.8
300.9
998.9
99"'7
-'16.12
-48.40
-50.38
-52.36
-54.3'1
-!',I.(,
4,17
3.98
3.80
3.63
3.46
287.4
274.S
990.3
986.0
981.7
566.'!
583.8
977.3
576.7
-56.32
-!>6.50
-69.4
-69,7
-32.55
Ambient temperature
-55 l
-58.7
-62.3
-65.8
remains
constant from this pornt up to
65,617 ft
829
6.75
3.29
3.28
).14
2.99
2.85
2.72
2.14
1.68
Ul
1,(),4
0.82
505.9
161.9
249.9
238.4
2.27.3
.226.3
216.6
206.5
196.8
187.S
596.6
594.0
591.5
SQS.9
J'H.7
323.S
322.3
321.1
.319.8
318.S
317.3
316.1
305.S
.304.S
)03 ..2
972.9
576.I
301.9
300.5
299.2
297.9
296.5
968.5
968.1
573.4
573.2
2'l5.2
295.1
581.2
147.5
115.9
912
71.7
56.4
2.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r"l
clubtibpo.c r. ~--
. ~
.1
STD.
. IN,C.
'
.
'.
'~
2.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1W
"ti
....~
>
cu
..,,Q;>
....s::
JI,)
~
ii)
. 50
Q..
.....,,I
...c:
f-.
o .....----------------------------------50,000 Ft
Altitude
Figure 2.10: Thrust decreases with altitude
The altitude effect on thrust is shown above. Thrust decreases with altitude, given constant
airspeed and RPM.
Whilst temperature is decreasing with altitude so is pressure. Since the temperature lapse rate
is less than the pressure lapse rate as altitude is decreased, the density is decreased and as a
result thrust will decrease.
2.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,t',,, ,
fJ
tlC'e did
.....
:a..,
.....
ti
..c
With ram
'
Increase
..
TAS
2.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
0 s;9n, J i
o '
t t
c'ut,66p1v.~orn quosnon practice ..id
1:
System
tic,,
Intentionally Blank
2.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c uosspr .cor
yu
!I
,wv
I''
(.
r
ic
Engine Ratings
Flat Rating
As OAT increase for a given maximum throttle setting the engine thrust increases to a thrust
limit. This is known as the flat rated thrust and is usually quoted at the maximum ambient
temperature allowed (i.e. 42,000 lb thrust at 59F) Above this temperature, sometimes known
as the kink point or corner point the engine will exceed the maximum exhaust gas temperature
limit and will become temperature limited.
TET/THRUST
ABOVE THE CORNERPOINT TEMERA TURE
TIIRUST IS LIMITED BY THE MAX TGT LIMIT
UP TO THE CORNERPOINT
TEMPERATURE MAXIMUM
THRUST IS AVAILABLE
THRUST
-----------:"-......_
:
<,
.....................
.........
........
CORNERPOINT
<,
<, .......
,,
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
2.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
qn
clUt>l:>t>pr
in
.
TakeoffWet Thrust/SHP
This rating represents the maximum power available while in water injection and is time limited.
It is used only during takeoff operation. Engines are trimmed to this rating.
Takeoff Dry Thrust/SHP
Limits on this rating are the same as takeoff wet but without water injection. Engines are
trimmed to this rating.
Maximum ContinuousThrust/SHP
This rating has no time limit but is to be used only during emergency situations at the discretion
of the pilot, for example, during one engine-out cruise operation.
Maximum Climb Thrust/SHP
Maximum climb power settings are not time limited and are to be used for normal climb, to
cruising altitude, or when changing altitudes. This rating is sometimes the same as maximum
continuous.
Maximum Cruise Thrust/SHP
This rating is designed to be used for any time period during normal cruise at the discretion of
the pilot.
Idle Speed
This power setting is not actually a power rating but, rather, the lowest usable thrust setting for
either ground or flight operation.
2.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
, ~ -1 ce ..110
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category 81
Gas Turbine Engine
15.3 Inlet
3.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
3.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c1uoobro. or..
Table of Contents
General~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-5
Description
Purpose
5
5
Ram
Definitions
Intake MomentumDrag
7
7
Intake Design
Pitot Intakes
Divided Entrance Intakes
9
1O
SupersonicIntakes
13
13
13
16
17
17
18
3.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
3.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c. mu;pr . c
1.
'
, ~ ,
c ad
2
3
4
Deliver to the engine an adequate mass flow of air under any engine operating condition.
The air must be delivered evenly across the face of the compressor, free from turbulence
at approximately M = 0.4.
Must make maximum use of RAM pressure.
Produce minimum airframe drag.
3.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
3.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c:11, espro.cor ..
'i'
_..,t.., .
.,,u
1c
Ram
Definitions
Total Head Pressure
The pressure of the air when brought to rest in front of the intakes.
Ram Ratio
The ratio of the total pressure (Pt) at the compressor entry to static pressure (P s) at the
intake entry i.e. PtfPs (See figure 3.1)
Ram Recovery
To convert as much of the intake air velocity as possible to pressure at the face of the engine. If
all available ram pressure is converted, it is known as "TOTAL PRESSURE RECOVERY".
Ram Compression
Ram Compression increases in pressure within the intake at substantial forward speeds.
--
When an aircraft is stationary, the engine intake is of little interest, in fact, a slight depression
exists within it. Ram compression causes redistribution of the energy existing in the air stream.
As the air in the intake slows in endeavouring to pass into and through the compressor element
against the air, increasing pressure and density which exists therein, so the kinetic energy of the
air in the intake decreases. This is accompanied by a corresponding increase in its pressure
and internal energies and consequently compression of the air stream is achieved within the
intake, thus converting the unfavourable intake lip conditions into the compressor inlet
requirements.
Although ram compression improves the performance of the engine, it must be realised that
during the process there is a drag force on the engine and hence the aircraft. This drag must be
accepted, since it is a penalty inherent in a ram compression process. The added thrust more
than makes up for the increase in drag.
The degree of ram compression depends on the following:1
2
3
4
5
The frictional losses at those surfaces ahead of the intake which are "wetted" by the
intake airflow.
Frictional losses at the intake duct walls.
Turbulence losses due to accessories or structural members located in the intake.
Aircraft speed.
In a turbo-prop engine, drag and turbulence losses due to the propeller, blades and
spinner.
3.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
d in <
C(Ububprv.vviTI
, 1t n "'' n tic
question practice 3iO
Intentionally Blank
3.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
if~e)
~
--
Jbt.bpro.cor
.. ,
,,
C"f' d d
Intake Design
The following types of intake can be seen on modern aircraft:1
2
3
4
Pi tot
Divided Entrance
Variable Geometry
External/Internal Compression
Pitot Intakes
This intake is suitable for subsonic or low supersonic speeds. The intake is usually short and is
very efficient because the duct inlet is located directly ahead of the compressor. The duct is
divergent from front to rear with smooth gradual changes in shape
Efficiency will fall rapidly at sonic speeds due to shock wave formation at the lip. With increased
speeds above sonic, this shock wave will move backwards towards the compressor face. If the
shock wave enters the compressor, damage may occur and there is a high risk of compressor
surge.
----------:--
~-----
Static
Pressure
(Ps)
3.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
3.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
3.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
System
Intentionally Blank
3.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
... l
~ ',,
vl
c.e J d
Supersonic Intakes
It is required that the airflow onto the compressor face is subsonicregardless of the aircraft
speed, (Normally mach 0.4) if the rotating aerofoils are to remain free of shock wave
accumulation which would be detrimental to the compression process.
Additional to this, it is often necessary to restrict the amount of airflow entering the compressor
at supersonic speeds since the amount of airflow at this speed is simply not required.
At supersonic speeds, a Convergent-Divergent intake is found to be most effective, but at
subsonic speeds this type of intake is inefficient. The usual method of overcoming this is to use
a variable geometry inlet.
The ShockWave
An inlet shock is very similar to shock waves common to aircraft wings and other aerofoils. A
shock wave is defined as an accumulation of sound energy, or pressure, developed when the
wave, trying to move away from an object, is held in a stationary position by the oncoming flow
of air. One useful aspect of the shock wave is that airflow passing through the high pressure
shock region slows down.
Variable Throat Area Inlet
The diagram of the concord inlet (Figure 3.5(a) and (b)) shows firstly an inlet at subsonic
speeds. The throat is a maximum size for maximum air inlet. The last diagram (Figure 3.5 (c))
shows the same inlet at supersonic speeds with the throat area reduced. The convergent part
breaks the airflow in to a series of weak shocks which slow down the air progressively. Any
unwanted air thereafter can be dumped by the spill valve.
--
3.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Prrnary
Va,rablE: Ramil$
Nozzle
..
3.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
tri~)
bt:ibpro.r'1
'J .
<J
'-i --::;,
., .,
a.o
The system is activated manually from within the cockpit. An anti-ice pressurisation and control
valve is activated and allows HP air to pass to the anti-ice manifold. The valve regulates the
pressure, to a figure of about 40 psi or below. Anti icing conditions are deemed to exist at below
+ 10 c with visible moisture, that is rain hail snow or fog.
In the event of valve failure it may be manually locked in the open position prior to take off.
TAI
MANIFOLD
T Al DISCHARGE --
SLOT
PRESSURE SWITCHES
INLET COWL
3.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.!
question
pr,1CIICL ~
ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS
Continuously
heated elements
Intermittently
heated elements
3.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
::>t.npr ..co
ir
u (1
When the ice protection system is in operation, the continuously heated areas prevent any ice
forming, but the intermittently heated areas allow ice to form, during their 'heat-off' period.
During the 'heat-on' period, adhesion of the ice is broken and aerodynamic forces then remove
it.
The cycling time of the intermittently heated elements is arranged to ensure that the engine can
accept the amount of ice that collects during the 'heat-off' period and yet ensure that the 'heaton' period is long enough to give adequate shedding without causing any run-back icing to
occur behind the heated areas.
A two-speed cycling system is often used to accommodate the propeller and spinner requirements; a 'fast' cycle at the high air temperatures when the water concentration is usually greater
and a slow' cycle in the lower temperature range
,-
MAXI
II
I2
w
AIR
INTAKE
PROP
AND
SPINNER
INTAKE
i
o,-
a:
cc
::,
.,._~~~----~~
MAX
AIR
INTAKE
ol
AIR
ONE_TI_M_r_s_w_r_rc_~_,c_Y_C_L_E
__~------~~-- .....
AIR
PROPELLER
AND
INTAKF
SPII' NER
L
r
VIL
3.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
!..'l 1nl J ir
clunc.,.; . .
.i ur w, 1 !ht,
n question p acticf _
Intentionally Blank
3.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'll.. tibpr.).C'Of,.
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
~
'iu
i,
~
t,nu~!
Ce ~ d
4.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
4.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
clubo6pro.corn ... -~ _
.....;
ce aio
Table of Contents
Module 15.4 - Compressors
Introduction
Types of Compressor
CentrifugalCompressors
Advantagesand Disadvantages
Configurations
7
8
9
13
General
Advantages
Principleof Operation
Multi-SpoolDesign
High BypassCompressorSystems (Bypassratio >4:1)
Triple Spool High Bypass (Bypass Ratio >4:1)
Construction
SecuringMethods
Fans
Low Aspect Ratio Fan
Fan Blade Balancing
Aerodynamicsof the Axial Flow Compressor
13
14
14
15
17
18
20
23
25
26
27
28
29
CombinationCompressors
29
30
30
32
33
33
35
4.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
uesigr d in ass
ti r with tt>
club66ro.c0m question practice 3,J
Objective
Compressors
Axial and centrifugal types;
Constructional features and operating principles and
applications;
Fan balancing;
Operation:
Causes and effects of compressor stall and
surge;
Methods of air flow control: bleed valves,
variable inlet
guide vanes, variable stator vanes, rotatinq stator blades;
Compressor ratio.
4.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EASA66
Reference
Level
81
15.4
Itri.;.14'"
r: ut-66po c r
,.
t e ilid
CompressorPressure Ratio
This is the ratio of compressor delivery pressure to compressor inlet pressure;
CPR =
The higher the value of CPR the more efficient the engine is likely to be.
O 200
la..
~
150
:.)
\,
Cl)
2
O 100
--'
~050
"' '
---
u,
u
u,
u
UJ
1
0
o,
Cl)
Figure 4.1:
10
20
30
PRESSURE AATJO
40
4.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
Types of Compressor
The following types of compressors are in use in modern gas turbine engines
1
2
Centrifugal compressors
Axial flow compressors
Combination of both
CentrifugalCompressors
These may be found in various forms e.g. single entry single stage, single entry multi-stage and
double entry single stage (double sided).
The compressor assembly has three main parts;
--
4.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
IMPELLER
DIFFUSER
DIFFUSER
OUTLET
INLET
4.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapler
_,
CIUt'o6pro.
Cl . yuc.
, v,
tc
dd
Copyright 2011
4.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
4.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
t' . ~ , ,
re alo
STATOR VANE
COMBUSTlON SVSTEM
MOUl'JTINu FLANGE
4.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
H.P. SHAFT
DRIVE FROM TURBINE
StlAFT
DRIVELP
FR~
TURBINE \
ACCESSORY DRIVE
COMBUSTION SYSTEM
MOUNTING FLANGE
Advantages
High Compression Ratio
High thrust
Low frontal area to enable fitment in wing mounted nacelles
Low Specific Fuel Consumption
Principle of Operation
The axial flow compressor works on the principle of continuous compression through each
stage of the compressor. A stage is defined as a rotor and a stator. All rotor and stator blades
form divergent ducts thus causing the continuous pressure rise. Prior to the first stage it is usual
to fit intake guide vanes to ensure the airflow is presented to the first stage rotor at the correct
angle. It can be seen from the diagram below that the blades decrease in length from front to
rear. This is to ensure that the axial velocity of the air remains approximately constant, even
though the air is being continually compressed.
4.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page :1 of this chapter
c,ut66p:J. v ,
Pressure
Temperature
'1~
~ . .,,
uce 10
---
---
Velocity _
Figure 4.9: Pressure Temperature and Velocity Gradients through a Single Spool Axial Flow
Compressor.
Multi-Spool Design
Theoretically a single spool axial flow compressor could be built to incorporate as many stages
as necessary to produce the required pressure ratio. Such a compressor would operate very
well at one particular speed for which it was designed. At other speeds however, when
accelerating or decelerating, the rearmost stages would tend to choke and the foremost stages
would be overloaded, this condition would produce a state of instability such as compressor
stall/surge. In addition the increased temperatures in the latter stages of a 20 stage single spool
compressor effectively reduce the amount per stage of pressure rise to an insignificant amount.
If the compressor is built in two or more sections, the front (LP or N1) and the rear (HP or N2)
sections and each compressor is an independent system, driven by separate turbine
assemblies through co-axial shafts, a greater flexibility of operation will be experienced. Other
airflow devices may not be required at all, or only on the HP system.
The speed of the HP compressor is governed by the Fuel Control Unit (i.e. more fuel, more
RPM resulting in a greater air mass flow and greater thrust), but the LP compressor is free to
seek its best operating speed, one that will provide a smooth airflow through the system.
The RPM relationship of one compressor to another (N1
Compressor Match.
4.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
The twin spool design also allows for a bypass duct to be constructed around the HP system
and combustor thus producing the low bypass turbo fan engine with a bypass ration of up to
3:1.
This type of engine is more efficient than a single spool engine (lower SFC). It is quieter due to
the cold air mixing within the jet pipe, and produces greater thrust.
Low Pressure
Compressor {N1)
High Pressure
Com presser (N2)
High Pressu re
Compressor
Drive Shaft
Low Pressure
Compressor
Drive Shatt
4.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
"~
, ~
r ca did
f AM D )SCHARGE
PRESSURE
FAN
DUCT
SECOND~RY AIRFLOW
PRINAAY AIRFLOW
FAN INtET
(PRIMAfO')
HPC l>ISCHAR6E
PRESSURE CCDP} AND TE"PtRATURE
HPC INLET fRESSURE
4.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
WING
PYLON
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
HP COMPRESSOR
HP TURBINE
CN3)
4.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
e
i"~
'
uv,
,u ...
ice
did
IP COMPRESSOR
HP COMPRESSOR
II
COMBUSTION
CASE
MOUNTING FLANGE
,,.,,.//
4.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Construction
Rotor Blades
COMPRESSOR STATOR
VANE TIP
VANES.MAYBE
STATIONARY OR
VARIABLE
---.---;-,/t STAGGER
ANGLE
DIRECTION
OF FLOW
I ...
ENDBEND
~ G(---7J,P.,
r\ . ///
L{
,fl
DIRECTION
CF ROTATION
Material:
Early blades:
Low Pressure:
High Pressure:
Aluminium
Steel
Modern Blades:
Titanium
STAGGER ANGLE
4.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1'
1 ........... ,
Stator Vanes
Stator vanes are secured into the compressor casing or into stator vane retaining rings, which
are then themselves secured into the compressor casing. It is necessary to lock the blades in
their housing to stop them migrating around the casing.
The blades are often shrouded at their inner ends to minimize the vibrational effect of flow
variations on the longer vanes.
Stator vanes may be fixed or variable, dependant on the number of stages of compression, the
higher number the more chance that the earlier stages will be variable
Materials
Casings-
Aluminium
Vanes
--
4.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
4.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
tri.J
c.lub66p<O.C0f
h:
~L'C
:v . ,
U'-'
lid
Securing Methods
Pinned
,..._
Dovetail
Dovetail Fixing
4.23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
0 ,, igr~d in a: s
1ti11r with the
cluLJ6pro.v~m question practice aic
4.24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
oespro.
0 , '-lu
'
~"
, "
U, id
Fans
The high bypass ratio fan blade only became a possibility with the availability of titanium, the
blade had to be light enough to be contained in the event of blade failure but stiff enough to
withstand the bending forces on the blade.
SPAN SUPPORTSHROUD~
4.25
Use and/or dlsclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
4.26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
. ,
11d
Replace the blade with one within a small tolerance of the original. Balance should not be
affected
Replace the blade with another of different weight then using a formula from the AMM fit
a correcting weight. If the new blade is lighter fit the weight at the blade location. If the
blade is heavier fit the weight at the diametrically opposite blade.
If the replacement blade is considerably different form the original replace the
diametrically opposite blade with an appropriately lighter or heavier blade.
After some considerable time in service the vibration level of the N1 spool can gradually
increase. This is probably not due to blade damage or movement, but due to the dry film
lubricant on the blade roots wearing. In this instance the fan blades should be removed, the
roots cleaned and the dry film lubricant replaced in accordance with the AMM.
Out of balance forces are indicated by their magnitude and direction, direction being given in the
form of phase angle from a known datum, usually the number 1 balance hole and magnitude in
the form of 'aircraft units'. This information is displayed on either cockpit EICAS or ECAM
systems or specialist balancing test equipment. Limits are given in the Aircraft Maintenance
Manual.
In service only fan balancing is possible. Engine removal is required if any other compressor I
turbine goes out of balance.
4.27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.1 in
<JS!"
CIUtCv.,,O.C,;m
LI ,11 "' it 1
,...-----~,
Forward vc:lodty
I
l
I
I
I
Rotl/Jtlonal
,chord
loclty
- -
tin
1Relat/ve
- - alrfl-ow
I
- -
'-.;io
Rotational
~ -
I
I Relative
- airflow
velocity
Figure 4.22: Blade angle of attack (aoa) increases with a decrease in rotational velocity
4.28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
v . ,
c,,ce dra
AIRFLOW Increasing
Figure 4.23: Compressor stall margin
Indications of Stall/Surge
During a ground run, abnormal noises, rumbles, bangs or moaning may be heard.
Rapid changes to the indicated values of RPM E.G.T. and E.P.R.
Poor throttle response
Effects of Stall/Surge
Reduction in engine life due to high EGT.
Changes in material properties and fatigue due to shock loading of components
4.29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CIUt,bdp,u.w,1'
Anti-Surge Devices
To prevent or reduce the risk of stall/surge and to maintain a smooth flow of air through the
compressor it is sometimes necessary to use a system of air flow control. The system may
include one or more of the following devices;
1
2
3
INL(l CUIO[
VANE
_/ff
1,1.n
GUIDE
V.AllE
- \<Ouso
ht STAGf
\.OW
qoro
~PHO
Figure 4.25: Inlet Guide Vanes at low and high rotor speeds
4.30
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
t>btpro.co:i
<
1U
,,
(.,
UV
'ce d d
They are hydraulically operated by fuel pressure and sensitive to Engine Rpm and Air Intake
Temperature.
The vanes are normally set to some angle relative to the engine axis (closed} at low engine
speed, and move to almost parallel to the engine axis (open) at high engine speed.
The VIGVs are positioned by the inlet guide vane actuator pilot valve, located in the fuel control,
which monitors N1 speed and compressor inlet temperature (T1 ). While setting the desired
position of the VIGVs, the actuator relays their position back to the fuel control through an
external feedback control rod to nullify the fuel pressure signal so that at any steady-state N1
speed between 80 and 95 percent, the inlet guide vanes will assume a constant position. The
VIGV actuator is mounted on the right side of the compressor housing assembly. The actuator
is controlled by main fuel pressure from the fuel control. Two fuel lines carry the fuel from the
fuel control to the VIGV actuator. This fuel pressure acts upon the piston inside the actuator to
move the VIGVs. The VIGVs are positioned by the inlet guide vane actuator control rod through
a synchronizing ring.
4.31
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Variable StatorVanes
For maximum efficiency, the angle of the stator blade should
give optimum angle of attack throughout the whole RPM
range. With variable angle stator systems, the vanes are
hydraulically actuated and controlled, usually by fuel pressure
from the FCU. The blades are controlled in relation to engine
RPM and air intake temperature.
At low RPM the blades are in their CLOSED position. As
RPM rises they pivot towards the OPEN and are fully open at
max RPM. Low intake temperature causes the blades to open
at a lower RPM and vice versa.
VSVs and VIGVs if fitted to the same compressor system
normally operate to the same schedule and are controlled and
actuated by the same system
4.32
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
f~,iJ
~,
b6 pro.co: ,...~
ti
, ,,, d
aid
T25
FEEDBACK CHAN B
FEEDBACK CHAN A
VARIABLE
STATOR
VANES
(VSV)
N1
N2
TAT
EEC
FEEDBACK CHAN B
FEEDBACK CHAN A
,--1
INJ
-,.......,.,_.,.....---,,
I EHSV ..,.,....,......,__,,........,..---1
--f-
~--
VARIABLE
BYPASS
VALVES (12)
(VBV)
VBV ACTUATOR
(2)
VARIABLE BYPASS
VALVES CVBV) (12)
LOW PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR
VARIABLE STATOR
VANES (VSV)
~
SERVO FUEL
PRESSURE
HYDROMECHANICAL
UNIT (HMU)
4.33
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
4.34
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
I
t.
. ,,.~ ice c:. d
Combination Compressors
To take advantage of the several good points of both the centrifugal and the axial flow
compressors and to eliminate some of their disadvantages, the combination axial/centrifugal
compressor was designed. This application is currently being used in many small turbine
engines installed in business jets and helicopters.
4.35
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
4.36
Use and/or disclosure
~--
~1!;
01,
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
' n
I'
u~ ~E uld
5.1
Use andlor disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
5.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
. , '"
-,
ice ad
Table of Contents
,....-.
Introduction
Components
Combustion Process
Carbon Formation
11
Materials
11
Design Requirements
13
15
15
16
17
5.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1, 11 "11 w1tr t
questior pracncc "'J
5.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c Jbt6pr .
l'
The combustion system has to burn large quantities of fuel, with large volumes of compressed
air and then release the heat energy so that the air is expanded and accelerated rapidly, to give
a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions required by the turbine.
Components
The combustion chamber system consists of the following components;
Perforated flame tube(s)
Outer air casing(s)
A burner system
Igniter plugs
A number of different chamber layouts are in current use but all function in basically the same
manner.
SWIRL
VANES
FLAME TUBE
/(~~~~
FUEL SPRAY
NOl.ZLE
PRIMAflY ?ONE
NfEHCONNCCTOR
-.
CORRUGATED JOINT
sc41.1Nu
La
5.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
w1tr
Intentionally Blank
5.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lububpr . or..
'1u~~..
, .,,uv
Combustion Process
Air from the compressor enters the combustion chamber system at up to 150 mis and is
diffused to raise the static pressure and lower the velocity to about 24 mis. This velocity is still
too high since the speed of burning kerosene is only a few mis and a region of low axial velocity
has therefore to be created in the e chamber to ensure that the flame will remain alight.
PRIMARY ZQN~ __
.....:O_IL;;;.;U_'T_IO"""N___::Z
__
O_N..;:.E
._1
;:;;;-
..
The overall air/fuel ratio of a combustion chamber can vary between 45: 1 to 130: 1 but since
kerosene only burns efficiently at about 15: 1 , the fuel is burned with only part of the air
entering the chamber in what is usually called the PRIMARY combustion zone.
Part of the mass airflow is taken by the snout, passes through the perforated flare and through
the swirl vanes into the primary combustion zone, to give the correct air/fuel ratio in the primary
combustion zone. This swirling air promotes an upstream flow of LOW AXIAL VELOCITY
and the desired RECIRCULATION. The remaining air flows into the annular space between
the flame tube and the air casing and this is fed through holes in the wall of the flame tube to
5.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.n.JP
'U.U\,,
l
n
,i
1 t 'lur--+on oract1C1.
U.lj
join the air from the swirl vanes and flare. These airflows interact, creating a region of low
velocity recirculation in the form of a TORROIDAL VORTEX (similarto a smoke ring)which
stabilisesand anchorsthe flame to the front of the burnerassembly.
The conical fuel spray or vapour from the burner intersects the recirculation air vortex at its
centre, thus assisting the mixing of the air and the fuel.
The airflow in the primary zone, known as the burningtotal reaches a temperature of approx
2000C which is far too hot for entry to the Nozzle Guide Vanes of the turbine. The hot gasses
are therefore diluted by the remainder of the airflow entering the flame tube and the air casing.
Of this air some is used for cooling the chamber walls and the rest is the dilution total.
5.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
...oot.pro.cor.. '1'"-~
. p u~:
E. d d
CombustionChamber Cooling
Due to the very high temperatures involved, the walls of the chamber must be cooled and/or
protected from the effects of heat in any of the following ways;
FLAME TUBE
">.
~ ~y
~
FILM OF
//coOLING
Aln
......~
CORRUGATED STRIP COOLING
FILM OF
COOUNG AIR
SPLASH COOLING
srrn P
TRANSPIRATION
COOL ING
5.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
5.10
Use and/or disclosure ls
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lt.llbbpr ..
fl
r:
r.,
~u
J,.,
."CEJ d d
Carbon Formation
Some engines tend to produce exhaust smoke at take-off conditions. This indicates that carbon
particles are being formed in over-rich regions of the primary zone in conditions of low
turbulence, at high temperature and pressure. However, smoke represents an almost negligible
loss in combustion efficiency of less than 0.3%. In modern high by-pass ratio engines it has
been almost eliminated by detailed redesign of the airflow pattern in the primary zone of the
combustion chamber.
Materials
The air casing walls and the flame tube must be capable of resisting the very high gas
temperatures in the primary zone. In practise, this is achieved by the use of the best heat
resisting materials available and by cooling the inner walls of the flame tube as an insulation
from the flame.
The combustion chamber must also withstand
corrosion due to the products of combustion,
creep failure due to temperature gradients and
fatigue due to vibrational stresses.
5.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
)t
:J11E.; 1 a c ,c, it
~1thIt,
ciuousprccom question practice. .,id
Intentionally Blank
5.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
-,u
., r, ~ v!Ce aid
Design Requirements
The combustion system must provide the following;
--
5.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
5.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ti
Ubofpn.LOf ... -
'f'
u ,;CE did
'\/1ANIFOLO
ENGINE
FlRESEAL
CHAMBER
--
AIR
CASING
PRIMARY
AIR SCOOP
TUBE
PRIMARY
FUEi
MANlfOL O
INTERCONNECTOi1
5.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
DlfTUSEA CASI'
5.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ol this chapter
SECONDARY
AIH HOLES
.--
The main advantage of the annular chamber is that, for the same power output, the length of
the chamber is only 75 per cent of that of a tuba-annular system of the same diameter, resulting
in considerable saving of weight and production cost. Another advantage is the elimination of
combustion propagation problems from chamber to chamber.
In comparison with a tuba-annular combustion system, the wall area of a comparable annular
chamber is much less; consequently the amount of cooling air required to prevent the burning of
the flame tube wall is less, by approximately 15 per cent. This reduction in cooling air raises the
combustion efficiency to virtually eliminate unburnt fuel, and oxidizes the carbon monoxide to
non-toxic carbon dioxide, thus reducing air pollution.
5.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
FLAME TUBE
COMBUSTION
OUTER CAS,NG
FUEi MAN1mLo
C.UM~Rt:5SOR CASING
MOUNTING !=LANGE
DILUTION
AIR H()I F~
5.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1ubti6pro.cor
Si
,~
1 f' ,. !1<
e ai1
COMSUSTION
ASSY
LINER ASSY
NOZlLE
CHAMBER
GAS GENERAlOR
CASE .4SSr
~--t ___.. . ,
p,.r_.._
POWfR 11JR81Nf
--------!l
P()W(R TUR81N
GUIDE VANE
5.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
!r~~Y
~I
Intentionally Blank
5.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,JtbbP
o.cor . ...,~
- . ,.,.~
e tl
--
,--
,,.-
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
--_
6-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
_ _,,
_ _,
6-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ot this cbapter
'
1id
Types of Turbine
The following types of turbine may be used in a gas turbine engine
Impulse Turbines
Reaction Turbines
Impulse/Reaction Turbines
Radial Inflow Turbines
Impulse Turbines
The impulse turbine transfers the energy of the gas flow to the turbine wheel by impulse (or
impact). The nozzle is convergent, the inlet area being larger than the discharge area. as the
gases leave the nozzle they are accelerated, resulting in a decrease in pressure and
temperature. The accelerated gases are directed by the Nozzle Guide Vanes onto the turbine
blades (buckets) at the best angle of attack to cause rotation. The cross sectional flow area
of the rotor is constant, consequently there is no significant change in gas temperature,
pressure or speed across the rotor.
Note: There is a velocity change across the impulse rotor due to a change in gas direction with
NO CHANGE in gas speed. The force producing the change in velocity has a REACTION force
which acts on each turbine rotor blade.
The torque produced will be the sum of the forces on all the blades times the effective disc
radius.
In addition to contributing to the production of torque, the acceleration of the gases from the
impulse turbine nozzle also lowers the temperature of the gases. In some cases this becomes
an important factor in reducing the blade operating temperature, so allowing higher turbine inlet
temperatures. An alternative approach is to use the lower blade temperature to prolong blade
life.
VANE PAIRS FORM
A CONVERGENT DUCT
TURBINE
NOZZLE~
v:' ~ ''
i.."...t..t..
\e.
6-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine the primary nozzle function is to direct the gases at the proper angle onto
the turbine rotor blades. The nozzle has a constant flow area and gases flow through the
nozzle with relatively constant pressure, temperature and speed. On the rotor, the cross
sectionalflow area is smaller at the discharge than at the rotor inlet
VANE PAIRS FORM
A STRAIGHT DUCT
TURBINE
~
NOZZLE..........-~
Jlllllllllllmll
T~t:6~~~~~~~~~
Figure 6.3: Reaction turbine vanes form parallel ducts
As the gas flows through the reaction turbine rotor, the gas stream is turned, speed increased,
pressure and temperature decreased. The acceleration of the gases through the turbine rotor
creates an equal and opposite reaction which applies a force on each blade and this total force
multiplied by the effective radius of the disc produces the torque to drive the shaft.
6-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
. ,,,,
Impulse-Reaction Turbines
Gas turbine engines used for aircraft propulsion utilise both impulse and reaction. The typical
blade design is shown below.
VELOCITY
DECREASES
PRESSURE INCREASES
( From root to tip
across nozzles )
-.-...--..,;......~
~~~
Pressure and
Velocity -
velocity
uniform
on enteririg
Static
exhaust
system
pressure
NOZZLE
BLADE
IMPULSE ROOT
REACTJON TIP
6-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.: 1Ji ;r
c Ut,vvflV- ,v,I'
\,.Ir
QUCSIIOrl
-t
practice
av
)Jg
STAGGER ANGL
DIRECTION
OF FLOW -~------
[)~
DIRECTION
OF ROTAllON
J_~
-~1
STAGGER ANGLf
6-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C' Jbt,bpr
. t
.COi, 1,
',v,. p u
,,.,
CO :d
RADIALINFLOW
TURBINE WHEEL
INLET\...._
AIR
TURBINE
NOlllE
VANES
6-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
6-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
----
11\..
1
UtlbbprO.
L ;j.,
i
,~
hC
uid
Turbine Construction
Nozzle Guide Vanes
6-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
0-'!sioned ,,, , ,
::,.
,; r
~1th
r.
Turbine Discs
Turbine Blades
A brief mention of some of the points to be considered in connection with turbine blade design
will give an idea of the importance of the correct choice of blade material. The blades, while
glowing red-hot, must be strong enough to carry the centrifugal loads due to rotation at high
speed. A small turbine blade weighing only two ounces may exert a load of over two tons at top
speed and it must withstand the high bending loads applied by the gas to produce the many
thousands of turbine horse-power necessary to drive the compressor. Turbine blades must also
be resistant to fatigue and thermal shock, so that they will not fail under the influence of high
frequency fluctuations in the gas conditions, and they must also be resistant to corrosion and
oxidization. In spite of all these demands, the blades must be made in a material that can be
accurately formed and machined by current manufacturing methods.
6-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Training
System
Copyright 2011
--
"'
IUbbbp
-"
. 01 .. 1u ~,
.,tlr
t' t'!
aid
Close examination of a conventional turbine blade reveals a myriad of crystals that lie in all
directions (equi-axed). Improved service life can be obtained by aligning the crystals to form
columns along the blade length, produced by a method known as Directional Solidification. A
further advance of this technique is to make the blade out of a single crystal. Each method
extends the useful creep life of the blade and in the case of the single crystal blade, the
operating temperature can be substantially increased.
Conventional
Grain
Structure
Equi-axed Grain
Structure
Single Crystal
Grain
Structure
6-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
..jL
st"
. ,.. ~. ic
.o
COOLING
AIROUT
'
--
\
\
GILL
HOLES
TRAILING
EDGE
HOLES
......
----
,-
SURFACE
ALM
COOLING
AIROUT
--.....
:
COOLING
AIROUT
FIR TREE
SERRATIONS
FIR TREE
SERRATIONS
AIRIN
6-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
fracture
Total Elongation
1
-~
Stage III
Stage II
rrurumum
creep
rate
Inmal Load
Time
-....
The end of the secondary phase will be the time that limits the blade safe life.
6-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C UDt>6p 0.(
CON'JENTJC
I!. -
..,, , ..,
_11ce t.ltd
1
DIRECT10NALLV SOLIDIFIED TUR81NE l'3L.4DE
10 S !:Jladtl
6-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
* FRACTURE
SINGLE CRYSTAL BLADES
DfRECTIONALLY
BLADES
SOLIDIFIED
0
I-
c.:J
z
0
...J
EOUI-AXED
BLADES
TIME
Figure 6.14: The effect of improved grain structure on fatigue life
6-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Oeeiqr,,,d ir s. o . I or with tt
club66~.~.-:01Pquestion practice aiu
.... .,. ,
... .,.,:,
:,
.,
~ .,,
...
',
~ 1,
'
'
I
Figure 6.14: Blade cooling passages
6-20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
...
...
, ; .Jl aid
6-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Abraid1ble
llnlng
Knife
edge
TVRB NE BlAOE
SHAOUO
6-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Ubbbp
r. . ._..,
,..
I CO a:d
6-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
6-24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
01.
..
AIR COOLING
MANIFOLD
6-25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
6-26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
t-
c-11.1boopro.co1,
s ,
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15. 7 Exhausts
7.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Copyright Notice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
7.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,-4
':::]
,'I
pracnce a1ct
Table of Contents
Construct
ion
Purpose
Thrust Reverser Variations
Cascade Vanes and Blocker doors
Reverse Thrust Control
6
6
7
7
8
10
11
11
14
15
17
17
18
21
23
7.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
7.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ciuoeeprc.con
-c;,,
'-tu- ..n
::i
c .. "
u.:.
ice aict
Function
To safely direct the exhaust gases rearwards to atmosphere at a velocity and density necessary
to produce the required thrust.
For optimum thrust, from a given mass, the gases must be expanded completely and
discharged in a laminar, vortex free and axially orientated flow.
The exhaust system consists of the following components: -
--
-----
TURBINE REAR
ST AGL
TURBINE Rl:AP.
SUPPORT !:>""fRU
rs
'--
7.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Construction
Exhaust Casing, Inner Cone and Supports
The exhaust casing fits onto the rear of
the turbine casing and houses the cone
and its support struts. The casing is
usually tapered to the rear, and the
exhaust gas thermocouples may be
fitted here.
The inner cone shields the rear face of
the turbine disc from the exhaust gases
and smoothes the gas flow. It increases
the exhaust area to the rear, minimising
gas velocity and thus frictional losses in
the exhaust duct or jet pipe.
The inner cone is supported in place by
thin struts of symmetrical aerofoil
section. These supply services to the
turbine rear bearing and serve as
straightener vanes to remove swirl from
the gasses.
Figure 7.2: A sectioned view of the inner cone and supports
SubsonicNozzles
The nozzle is fitted at the final end of the exhaust duct and for subsonic aircraft it will be
CONVERGENT in shape.
The velocity of the turbine discharge gases is relatively low but it is increased before they are
discharged to atmosphere from the exhaust nozzle. This convergent duct converts much of the
heat and pressure energy in the gases into kinetic energy. The gases thus leave the nozzle at
high velocity (near sonic).
The area of any exhaust nozzle is important, because this dictates the efficiency with which
thrust is produced. The area is dependant on turbine discharge conditions and is fixed by the
engine manufacturer, although is sometimes adjustable. In any event the maximum velocity
across a convergent nozzle will be Mach 1.0 as a shock wave will form at the throat of the
nozzle and thus limit the velocity.
7.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Int!)
~
c ub66pro.cor. ~
';I
<;-,(v,
..,
{l
a, ce ad
Adjustable Nozzles
Sometimes engines are "trimmed" to their correct operating speed-temperature relationship by
slightly changing the nozzle area, either by adjustable tabs or moveable plates known as
eyelids.
.. ~
BY-PASS O CT
I
'---,-~
--.
~-;a.
(II
By-pass air
JET PIPE
MOUNTll' G FLANGE
Exhaust gases
7.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EX rERNAL MIXING
OF GAS STREAMS
COMMON OR INTEGAAfED
EXHAUST NOZZLE
Figure 7.4: External and internal exhaust mixing of a high bypass engine
7.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Supersonic Nozzles
The gas exit velocity in a convergent nozzle is subsonic only at low thrust conditions. At normal
thrust levels the gas velocity at the nozzle reaches Mach.1 (in relation to the gas temperature).
-
When the gas velocity is Mach.1 the nozzle is said to be choked and no velocity increase is
possible without increasing the gas temperature. When the nozzle is choked, upstream
pressures are increased above atmospheric. This pressure differential provides PRESSURE
THRUST in addition to the normal KINETIC THRUST in the way described in section 1.
To maximise the effect of pressure thrust a convergent/ divergent nozzle is utilised. For this to
be effective however the pressure ratio of jet pipe to atmospheric must be greater than 1.4: 1 as
the extra weight of the convergent /divergent nozzle outweighs the gain of the pressure thrust.
Convergent Divergent nozzles are not normally used on commercial passenger transport
aircraft, rather they are seen on rockets, space transport and supersonic gas turbine engine s
that utilise reheat.
CONVERGENT
DIVERGENT
n-
THROAT
I
NET
RUST
ON "JOZ ZLE WALL
STATIC
PRESSURE
VELOCITY
7.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1, v,
t
clul:,vvp u.,A:n questio pract Cc o'u
Materials
The exhaust system is subjected to high gas temperatures therefore it is manufactured from
nickel alloys or titanium. In addition further insulation is required usually in the form of a
insulating blanket consisting of a corrugated skin of stainless steel filled with a fibrous insulating
material.
In the event of extra cooling being required the jet pipe may be double skinned and cooling air is
passed between the skins. The hot exhaust gasses induce a flow through this annulus and keep
the outer skin cool.
The combined nozzle assembly used in some high bypass engines is made from a bonded
honeycomb structure to reduce the weight whilst retaining strength of this large component.
7.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'
Noise Suppression
Noise in a gas turbine engine primarily emanates from two sources:
A turbo prop does not have a large jet efflux, but it does have a large unducted propeller. It is
the propeller that makes most of the noise in this case.
This section concentrates on noise suppression in thrust producing engines, as they are by far
the biggest culprits!!
Compressor fan and turbine noise results from the rolling vortexes produced by the rotating
blades interacting with the stationary vanes. Noise reduction strategies involve the use of
honeycomb noise resistant materials being used in intakes and casings. Invariably they are
honeycomb materials; the actual materials used depending on weather it is a hot or cold section
of the engine. Lightweight composite materials are used in the lower temperature regions and a
fibrous metallic material at the hotter end of the engine.
7.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
dlJ
PERFORATE FACESHEET
TYPICAL
PERFORATE LINER
(Titanium or
aluminium or
composite)
HONEYCOMB SUPPORT
{Stainless steel
and aluminium)
DOUBLE
PERFORATE LAYER
(Aluminium)
7.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Jb66pro.co1.
4'..,c:.,v
f(
""'
,, ~v
ce cl d
120
PURE JETS WITHOUT NOISE SUPPRESSOR
m
't,
a,
TREND
90
SOUND
LEVEL
SHOCK
NOISE
FREQUENCY
EXHAUST DUCT
LARGE EDDIES
Clow trequencv noise)
---
SMALL EDDIES
(H1gt1 frequency noise!
7.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Exhaust Mixing
The hot gasses of the exhaust mixing with the cold ambient air cause jet exhaust noise. The hot
gas has a high turbulence and the eddies and vortexes release large amounts of energy as they
are cooled and slowed by the cold air. This manifests itself in the form of noise. The noise is
worsened if shock waves are being formed in the exhaust. To reduce the noise levels the mixing
rate has to be accelerated or the jet velocity must be reduced.
To increase the mixing rate a variety of lobe and mixer nozzles are employed. To reduce the
gas flow the nozzle cross sectional area may be increased.
I ff
7.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c1Jb66pro.co111
,., "l~5("
41.,,..,(., .. 1,,.., .. ce a
ct
Thrust Reversers
Purpose
Thrust reversers are commonly used in commercial aviation to:
1.
2.
3.
Aid in braking and directional control during normal landing whilst reducing normal brake
wear.
Aid in braking during icy or wet runway conditions thus reducing the chance of aqua
planning or skidding.
Reverse aircraft out of parking stands, however this is dangerous due to the possibility of
hot gas and FOO ingestion. This is now rarely seen.
DISiANCE
IN FEET
Figure 7.11:
Thrust reversers generally rotate the airflow through 135. The air now being directed 45
forward. Reverse thrust in turbo jets is limited to about 80% power, less in some high bypass
engines, due to the structural limitation of the reversers.
7.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
"r-
club66pr-:-.co ..
CORRUGATED
INTERNAL MIXER
LOBE-TYPE
NOZZLE
7.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
7.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CLAMSH
LL DOORS
REVERSE
iHRUST POSJnON
7.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C,
TOUCH DOW l
Vent
Gas weam
::uLL BRAKING
Avvcrso ttvv:1 ocfqCl
.,, ~
PoWt:1
ing
--
7.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Bucket Doors
Bucket doors are a variation on the clamshell door system, the difference being that the doors
are totally external. These are usually seen on smaller gas turbine engines particularly those
fitted to executive jet tail mounted engines.
7.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ch.. bsspro.cor.
CCIMON NOZllf
ASSNILY
fAH
UlWISJ
COfl!Qt Meltlf
ASSnlll.Y
7.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
LOCK OICATOR
LIGHT SWITCH
GEARBOX
'
7.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C'
I(
ib66pro. on
ce ad
Reverse ThrustControl
Reverse thrust is selected in the cockpit by a lever mounted forward of the throttles. The initial
movement aft of the lever to a fixed detent deploys the reverser, the detent is then removed and
continued movement of the lever accelerates the engine to a reverse thrust maximum which is
less than max power, due to the structural limitations of the reverser system. An interlock is
fitted to prevent forward thrust being applied when reverse is selected and vice-versa.
All commercial passenger transports have at least three levels of safety to prevent inadvertent
deployment in flight.
7.23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
7.24
Use and/or disclosure is
c ubbtpro.ro,.
'i"
v v ''
..
ca l d
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.8 Bearings and Seals
,...-..
8.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
'qr "d II
,~
,, 1ti ,r 'l\'Jtfi I
System
Copyright Notice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
8.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ns
v, . .., .....i~e
did
Table of Contents
Seals
LabyrinthSeals
Carbon Seals
Brush Type Seals
Other Types of Seal
ns
5
9
9
10
11
12
8.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
De, Cl e J r ,
1ti".lr with tt
ctubocp.o.corn question practice ..._
8.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
f~e)
-,J
Obbpro.co,.
v
,ce
I
,..u
..
,,
a Cl
""T"------OUTtl\ RtHQ
wrott-t
t-
INNEJ\ RING
l,.,NER RING
8ALL RACE
OUTEA RING
8All RACE
Roller Bearing
Ball Bearing
Figure 8.1 : Roller and ball bearings
Vibrations induced by the airstream, the aircraft and the engine itself.
The main bearings support the rotor assemblies and then transfer the various loads through the
bearing housings and support struts to the outer cases of the engine, and ultimately into the
aircraft mountings.
The number of main bearings varies from one engine model to another. One manufacturer
might prefer to install three heavy bearings and another five or six lighter bearings to
accommodate the same load factors.
8.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c ">OC
<'IUbt,':l.,ro.curn
ti r
qu..,c::tinr,
witt I
practic ,; j
Construction features of ball and roller bearings are shown above A design feature to note is
that only one of the roller bearing races is grooved, allowing the roller freedom to move axially
when the engine expands and contracts during operation. The split inner race is a design
feature of the ball bearing which allows for ease of bearing disassembly, maintenance, and
inspection, once the bearing is removed from the engine.
The inner races of bearings are normally interference fitted to the rotor shafts to prevent
movement on the shaft, and have to be removed with special puller tools. Shown in the below
diagram is the oil damped bearing which is provided with an oil film between the outer race and
the bearing housing to reduce vibration tendencies in the rotor system and to allow for a slight
misalignment of up to five thousandths of an inch.
01\.
JET
Oil TO
DAMPER
COMPARTMENT
Figure 8.2: Forward compressor roller bearing with oil damped outer race
8.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
clli::iuopro.c _,r ,
EXIT GUIDE
-.v
_<'
't
, .,.~~ ce ald
REAR OIL
VANE
DEFLECTOR(ROTATING)
LEAKDOWN
~~iA~~~
.{t::::;;: :
TURBINE
COOLING
AIR
STATIONARY SEAL
LEGEND
SEAL LEAKAGE
SEAL HOUSING
COOLING AIR
8.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
8.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lri~1
~-..
., " CC nro
Seals
Bearing seals are usually of the labyrinth or carbon rubbing type. It is quite usual to see both in
the same housing
Labyrinth Seals
ROTATI ~G ANNULUS
or
OIL
8.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,('ri.)
~/
- OILIHWII
Carbon Seals
Carbon seals are a blend of carbon and graphite. They are similar in function and location to
labyrinth seals but not in desiqn, The carbon seal rides on a highly polished chrome carbide
surface, while the labyrinth seal maintains an air gap clearance.
The carbon seal is usually spring-loaded and
sometimes pressurized with air to create a uniform
pressure drop across the seal. The pressurized air also
preloads the carbon segment against its mating
surface, and provides a more positive oil sealing
capability.
Figure 8.6: Carbon seal assembly
The carbon seal shown is classified as a carbon-ring type seal which rides on a seal surface
attached to a rotating shaft. Another common design is the carbon-face type seal.
It is similar to those used as drive shaft seals in many fluid carrying accessories. The carbon
surfaces are generally stationary with their highly polished mating surface, called a seal plate or
seal race, attached to and turning with the main rotor shaft.
The carbon seal will be found where a more positive control over airflow into the bearing sumps
is required, or where a full contact type seal is needed to hold back oil which might at times
puddle before being scavenged. Conversely, labyrinth sealing will usually be associated with oil
system locations designed with higher vent subsystem pressures.
8.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
, luboop . or ... ~
. ,..
IU'
CARBON SEAL
STATIONARY
\ HOUSIHO (8TAnoNAR'f)
CARBON
SEAl
FACE
CARBON SEA.UNG
SEGMl:NT RING
PRESSURE
8PRING-S
ns
8.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~'C>sigr d r i'SS
tali 1r w,, the
club66prf.J.Cvm question practice aid
8.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ClubobplO,COI
'
..ju
JU
.,,u~IC(' a.d
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.9 Lubricants and Fuels
9.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
& gr d n
s, ciat' ,r w1 1 a
cluto.,,.~.c .n question practice .li-
Copyright Notice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
9.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
; t1
t ea d
Table of Contents
,.....-..
Lubricants
Introduction
Sources Of Supply
7
7
7
7
Mineral
Vegetable
Synthetic
Lubrication
8
8
8
Film Lubrication
Boundary Lubrication
Property of Oils
Oiliness
Viscosity
Evaporation
Damage to Materials
Chemically Stable
9
9
10
10
10
Oil Additives
11
11
11
11
11
Oil Types
12
12
Oil Contamination
13
Detention
Testing
General Procedures
13
13
13
14
Fuels
15
15
General Requirements
15
Listed Properties
15
16
Additives
16
17
18
9.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
System
19
Fuel Contamination
Water Detection
MicrobiologicalContamination
20
20
20
9.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
System
.
.
ClubboprO.COI ,
yu
. .-,,u
IC
'd
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex Ill (Part-66)
A ppendirx I , and th e associate d K nowe
I d1ge Leve I s as spec:ifre d b eow:
I
Objective
EASA 66
Reference
15.9
Level
81
2
9.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
sil}nrd ir ass
tion w h t e
c1uou6p,.i.tull' questicn practice a,u
Intentionally Blank
9.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
frsl!)
Integrated Training
System
.
~,
!Jb..ibp
C'.(,
IJ, ...u
i ,
u~,c
aid
Sources Of Supply
There are three main sources from which lubricating oils can be obtained:Mineral,
Vegetable,
Synthetic.
Mineral
The Source for these oils is refined crude oil.
Vegetable
The source of these oils is vegetable in origin, e.g., castor oil, olive oil. Note that vegetable oils
are not used on gas turbines.
Synthetic
These oils are obtained from various sources. e.g. fatty acids and esters. Esters are compounds
of alcohols and acids.
Synthetic lubricating oils are now used on all modern gas turbine engines.
9.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Lubrication
This is a procedure for reducing friction and wear by keeping close fitting moving surfaces apart,
this is achieved by maintaining a film of oil between them. The film of oil may be very thin but
providing it has a good viscosity, strength and oiliness such that it can keep a film on the
moving surfaces, it will keep them apart. Lubrication is divided into:
Film lubrication,
Boundary lubrication.
Film Lubrication
In this type of lubrication a measurable quantity of oil is maintained on the bearing surfaces.
This is considered the ideal form of lubrication which engineers and designers try to maintain.
In this form of lubrication the oil comprises three distinct layers, with the two outer layers
clinging to their respective surfaces. The central layers consists of molecules of oil which are
continually being torn apart from each other or 'sheared' as a bearing or shaft rotates. The
thinner the oil, then generally the greater the ease with which shearing can take place. This is
an important factor when starting an engine in cold climatic conditions or at altitude, as apart
from the factors of lead and speed of bearing surfaces, the thickness or viscosity of an oil will
affect its operating efficiency.
An ideal lubricating oil will be one which is fluid at low temperatures, but which resists the
tendency to thin out at high operating temperatures. When an oil thins out excessively the three
layers of oil are squeezed out from between the bearing surfaces, and fluid lubrication ceases.
An intermediate state is reached before the oil is squeezed out completely, this is known as
'boundary lubrication'.
Boundary Lubrication
In this situation the oil film between bearing surfaces is only a few molecules thick. Under these
conditions viscosity is not the important factor, the important factor is 'oiliness" of the oil. This is
the ability of the oil molecules to cling together and stick to the bearing surfaces. This factor will
be mentioned again when we deal with additives later on.
9.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lub66prO.C
I!
1u
!I . e ~ , (
ea
Property of Oils
The properties required of a gas turbine lubricating oil are that it:
Wets the surfaces needing lubrication, i.e., it has 'oiliness',
Possesses a stable viscosity,
Does not evaporate excessively in use,
Does not injure any material with which it comes into contact,
Must be chemically stable under all working conditions,
Should not be highly flammable,
Should not gum or slude up during its working life,
Should be reasonably safe to handle.
Oiliness
This is the property of the oil to cling to the bearing surfaces.
Viscosity
This is a measure of an oil's internal friction or resistance to flow. An oil which flows freely is
said to have a low viscosity. An oil which is sluggish has a high viscosity.
Determining Viscosity
There are various methods for measuring the viscosity of an oil. Viscosity is 'Strokes'. This is a
large unit which is divided into 100 parts referred to as centistokes. Under the CGS unit system
(centimeter/gramme/second) we refer to an oil's viscosity as being so many centistokes, written
(cS).
Example, turbine engine oils are generally in the 2 to 7 cS range.
Note that in the case of SI units the oil's viscosity is given in mm2 Is at a given temperature.
(1 mm2 /s = 1 cS).
Evaporation
The evaporation of most turbine oils is very low even at fairly high temperatures. The flash
point, i.e., the temperature at which a turbine oil gives off sufficient vapours capable of being
ignited, is higher than its working temperature.
Example the flash points of most turbine lubricating oils are between 100 C and 260 C.
9.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Damage to Materials
Synthetic turbine oils will attack certain materials. Some of the materials in common use which
must not be allowed to come in contact with synthetic turbine oils are:
Natural rubber,
Neoprene,
Pvc,
Perspex,
Certain types of paint finish
Compatible Materials
The following are some of the materials which are compatible with synthetic turbine oils:
Buna N,
Silicone Rubbers,
Thiokol,
Teflon,
Kel F,
Baked Phenolic Finishes,
Thermosetting plastics.
ChemicallyStable
Synthetic turbine oils rely on additives to maintain chemical and thermal stability. In use oils
should not:
Gum up,
Varnish,
Slude,
Oxidise.
It is the natural tendency of an oil to absorb oxygen and become thick and darken in colour, a
property of an oil is that it should resist such oxidation.
9.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lubof:>~ro.
,j
m .,
Oil Additives
The earliest gas turbine engines used straight mineral oils, but progressive development of the
gas turbine to provide higher thrust, required a lubricant that was stable over a wide range of
conditions and would not break down at high temperatures. So synthetic oils were developed.
These first generation synthetic oils are referred to as 'Type 1' oils and are still used on some of
the older gas turbine engines. These oils did not meet all the requirements for a lubricant for
today's gas turbines, therefore, Type 2 oils were developed. This was done by adding small
quantities of various compounds and elements to the basic synthetic lubricant.
Examples of Additives:
Some or all of the following may be added in small quantities to an oil to give that oil some
desirable property:Extreme pressure additive,
Anti-corrosion additive,
Detergent additive,
Inhibitors.
Anti-CorrosionAdditives
These additives are used to reduce the corrosive effects of various acids within the oil.
Detergent Additives
These additives allow the oil to hold sludge or debris in suspension, this prevents it building up
within the engine. It is carried in the system until trapped by the filters.
Inhibitors
These additives are used to slow down the formation of oxidation products.
9.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Oil Types
TYPE 1 and TYPE 2
Table 9.1 shows some of the more common Type 1 and Type 2 gas turbine oils.
TYPE 1
TYPE2
AEROSHELL 300
BP AERO TURBINE OIL 15
MOBIL JET 1
STAUFFER 1
CASTROL3C
ENC015
EXXON15
EXXON 2389
CALTEX 15
Table 9.1
9.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Jb6Fpr
,.
-r-
.c
11u
Oil Contamination
The principle contaminants which could be inadvertently introduced into a lubricating system are
moisture and other fluids. Water or moisture can cause any or all of the following:
Breakdown of lubrication on heavily loaded surfaces,
Failure of lubrication as a result of water and oil forming an emulsion,
Breakdown of the additives in the oil. This increases the tendency of the oil to sludge up,
Excessive frothing of the oil with subsequent loss o of oil through the vent system.
The introduction of other fluids, such as kerosene, other lubricants, hydraulic fluids, or anti-icing
fluids will cause any or all of the of the following:
A change in the viscosity and an increase in the fire risk,
Breakdown of the additives with the possibility of sludge or varnish formation,
Possible breakdown of seals within the lubrication system.
Detention
Water in lubricating oil may be visible as globules or as a separate layer on the bottom of the
container or tank. If the water is finely divided, it may be held in suspension, and may cause the
oil to look misty instead of bright and clear.
Testing
A quick method of testing for finely divided water can be carried out by heating a small quantity
of the oil in a thoroughly dried container to a temperature of 200 C. If the oil crackles while it is
being heated, then water is present.
General Procedures
Contamination by other fluids is more difficult to detect in the field. The amount of remedial
action would depend upon:
The amount and type of fluid contamination suspected,
The instructions published by the engine manufacturer or listed in appropriate
contamination rectification procedures,
In the absence of either of these items of information, a general guideline as to the procedures
which might be adopted in part or in full by the operator is as follows:
Take a sample of the oil and send it away for analysis,
Drain the complete system,
Check all pressure and scavenge filters, and magnetic plugs for contamination,
Clean or replace filters,
Flush the system with clean lubricating oil,
Refill the system
9.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D" ,iQ
Ground-run the engine for a period of time to allow the oil to reach its normal operating
temperature. Closely monitor the engine oil temperature, the pressure, the quantity , and
all other engine parameters for any abnormal indications,
Shut down the engine, check engine for signs of leakage, drain the system, check or
change filters,
Refill the system and replace filters,
Check or monitor the system every 10 hours for the next 100 hrs.
9.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Fuels
InternationalFuel Specifications
All supplies of aviation fuel used internationally by both civil and military aircraft have to meet
minimum quality standards, which are detailed in the specifications issued by one or more of the
international controlling authorities. International agreements try as far as possible to see that
the specifications are compatible one with another. The purpose of this is to ensure that an
aircraft will operate safely and adequately on a particular specified fuel obtained anywhere in
the world.
General Requirements
The fuel should ideally meet the following requirements:
Be pumpable and flow easily under all operating conditions.
Permit engine starting at all ground conditions and give satisfactory flight relighting
characteristics.
Give efficient combustion at all conditions.
Have as high a calorific value as possible.
Produce minimal harmful effects on the combustion system or the turbine blades.
Produce minimal corrosive effects on the fuel system components.
Provide adequate lubrication for the moving parts of the fuel system.
Reduce fire hazards to a minimum.
Listed Properties
The properties usually listed in a specification include;
Flash Point
Freezing point
Sulphur content
Boiling point
Specific Gravity
Energy Content
Free Water Content
Free particle matter
Chemical composition
Viscosity
Heat of Combustion
9.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
tfrit~"J
~)
Jet-A
Jet A-1
United States
Great Britain
Canada
France
Pratt & Witney
Allison Div of GM
NATO
MIL-T-83133
DERD 2494
CAN 2-3.23-M80
AIR 3405
522
EMS-64
AVTUR F-34
MIL-T-83133
DERD 2453
CAN 2-3.23-M80
AIR 3405
522
EMS-64
AVTUR F-35
0.05
163
42
0.806
-40
43.1
30
1.0
0.05
163
46
0.816
9.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ot this chapter
-47
43.1
30
1.0
Jbtbpr
~I
Specification
Jet-B/JP-4
United States
Great Britain
Canada
France
Pratt & Witney
NATO
MIL-T-5624
DERD 2486/2454
CAN 2-3.22-M80
AIR 3407
522
F-40
MIL-T-5624
DERD 2498/2452
3-GP-24M
AIR 3404
522
AVCAT F-44
0.04
72
18
0.764
-60
43.5
30
1.0
0.02
170
64
0.820
-50
43.1
30
1.0
Jet-A, Jet-A 1 and Jet-8 are interchangeable for use in most gas turbine engines. Aviation
grades 80-145 octane reciprocating engine fuels are often emergency alternate fuels for
turbine engines.
For the approved fuel and fuel additives used to service a turbine engine, the technician should
check the aircraft operators manual or the type certificate data sheet.
9.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Additives
These are normally added by the fuel supply company during production to give the fuel some
improved property or to prevent specific problems within the airframe and engine fuel systems
(for use in adverse weather conditions, for example). Sometimes however, the additive is
mixed with the fuel at the point of engine servicing. The following additives are the most
common used.
Anti-Oxidants- Prevent the formation of gum deposits on fuel system components caused by
oxidation of the fuel in storage and also inhibit the formation of peroxide compounds in certain
fuels.
Static Dissipators- Eliminate the hazardous effects of static electricity generated by the
movement of fuel through modern high flow rate transfer systems. It does not reduce the
requirement for the normal bondingof components.
CorrosionInhibitors - Protects the metals in the fuel system, and may improve the fuels
lubricating properties.
Fuel System Icing Inhibitors- Reduce the freezing point of water precipitated by the fuel as it
cools, thereby reducing the risk of ice restricting fuel flow to the engine.
Metal De-activators - Suppresses the catalytic effect which some metals, particularly copper,
have on fuel oxidation.
Biocide additives- Reduces the risk of microbiological growths in the fuel systems. Biopor is a
well known antifungal additive
Note: Additives may be mandatory or optional, it often depends on whether the fuel is used for
military or civil aircraft or the country concerned. Maximum and minimum concentrations are
specified and must not be exceeded. A product called Prist is a well known point of refuelling
additive that protects against fungicide and freezing of entrained water.
9.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ubo6po.
t, ""
. ,
a, tice aid
Avoid all unnecessary contact and use protective equipment to avoid contact.
Remove promptly any fuel product that gets on the skin.
Do not use fuel or similar solvents to remove oil or grease from the skin.
Never wear fuel soaked clothing. Remove immediately and clean before re-use.
Avoid breathing fuel vapours. Maintain well ventilated work areas.
Clean up spilled products immediately. Keep spills out of sewers, streams and
waterways.
Be familiar with proper first-aid techniques for handling unexpected/gross contacts and
seek proper medical attention immediately for assistance.
Have suitable fire fighting equipment available and adequately manned.
Use only specially sealed lighting equipment and "spark free" power tools.
Use an air fed vapour mask at all times inside the tank.
Ensure that both the aircraft and refuelling vehicle are earthed.
Ensure that there is an escape route for the refuelling vehicle and that they are kept
clear.
When the aircraft is to be pressure refuelled, the earthing wire on the refuelling pipe
should be connected to the earth point on the aircraft before connecting the refuelling
pipe, and when the aircraft is to be refuelled through the overwing filler point, the earthing
wire on the refuelling pipe should be connected to the earth point on the aircraft before
removing the filler cap and inserting the nozzle. The earthing wire should remain in
position until after the refuelling pipe is disconnected or the filler cap replaced as
appropriate.
No radio or radar equipment should be operated while refuelling or defuelling is taking
place, and only those electrical circuits concerned with the operation should be switched
on.
9.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Fuel Contamination
Water Detection
All aviation fuels contain some dissolved water and free water. Dissolved water is like
humidity in air in that it cannot be seen. It is not a problem as long as it remains dissolved.
Free water, also called entrained water, is present in tiny droplets and is visible. It is water in
excess of water that dissolves. Large quantities of free water (over 30 parts per million) can
cause engine performance loss or even flame out.
A HYDROKIT (Exxon trade name) is a quick, go/no-go test for detecting the
presence of minute quantities of undissolved water in turbine fuel. The
HYDROKIT indicator powder, packaged in a ten
/
__ -~--;.:..:..
millilitre evacuated test tube, gives a distinct
l'Q-PCW.""'hllll'll.cmA
pink/red colour change in the presence of 30
=.---.-=.--... .....__
parts per million or more of undissolved water.
7"---- ... -~Boeing also recommend the use of water soluble
:e:~:rc="""
food colouring to identify free water. In any case
s:-
-.:,;.;.-~- ,,_.---:"E
water settles at the bottom of the sample jar as it
~-=::::::::;.
is heavier than fuel.
Figure 9.1: Shell Water Detector
Microbiological Contamination
The problem - This problem can cause inaccurate fuel tank contents indication, blockage of
filters and corrosion of aluminium alloy fuel tanks. This type of contamination is normally more
of a problem with kerosene type fuels. The contamination is of the form of a fungus called
Cladosporium Resinae, the spores of which are present in most kerosene type fuels and are
too small to be filtered out.
In order to grow, these spores need a
temperature of 25C to 35C and the
presence of free water in the fuel. The
fungus requires both warmth and water to
grow. The growth starts at the boundary of
a water droplet, eventually fills the droplet
which bursts and releases more spores
into the fuel. Any imperfections in the tank
9.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c' bbbpro.co1
,,
Often water droplets will remain attached to a surface due to surface tension. Upward facing
surfaces are most likely to be effected, and the worst contamination is usually at the lower
inboard end. Because of this, modern integral tanks are designed to provide a fuel flow across
the bottom thus minimising the risk of water collecting in stagnant areas.
The prevention - The use of fungicidal additives to the fuel is often recommended by the
aircraft manufacturers, particularly when the aircraft is operating in areas of high contamination
risk. The following additives may be used on a continuous or intermittent basis;
Ethylene Glycol MonomethylEther (E.G.M.E.) is widely used as an anti-icing additive
and is also a biocide. It must be thoroughly mixed with the fuel before refuelling and
special injection equipment is necessary. Used in a concentration of 0.15% by volume.
Biopormay be used as a biocide on a continuous basis at a max. concentration of 135
ppm or, on an intermittent basis (e.g. once every two moths) at a max. concentration of
270 ppm. Biopor mixes easily with fuel and may be mixed prior to refuelling or poured
directly into the aircraft tanks. For non-continuous use, the treated fuel (approx one third
tank capacity) should be left as long as possible (three to four days) for maximum effect,
but this fuel must be diluted before being burned.
Inspection for contamination - Contamination is more easily identified when the tank is
partially full. After removal of one of the overwing inspection hatches, inspection can be made
using a flame-proof torch, for signs of brown slimy deposits. Corrosion resulting from fungal
attack, although not often visible, may appear as white spots through the fungus.
If fungus is found - Its position should be noted and it should be removed as soon as possible.
The decontamination process may vary between different aircraft manufacturers, but the
following is typical;
Drain out and isolate all fuel, ventilate the tank to permit entry. It may be required to
remove all the tank components.
Wash the tank with detergent and water, using a bristle brush to aid in the removal of
fungus.
Rinse the tank with clean water spray to remove the detergent.
Apply a biocidal rinse to kill any remaining spores. The rinse is usually 5% chromicacid
or 50% methanol in water, and is left in the tank for a short period.
Thoroughly rinse the tank with clean water, dry with warm air.
9.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
9.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
11
Jb66pro.ro , ~
, ,,
....,
u
\.e Jid
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.1 O Lubrication Systems
10.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
10.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
----'
clulJoup c.cor ,
1,.
,: f'
nee ad
Table of Contents
7
9
9
10
11
13
15
Components
Oil Tank
Oil Pumps
Filters
17
27
Air-Oil Separation
29
31
Vent Sub-System
31
Chip Detectors
Magentic Chip Detectors (MCDs)
Indicating Magnetic Chip Detector
Pulsed Chip Detector System
33
15
15
15
15
16
17
19
23
34
35
35
10.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
10.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
.,..4 :,
bf bpro.co1
...
,;
~ .. , ce u1d
10.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Oc;gr
I n "SSr
t'
111
Wrth tire
Intentionally Blank
10.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
OI.. "<u
.,;u (Ce
Feed o I
[l
Return oil
=:J Breather
TOROUEMETER PUMP
mist
01llai1
To,quemeter
oi
10.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
FUEL COOLED
OIL COOLER
FUEL
HEATER
OIL TMPERATURE
BULB
IHPENOING
BYPASS
INDICATOR
lOG
OIL COOLER
IHPNOIHG
BYPASS
INDICATOR
REDUCTION
GCARBOX
$==============::(.p, )===::'.J
SCAVENGE
PRESSU!IE
CHIP OETECTOO
10.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,------------,-----FILTER
OIL QUANTITY
II
OIL
PRESSURE
I OIL COOLER
I BYPASS VALVE
I
TRANSMITTER
,.I
CID
rNHSS
t~
..._-----1---t--.iOll
-.m) ..1.,@
'-------
Oil
QH
I t I t
aaaa
owwzzm
OIL
TEMPERATURE
SUPPLY
RETURN
PRESSURE
SENSE PROBE
10.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ar
c1uobbpro. or,.""
,
.,. ~.,,
ce a1u
Suction Sub-System
The reservoir of oil will be contained either in a separate oil tank (known as a dry sump), or the
base of an accessory gearbox casing (known as a wet sump system). A sight glass will be used
to give an indication of the oil level. The reservoir will be replenished by a either a pressure reoiling system or a open line filling cap, and vented to atmosphere. A suction filter protects the
oil feed to the pressure pump. The scavenge return line will include a de-aeration tray inside
the reservoir. A rotating centrifugal breather may be used on the vent system to separate oil
from the air. Oil capacity will depend on the role of the aircraft.
Pressure Sub-System
The engine driven pressure pump which is normally a gear type pump draws oil from the
reservoir through the suction filter and delivers it to the pressure system. A pressure relief
valve is connected from the pump output to the inlet side and opens to relieve excess oil
pressure. A characteristic of the pressure relief type of system is that indicated oil pressure is
independent of engine RPM. The oil is then fed to a pressure filter which removes any small
particles of dirt/debris, hence only clean oil is fed to the system.
Transmitters provide the essential signals of pressure and temperature for display on the flight
deck instruments.
The system then delivers oil to each of the main rotating bearing assemblies and auxiliary
gearbox bearings by a series of internal pipes. At each bearing location a calibrated spray jet or
metering device provides each bearing with the designed quantity of oil. The oil jets are
positioned to ensure that the oil is accurately sprayed onto the bearing surfaces to penetrate
around the rolling surfaces.
The oil then drains to the bottom of the bearing housing where it flows into the collector trays.
10.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of lhis chapter
Scavenge Sub-System
From each of the bearing housings the oil is drawn by a series of gear type scavenge pumps
through individual scavenge filters. This oil will contain considerable quantities of air from that
used to seal and cool the various bearing housings.
The scavenge pumpswill normallybe of a greatercapacitythan that of the pressure
pumps(1.5 times at least), to accommodate the increased volume of oil due to aeration,
temperaturerise and to maintain the bearing housingsdry.
The output from the scavenge pumps is fed back to the oil reservoir passing through/over chip
detectors and through an oil cooler(s) which may be fuel and/or air cooled.
Individual scavenge pumps are used to ensure that each bearing is correctly emptied.
Individual scavenge filters are used to identify and localise any wear debris produced from failed
bearings.
The example shown above is a sophisticated version of a pressure relief valve system. In older
systems the PRV shown returning oil from the pump outlet to the oil tank is the pressure
regulating valve. In this system this valve is a surge protection valve and not normally open.
Pressure regulation is carried out by the oil pressure regulating valve. Above 75% N2 this valve
maintains oil pressure to 60 PSI above the No.1 bearing air cavity. Thus ensuring that constant
pressure is maintained across the bearing labyrinth seals.
This engine is a turbo prop and as it has a reduction gear system, like all turbo props, will utilize
an oil of greater viscosity than usually used by a turbo jet. Also note that the propeller
pitch/feather control system utilizes normal engine oil.
10.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
OIL :JIFFERENT
Fucd 011
R!!tllrn c1
Vent uir
AL
PRES'S.JRE sw,-cH
The pressure pump is not as large, hence the build up of pressure with increased
RPM is not as great.
A pressure relief valve is fitted as a safety device only and would not open
during normal operation.
10.11
Use and/or disclosure Is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
rlu 66p10.cor
1 -.~
, ,
'.'
ICEl
OIL TANK
,~ ......~.,....
COLLECTOR -nAY
A .AR 0CARING
~Ott
')WO G V
[J
Tank preseuro
F\;cd o,I
Ull!Alr m,st
H.P.fuol
L.P. fuel
OIL,AIA MIST
EJCCTOA NOZZLE
10.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
10.14
Use and/or disclosure is
-.~
y-
.l
,rt' (2 d
Splash Oil
Only very lightly loaded bearings are splash lubricated. Common examples are the gears inside
the gearbox.
Metered Oil
Some engines may have bearings supplied by a metering system which is fed from the main
engine pressure oil galleries. The metered oil feed is to supply the bearing with just the right
quantity of oil in relation to engine speed e.g. compressor front bearings (SPEY engines).
Film
This is when the surfaces concerned are separated by a substantial quantity of oil. Film
lubrication is the most common phase of lubrication. The oil separates the two surfaces so that
friction is reduced to that existing between the molecules of the lubricant. The oil in direct
contact with the surfaces moves with the surfaces, friction occurs only by reason of the
intermediate layers sliding over one another. With perfect lubrication, no wear of the bearing
surfaces should occur, except possibly on starting. With film lubrication, the viscosity of the oil
is important because it controls the ability of the oil to keep the surfaces apart.
10.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.{ri~
~~I
Squeeze Film
An application of the film lubrication principle is the squeeze film bearing shown below. To
minimise the effect of the dynamic loads transmitted from the rotating assemblies to the bearing
housings, a squeeze film type of bearing is used. The outer race of the bearing and the bearing
housing has a small clearance between them, with the clearance being filled with oil. the oil film
dampens the radial motion of the rotating assembly and the loads transmitted to the housing
thus reducing vibration and possible damage by fatigue to the engine.
Oil FEED
10.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1 ,
....
c ..i,o
Components
Oil Tank
The oil supply reservoir in a dry sump system is normally classified as a hot tank or cold tank
system. This depends upon whether the fuel cooled oil cooler is before the oil tank in the
scavenge system or after the lube pump in the pressure line. Modern systems tend to use the
hot tank system.
The oil tank is usually located at a point above the pump assembly to enable gravity to assist
the flow of oil to the pumps. Some tanks are vented to atmosphere whilst others are lightly
pressurised to enable positive flow of oil to the pump assembly.
FLOAT VALVE
OIL
QUANTITY
SIGHT GLASS
OIL TANK
BODY
r.
--
,,,,.-, .. r ';i:
DRAIN PLUG
SECTION THROUGH
GRAVITY FILLER
10.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
10.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.'if~ri~)
Lb6opr
' "t"'
v,, fJ uv,
Oil Pumps
The function of the oil pressure pump or lube pump is to supply oil under pressure to the parts
of the engine that require lubrication. Many pump assemblies consist of not only the pressure or
lube element but scavenge elements as well, all-in-one housing usually driven from the
accessory or high speed gearbox. By its nature an oil pump is designed to provide a volume of
flow to the engine. How much pressure it creates is a function of how much resistance to flow
there is. The more the flow is restricted, the higher the oil pressure will tend to be. For example,
as an oil filter starts to clog, the resistance to flow increases in front of the filter and the pressure
increases.
The three most common oil pumps are: the vane, gerotor, and gear types. All are classed as
positive displacement pumps because they deposit a fixed quantity of oil in the pump outlet per
revolution. All three types of pumps are also self-lubricating. These category pumps are also
referred to as constant displacement types because they displace a constant volume per
revolution.
Vane Pump
The vane pump illustrated could be a single element type or one element of a multiple pump.
Multiple pumps of this type generally contain one pressure element and one or more scavenge
elements, all of which are mounted on a common shaft. The drive shaft mounts to an accessory
gearbox drive pad and all pumping elements rotate together.
Pumping action takes place as Rotor Drive Shaft and Eccentric Rotor, which act as one rotating
piece, drive the sliding vanes around. The space between each vane pair floods with oil as it
passes the oil inlet opening and carries this oil to the oil outlet. As the spaces diminish to a zero
clearance, the oil is forced to leave the pump. The downstream resistance to flow will determine
the pump output pressure unless a relief valve is present to regulate pressure.
Vane pumps are considered to be more tolerant of debris in the scavenge oil. They are also
lighter in weight than the gerotor or gear pumps and offer a slimmer profile. They may not,
however, have the mechanical strength of other type pumps.
INLET
-J
SLIDING
VANE
ROTOR
CASE
10.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Gerotor Pump
The diagram shows one pumping element mounted on a multiple-element pump main shaft.
The gerotor pump, sometimes referred to as gear-rotor, utilizes a principle similar to the vane
pump. The gerotor uses a lobe-shaped drive gear within an elliptically-shaped idler gear to
displace oil from an inlet to an outlet port
Notice that the inner driving gear has six lobes (teeth) and that the outer idling gear has seven
openings. This arrangement allows oil to fill the one open pocket and move inlet oil through the
pump as it rotates until a zero clearance forces the oil from the discharge port. The principle of
operation is that the volume of the missing tooth multiplied by the number of lobes in the outer
gear determines the volume of oil pumped per revolution of the outer gear. A complete pumping
element is shown, one of several which could be mounted on a single shaft within the same
pump housing. The diagram depicts the principle of operation of the gerotor pump.
The operation would be as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
From 0 to 180, inter-lobe space increases from a minimum to a maximum volume. Most
of the 180 it is open to the intake port allowing it to fill with oil.
As the space reaches maximum volume, it is closed to the intake port and is in a position
to open to the discharge port.
At 270, the space decreases in volume, forcing its oil out the discharge port.
As the space reaches minimum volume at 360 it is closed to the discharge port and
begins to open to the intake port, repeating the cycle. This action takes place in each of
the seven inter-lobal spaces between the inner six-lobe gerotor and the outer seven-lobe
gerotor, giving an essentially continuous oil flow.
(A)
INNER
(DRIVE)
GEAR
OUTER (IDLER) GEAR
(B)
GEAR 0
IDLER 0
GEAR 105
DISCHARGE
GEAR 210
IDLER 180
IDLER 90
GEAR 315
IDLER 270
10.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
System
.
.
.
. >''
'
The single element gear type pump takes in inlet oil and rotates in a direction which allows oil to
move between the gear teeth and the pump inner case until the oil is deposited in the outlet.
The idler gear seals the inlet from the outlet preventing fluid backup and also doubles the
capacity per revolution. This pump also incorporates a system relief valve in its housing which
returns unwanted oil to the pump inlet. The second figure below shows a dual pump with both a
pressure and a scavenge element. This is the most common pump assembly seen on gas
turbine engines and for large engines it is normal to have up to 7 scavenge pumps.
PRESSURE REGULATING
RELIEF VALVE
--
--
10.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
TOOIL
FILTER
IDLER
GEAR
IDLER GEAR
"SCAVENGE ELEMENT"
DRlVEGEAR
"SCAVENGE ELEMENT"
10.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
:..1t,t,
pro .. o
.1 '-ll. ~
,....
1Ce a 1
Filters
Oil filters are generally of the following types:
Cleanable Screen Filters
Fibre Filters
Thread Filters
Scavenge Screen Filters
I.\IR( MESH
,,/
SLJlPORr
Cleanable Screen
Pressure Filter
10.23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
10.24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c ubbbpro.coi.. .~
I P u
Ice
11d
Delta-P Indication
Pressure and scavenge filters often have mechanical bypass in the event of blockage or cold
starting to prevent flow limiting within the filter. Prior to this happening it is normal to have an
indicator showing that the filter is imminently going to bypass. The indication, known as a 'Delta
P' (also written ",}P ") indication can either be a mechanical pop out indicator or an electrical
signal connected to a warning system in the cockpit.
MAIN
GEARBOX
CLOGGING
INDICATORS
. .
CLOGGED
FILTER
FILTER
ELEMENT~
(POPPED OUT)
10.25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Designed in as~cxhtionwith tr
CIUb66prv.~v,n question pracncc a;,j
Intentionally Blank
10.26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'
'y
'I
'
~~,ce
lid
FUEL
OUTLET
OIL TEIIPERATURE
OIFFEREN11AL
PRESSURE ANO.
THERMOSTATIC
BY-PASS VALVE ,
(SHOWNW
COLDIIODE)
FUS.
OIL
TEMPERATURE
INLET
THMMOSTAT
(IN l10T MOOE)
FUEL
INLET
10.27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
FCOC are located in the oil system either in the pressure sub system, and the oil tank is known
as a hot tank or in the scavenge line to the oil tank and as a result the oil tank is a cold tank
system.
In the event of oil quantity increasing a failed FCOC matrix would be suspected
Some larger engines have a secondary air-oil cooler that is activated under high power
conditions.
10.28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'-4"
"
,. ,u
tic
Air-Oil Separation
Oil after pressurisation and expansion expands and gains air. This air must be removed prior to
recirculation. A deareator tray is normally fixed in the top of the oil tank and the return oil
splashed across this tray and air is extracted. This air is either vented or regulated to maintain a
small positive pressurisation.
fi
'---\.-=::-::::::=::=.:--.. \
RETUR~ OIL ( ; 1
TO GEARBOX
~
Oil to gearbox
Air,od mist
10.29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
""'
.)esigned ir "
ti with t~ -s
ctub66p;.,,_,..,;n question practice aiJ
Intentionally Blank
10.30
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
<"
..
,.,
c;e c1id
Antisiphon ___...
01. Le'YEL.
XTR
valve
L!:::====~=======:::::=::===========~
LUBEUNIT
Vent Sub-System
The presence of pressurised air in bearing cavities is as a result of gas path air leaking across
carbon or labyrinth type oil seals. On some engines a separate sub system is installed to vent
this seal leakage air overboard. Figure 10.18 illustrates RB 211-535 oil system which has a
comprehensive vent sub system. Note however that the LP turbine bearing does not have an air
vent line as the bearing is small enough to transmit the air with the oil back to the oil tank, where
it is separated on the deareator tray.
10.31
Use and/or disclosure ls
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~f:r
l ti
,.........=
::s
II
\
!c
....
Je
a
....
1;........
Ill
...
z
u
c:a
!...
. 3 ~I....
El
....
.
...
..
: ....... "' . I
..... ... .. I .... I
... ... ...=
......
ii i "'.
.... if f ..i I... i"'.
I I l
...>
a ..
~' ..
''
. ..!l oolbl
tlll I~
11111
,I
"
'
'
'
'
I
c I
..
I
,, /t ... su
:aC>
S'S
-~~
II
..
:ll. ..I.
...
I ti.
~~
~(g
=t
U"J
..iPJ
I::
~'
'
~
81~ ~
~~--~
..
I
ii
un
.....
.......
... ........
CIII
0111
. .....
~-;
l
i.. ."
..... .
ld_lb;
:0. t
10
.. c
:D;
u:
'
.
0
.....
......
...
i
"
..
I!
............
I
10.32
Use and/or disclosure is
govemed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
f''
Chip Detectors
There are three types of chip detectors in common use:
Magnetic Chip Detectors
Indicating Magnetic Chip Detectors
Pulsed Chip Detectors
(C)
CHJP
DETECTOR
MAGNETIC
PLUG
'*\
SELF.SEALING
VALVE HOUSING
CHIP
- WARNING
UGHTOfF
,t.,.,..
..:::. WARNING
LIGHTON
......
PULSE
\"'-1
SCAVENGE
OIL
NETWORK
CHIP LIGHT
STAYS OFF
LOCATION
CHlP ARRIVES
I
Figure 10.19:
CHIP LIGHT
ON OR OFF
L-L-~__:::::::::=:::=:.,_._~TI~M=E~
AUTO-PULSE CHARACTERISTICS
10.33
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c::)
RETURN
OIL
CHIP DETECTOR
SELF-SEALING HOUSING
PERMANENT MAGNET
10.34
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r:
,..u
10.35
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
10.36
Use and/or disclosure
ciuoespro.co
_.,
-1M~ ,
,_
r, ~ ce aid
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.11 Fuel Systems
11.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
11.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lubobpr .co
--
1 11,
J. ,... ,
ad
Table of Contents
Module15.11 - Fuel Systems
7
7
7
Hydro-MechanicalControl Units
The Half-Ball Valve
The Kinetic Valve
BarometricControls
Simple Flow Control
Throttle Variations
P1 Variations
9
9
9
10
11
11
11
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
17
19
19
19
20
20
21
Systems
Fuel System Requirements
Fuel System Components
Low PressureSub-System
High Pressure Sub-System
HP Sub-SystemInputs
HP Sections
23
23
23
25
27
33
33
Fuel Nozzles
Simplex Nozzle
Modern Fuel Nozzles
Fuel Flow Distribution
35
35
36
39
41
41
41
41
41
11.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.J 1anc. I 1 1,
.i ior ..,,11 t
ctubcepro.cc ,i ruresnon pracnc ~"
43
43
43
49
49
50
53
54
57
59
60
Glossary of Terms
63
11.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Module 15.11
Fuel Systems
11.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
01 sigr> d in a s .c ti Jr
,, h t e
CliJb66pro.~omquestion practice ~:J
11.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
..1b6bpr .
--
'1'
" ~ ~
CE. ltd
,--
,--
The flow of a fluid through an orifice (jet) depends on the area of the orifice and the square root
of the pressure drop across it, i.e.
Fuel Flow
Fuel Flow
Orifice Area x
a.i
Pressure Drop
~Areat
........._Orifice
-.!
,..._
Thus it is possible to vary fuel flow by changing orifice area or the pressure drop across the
orifice. In a fuel system the orifice is variable and is in fact the throttle valve.
--
Control Principle
The controlling principle of a flow control system is that a constant throttle pressure drop is
maintained irrespective of throttle area (position) for a given height and speed.
11.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
VALVE OPEN
(Pump output dec,easing)
1----
~--1
J_
II
H.P fuel
II Servo
Barometric Controls
The function of the barometric control is to alter fuel flow to the burners with changes in intake
total pressure (P1) and pilot's throttle movement. Several different types of hydro-mechanical
barometric control are available. Three of the most common types are described. For
simplicity, the description and operation of each type of flow control is related to the half-ball
valve method of controlling servo fuel pressure.
11.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~uc "'
. ., u
C'('
clid
The Simple Flow Control Unit (see figure 11.6) comprises a half-ball valve acting on servo fuel
bleed, whose position is determined by the action of an evacuated capsule (immersed in P1 air)
and a piston subjected to the same pressure drop as the throttle valve. Fuel from the pump
passes at pressure P pump through the throttle, where it experiences a pressure drop to burner
pressure P burner. The response to P1 and throttle variations can now be examined.
id::"::,
P1
.&,F,...ktum
,.,
Holl l!ii:::il
,. Vcl"e
Ij
--
~rv-o Bleed
Throttle Variations
If the pilot opens the throttle, the throttle orifice area increases, throttle pressure drop reduces
and therefore PPUMP falls, PBURNER rises and the piston moves down, allowing the spring to
lower the half-ball valve against the capsule force, increasing servo pressure and pump output.
The increased fuel flow increases the throttle pressure drop to its original value, returning the
half-ball valve to its sensitive position.
P1 Variations
-
If the aircraft climbs, P1 will fall, causing the capsule to expand and raise the half-ball valve
against the spring force. Servo pressure will fall, swashplate angle will reduce and fuel pump
output will reduce. The reduced flow will cause a reduced throttle pressure drop.
Thus Simple Flow Control keeps the throttle pressure drop constant, regardless of throttle
position. At very high altitude the system becomes insensitive and it is not used on large turbojets. Nevertheless, it is fitted on the Adour and Dart and has proved to be a reliable and fairly
accurate control unit.
11 .11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
s: in l in " sr ,c ior w h
Clubli\)!, o. ..,vmquestion p-acuca .,;..,
...
Intentionally Blank
11.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r1uto6r,-o.c.orc; J\.
1 ,....~
t '
ice a1j
----------.. ,o
.
--
Pu~
-------1
~ump
Sttcc ncfoty
Orifitc:
'r,
f>1
Servo Flow
hAed
Ooiic.e
11.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Throttle Variations
If the throttle is opened, its pressure drop is reduced and the proportioning valve closes until the
pressures across the diaphragm are equalised. Thus secondary flow and pressure are
reduced, the piston drops, the half-ball valve closes and pump stroke increases. The increased
fuel flow increases secondary pressure until the half-ball valve resumes its sensitive position,
but the proportioning valve remains more closed than previously, taking a small proportion of
the increased flow.
P1 Variations
Variations in P1 will cause the capsule to expand or contract, thus altering the position of the
half-ball valve and altering fuel flow. This tends to cause rapid changes in secondary pressure
with resultant instability; damping is provided by the sensing valve, which adjusts to control the
outflow to LP, thus damping secondary pressure fluctuations. The valve is contoured to operate
only over a small range of pressure drops so that during throttle movements it acts as a fixed
orifice.
11.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c ub6&pro.c.or,, c, .. ~
,1
. I-'"
1cP
aid
The function of the Acceleration Control Unit (ACU) is to provide surge-free acceleration during
rapid throttle openings. There are two main types of hydro-mechanical ACU in service.
With the flow type ACU (see figure 11.8) all the fuel from the pump passes through the unit,
which compares fuel flow with compressor outlet pressure (P3), which is proportional to engine
speed.
The fuel from the pump passes through an orifice containing a contoured plunger; the pressure
drop across the orifice is also sensed across a diaphragm.
When the throttle is opened, the pump moves towards maximum stroke and fuel flow
increases. The increased flow through the ACU orifice increases the pressure drop across it
and the diaphragm moves to the right, raising the half ball valve and restricting pump stroke.
The engine now speeds up in response to the limited over-fuelling and P3 rises, compressing
the capsule. The plunger servo pressure drops and the plunger falls until arrested by the
increased spring force. The orifice size increases, pressure drop reduces and the diaphragm
moves to the left, closing the half-ball valve and increasing fuel flow. Fuel flow will increase in
direct proportion to the increase in P3.
P3----
Pvmp
s~rvQ
11.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'
n Q11A,-tinn oractic
'
SplilP3 Chornbtf
e . .o,11c1ed
Differ~ntiol
htlow,
-~
Control
Coosul~
Pict~ Valve
Evocuoted
Ccp!ul~
11.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
clubooprc.e;
r " ,.
. .,
nee ..i,o
CL.OSCi- POSITION
rsnorn.s V~ LVE
THROTTL~
!NI
LEVER
rlNAl ACCEL~AT ON
ANNIJI.US
F'.JE L f'RfSSUAE!i
II
Pum1. Lit:-
Thrott]
i,i:,.,
ou1hH
D
D ftnou e
~!-] fhro11le
L<iW l)ln::iSUfO
:l.!!,10
c:un1rnf
11.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
11.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.;.,1-
c1d
Power Limiter
A power limiter is fitted to some engines to prevent over-stressing due to excessive compressor
outlet pressure during high-speed, low altitude running. The limiter (see figure 11.11) takes the
form of a half-ball valve which is opened against a spring force when compressor outlet press
(P3) reaches its maximum value. The half-ball valve bleeds off air pressure to the ACU control
capsule, thus causing the ACU to reduce pump stroke.
Ccmprcssor
Olivery
In toke
Ptssur~
PrD!~ure
{Pl}
(P1)
ACU Caps.ule
Splil P3
from Air .Swifch
11.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Overspeed Governor
The engine is protected against over-speeding by a governor, which, in hydro-mechanical
systems, is usually fitted on the fuel pump and acts by bleeding off pump servo fuel when the
governed speed is reached. On two-spool engines, the pump is driven from the HP shaft and
the LP shaft is protected by either a mechanical governor or an electro-mechanical device,
again acting through the hydro-mechanical control system. There are two types of pump-driven
governors:
CentrifugalGovernor
The centrifugal type of governor uses the centrifugal pressure of fuel in radial drillings in the fuel
pump rotor to deflect a diaphragm at maximum speed. The diaphragm operates on a half-ball
valve to reduce pump servo pressure and thus pump stroke. The disadvantage of this type is
that it needs to be reset if fuel specific gravity changes. It is seldom used on modern engines.
RCXXER ARM
A.AOIAL DRIWNG
IN SLOCK
,...-p::;:-----
GOVERNED
SP EEO ADJUSTER
DIAPHAAGM
PlSTON
ROTATING
CYLINDEA BLOCK
SPRtNG
SERVO PISTON
':
PUMP INLET
~::$)
.. : . -
PUMP DELIVERY
B1
PUMP SERVO.
11.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by Jhe statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Train~ngSy~tem
~lt:ro&Or(. or
'-<U
u,
...
CT',
ICP
,:i"cl
Centrifugal governors using bob weights are used as LP shaft governors on some engines.
They will return fuel to low pressure when the LP shaft overspeeds see figure 11.13.
FUEL TO BURNERS
,--
O L.P.
LP. SHAFT
GOVERNOR
[J
fuel
Main fuel
,. -
Hydro-mechanical Governor
In the hydro-mechanical governor the pump drive shaft rotates a rotor containing a half-ball
valve on a lever arm (shown in the figure 11.14.). As engine speed increases, centrifugal force
closes the valve, increasing the pressure of fuel in the governor housing (governor pressure) by
restricting its flow to LP. When the maximum speed is reached, governor pressure is high
enough to deflect a diaphragm, which opens the half-ball valve acting on pump servo. A hydromechanical governor does not require adjustment for changes in fuel specific gravity.
--
11.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
.,
11.24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c Juoo6p, .t , ,
~,1 .,, v
...
uce ciid
PUMP
A11
Oi!
TEMPERATURE
FUEL
TEMPFRATURf
TRANSMITTER
fLOWMETER
CONTROL
LP
RFTURI\I
FROM
CONTROL
SYSTEM
11.25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ctur
filter becomes blocked, the pressure drop will rise and a warning light will illuminate in the
cockpit.
Fuel FlowmeterTransmitter
Provides signals of engine fuel flow and fuel used to the flight deck instruments. The signal
may be generated by a moveable vane, mounted in the fuel flow path in such a way that its
movement will be proportional to fuel flow. This movement is linked to a unit which develops an
electrical signal which is sent to the indicator. In the event of a failure or blockage in this unit a
bypass valve, operating under differential pressure will open. An alternative device uses a
rotating turbine to measure fuel flow. See Chapter 15.14 (Engine Instrumentation) for details.
11.26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
uhf:>op .
t 01
OP, ~u
-..
.. ,u~IICe
did
GO\,!;R'IOR
-.
H.P
,.,
//
( &Z
co'~~::-il
LJ\
-~,
1Hf!OTTLE:
, -- -- ! -
11
morn irvrn
-~o;:
-__- FUEC2-
...
I ~-LL
LV
Tl
~p
SHAFT
ERNOR
--T ~l
/-
:
:6
J_
).--__,,
SPRAY tJOZZLES
' ..._)
-l_.1
-------,
PROPFI LE"
CONTROllcR
J'IIT
_s::S~,---UE_L_l-LO-,-.v--'
...
~--
RFGIJlATOP
-----
H P. ,.OMf'RtSSOR
DC IVl:RY PPESSURE.
11'\f'TR
----..
.......... -j
EXHAl.:ST Gr...S
TEMPERATURE
Al\ll'LI -ien
__
-. I.,----------------0
-- -- ------,-----------
...
_..
_.J,....._ ....,__,_ __ --
--
Figure 11.16: The main components within the high pressure system - Turboprop and turbojet
engines
11.27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
SERVO PISTON
PLUNGER
~
FUEL INLE1
O
II Pump delivery
ROTOR
(H.P. fuel)
Servo pressure
11.28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,,_..
bbtor.
fl
u,
,i(...
(j
degree of inclination is varied by the movement of a servo piston that is mechanically linked to
the cam-plate and is biased by springs to give the full stroke position of the plungers. The piston
is subjected to servo pressure on the spring side and on the other side to pump delivery
pressure; thus variations in the pressure difference across the servo piston cause it to move
with corresponding variations of the cam-plate angle and, therefore, pump stroke.
With the engine shut down the swash plate will be at maximum angle and hence the pump at
maximum stroke and output. Minimum servo pressure will cause the swash plate to move to
minimum stroke and zero output. Control of the servo pressure is either by half ball valves or
kinetic knives. The fuel system shown overleaf utilizes half ball valves controlling servo pressure
and hence pump output.
11.29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
SERVO CONTRO
H.?
OIAPHRI\GM
SHAFT
GOVERNOR
\.
SERVO
\PII..L VALVE
L..P
SPILL VAi. VE
FLOW
CONTROL
PRESSURE OOOP
CONTROL
D APHAAGM
OLP
.P..irnr
fuel
ddivl!(y (HP. ruell
prei88uro
Servo prell:8uw
Governor 1>ros&W
Ill
O Air
TEMPERAT\JRE CO"IT'ROL
n lake Of~lklrit
1 ht Q II Ie outlet pressure
11.30
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.la.
-e--)
- ""
<
:.JotibprO.V)I
. .,~
t C uid
HP Sub-System Inputs
Engine Speed Signal
Is given to the fuel control by a direct drive to the engine accessory gearbox through a flyweight
governor within the control; used for both steady state fuel scheduling and
acceleration/decelerating fuel scheduling (acceleration of most gas turbine engine is in the
range of 5-10 seconds from idle to full power)
Inlet Pressure
A total pressure signal transmitted to a fuel control bellows from a probe in engine inlet, used to
give the control a sense of aircraft speed and altitude as ram conditions in the inlet change
Compressor Discharge Pressure
A static pressure signal sent to a bellows within the control, us to give the fuel control an
indication of mass airflow that point in the engine.
Burner Can Pressure
A static pressure signal sent to the fuel control from within the combustion liner There is a linear
relationship between Burner Pressure and weight of airflow at this point in the engine. If burner
pressure increases 10 percent, the mass airflow is increased by 10 percent and the burner
bellows schedule 10 percent more fuel to maintain the core air-fuel ratio. The quick response
this signal gives make it valuable in preventing stalls, flameouts, and over-temperature
conditions.
Inlet Temperature
A total temperature signal from the engine inlet to the control, a temperature sensor connected
by a capillary tube to the fuel control. It filled with a heat sensitive fluid or gas which expands
and contracts as a function of inlet temperature. This signal provides the control with an airflow
density value against which a fuel schedule can be established.
HP Sections
The function of the Fuel Flow regulator(or Fuel Control Unit) is to maintain the correct air/fuel
ratio of 15:1 under any running/flying conditions. On determining the correct fuel flow ratio, the
FCU then adjusts the HP pump spill valve or swash-plate angle (depending on type of pump
used) and hence the fuel pump output. The FCU can be thought of as the following four
sections;
Throttle Section
Will contain a valve under the direct control of the pilot. If the throttle is pushed fully open, fuel
pressure is blocked from bleeding from the spring side of the servo piston. this will cause the
servo-piston to move to the left and hence increase the pump output.
Barometric Section
Effectively measures the air pressure and the air temperature which enters the engine intake. If
the air pressure drops, the fuel flow must drop by an equal amount, to maintain an air/fuel ratio
of 15:1. In this case the Barometric Section will open a valve and allow fuel to bleed from the
11.33
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
spring side of the servo-piston. This will cause the servo-piston to move to the right and hence
reduce the output of the pump. Any operation of this section is automatic and the pilots throttle
lever does not move.
Acceleration/Deceleration Section
The accel/decel section will take over from the pilot if the pilot slam accelerates or slam
decelerates. Slam acceleration is the act of advancing the throttle quicker than the rotating parts
of the engine can accelerate. Hence there will be a sudden increase of fuel but no increase in
compressor delivery pressure to maintain the air/fuel ratio of 15:1. Such a rich mixture would
cause compressor surge. The opposite occurs during slam deceleration, but the effect is
"flame-out".
If the pilot slam accelerates, another valve will open to bleed off pressure from the spring side of
the servo-piston and allow the servo piston to move to the right and halt the increase in fuel flow
due to the throttle valve closing, until the compressor has built up enough speed to allow the
valve to close again. Any operation of this section is automatic and the pilots throttle lever does
not move.
Limits section
A limits section is fitted to prevent the engine from exceeding its maximum safe values of
R.P.M. (both LP and HP spools) and E.G.T. If any of theses sensed values exceeds a set
maximum, another valve will instantaneously open to bleed pressure from the spring side of the
servo-valve and lower the pump output, until the R.P.M. or E.G.T is once again under its limit.
Any operation of this section is automatic and the pilots throttle lever does not move.
11.34
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c. Otnpr ). o . "!"
, ,, u
E. il
Fuel Nozzles
Fuel cannot be burned easily in a liquid state. It must be mixed with air in the correct
proportions by atomization or vaporization. The fuel nozzles are always located at the front of
the combustion chamber and are designed to inject and mix the atomized fuel with the torroidal
vortex created by the combustion chamber.
An early method of atomising fuel is to pass it through a "spin chamber" so fuel is swirled to
convert its pressure into kinetic energy, and the fuel emerges in an atomised "cone" shape.
This however required high pressure fuel to achieve good atomization. Since the fuel pumps
were driven by the engine, such high pressures were only available at high engine RPM.
The efficiency of fuel atomization varies with the square of the pressure drop across the fuel
nozzle. The fuel pressure for a large engine may be as high as 1500 pounds per square inch at
take off RPM, but if at idle RPM the pressure is half of that speed, the fuel atomization efficiency
will be one quarter - this is known as a SQUARE LAW.
The effect of different fuel pressures can be seen below;
Simplex Nozzle
Fuel pressure
SWIRL CHAMBER
II Compressor
delivery
Al ow fue pressures
-__ _~~
--------~
- ----- _.:::,....
- - -- ---,:: ,.;.
- - .... ---~---~~
- - -=--- :- : : --~
:- : =~:-~
...
--
....
'--~
; : ~-_:---~ ~7 .
---
- - - :::--: - ~"if/'
~,,-.y
- - -- - -_ ?/
,,..
_ --~ ~ -...,. ~
At high fuel pressures the
~
- "/'
:::- .--
11.35
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Primary fuel
PRIMARY ORIFICE
\4a1n fuel
ComprHsor
dolivery
11.36
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
'..,bbbpr .
QC, 'iU
o.H
'
"'U~
e d
Vaporiser
In this method, fuel is sprayed from a feed tube and a small quantity of compressor delivery
airflow is also fed into the vaporization tube to give the correct air/fuel ratio. The tubes bend
through 180 and are heated by the combustion process. The heat from the combustion is
essential to cause the fuel to change from liquid to vapour. Inside the tube is fitted with
Turbulators (pins) to cause some deliberate turbulence to complete the fuel/air mixing. The
mixture is fed "upstream" into the flame tube and the flame surrounds the vaporizing tube. This
method is best suited to annular combustion chambers and indeed was developed for that
purpose. However vaporizers have largely been superseded by spray nozzles in today's
modern engines
AIRFUEL
VAPOR
.."
DISCHARGE\
FUEi.FLOW
DIVIDER
ORIFICES
FUEL
IN
AIR
IN
MIXTURE
DIVIDER
FUEL
FEEOTUBE
SE"CONDARY
AIR HOLES
11.37
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
I<
r1o
,r
oracuc,
1 t.
AirsprayNozzle
This type of nozzle uses some of the primary combustion airflow to carry the fuel into the
combustion chamber. The fuel spray is aerated in a swirl chamber and this tends to avoid the
uneven flow pattern which some other burners produce, thus reducing carbon formation and
smoke. A second main advantage is that only low fuel pressures are needed which means that
a lighter gear type pump can be used. Airspray nozzles are used on all modern high bypass
engines, usually incorporated in annular combustion chambers.
SPnAV
NOZZLE
II fuel II Fuel/Air
II Compressor
dellverv
Figure 11.24: Fuel Spray Nozzle
11.38
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,.
f,i.,b6bpro. Q
1.
'1J
~IU
..
CC ....d
11.39
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
11.40
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
bof.pr .
11
'1
...
,l
'
a-o
A combustor drain valve is a mechanical device located in the low point of a combustion case. It
is closed by gas pressure within the combustor during engine operation and is opened by spring
pressure when the engine is not in operation. This valve prevents fuel accumulation in the
combustor after a false start or any other time fuel might tend to puddle at the low point.
A false start in this case is a no-start condition or hung-start condition which results in a fuel
soaked combustor and tailpipe. Draining of fuel in this manner prevents such safety hazards as
after shutdown -fires and hot starts. This drain also removes un-atomized fuel which could ignite
near the lower turbine stator vanes causing serious local overheating during starting, when
cooling airflow is at the lowest flow rate.
If the dump line is capped off as an ecology control, the fuel manifolds will drain through the
lower nozzles and fuel will evaporate in the combustor or exit the combustor via the mechanical
drain valve into an aircraft drain receptacle. This tank is either automatically or manually drained
Centrifugal governors
Changes in specific gravity have a definite effect on the early centrifugal pressure type of
engine speed governor, for with an increase in specific gravity the centrifugal pressure acting on
the governor diaphragm is greater. Thus the speed at which the governor controls is reduced,
and in consequence the governor must be reset. With a decrease in specific gravity, the
centrifugal pressure on the diaphragm is less and the speed at which the governor controls is
increased; in consequence, the pilot must control the maximum RPM by manual operation of
the throttle to prevent overspeeding the engine until the governor can be reset.
Hydro-Mechanical Governors
The hydro-mechanical governor is less sensitive to changes of specific gravity than the
centrifugal governor and is therefore preferred on many fuel systems.
11.41
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
dlu
Intentionally Blank
11.42
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
---
ctuceep
O.<;
r .
"I"
, ~ ,.i1w
tc
did
11.43
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,~~
!!
I
I
..-.
'J
P, ...
I
I
I
I
I
d
-!!
I
I
I
I -
I!
I ;.
I ,..I
'
fll ,,
:;i
1,
I I
I
l:
11
11
11
~ 1L----------.. .
i:m--~i.
z:,4
I::<
..
.i,.i
ii~e
l---r
t
I,
-~h
I!~==~~:!=~==~==~~
L.:
I
I
l
I
I
Ii
J:
:nu
!
!v
1!1
-It-
&-
r
...
......i-.
!1
Figure 11.26: Pratt & Whitney 100 Series Fuel Control System Schematic.
11.44
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the stalement
on page 2 of lhis chapter
Module 15.11
Fuel Systems
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
c 1uubbp o.cor
\A'
, . .. ~l
CE' a d
,~
Power Management Switch, enabling take off thrust, maximum continuous thrust, climb
thrust or cruise thrust settings to be selected
Engine inlet pressure and temperature
Ambient pressure
Air data computer inputs. (a computer that senses pitot pressure, static pressure and
total air temperature)
Engine RPMs - N1 and N2
Power lever position. (via a potentiometer)
Failure signals
Based on these input signals the EEC will output command signals to adjust and control:
The Hydromechanical Fuel Control Unit via a stepper motor which adjusts the throttle
metering valve.
Ignition circuits.
Bleed valves
Torque gauge
Fuel Control
The fuel control is provided by the hydro-mechanical unit (HMU) The HMU is supplied by the
HP fuel pump and provides the required fuel quantity to the nozzles.
In normal operation the fuel control is managed by the Electronic Engine Control (EEC). This
enables accelerations and decelerations without engine surge or flame out whatever the
displacement sequence of the power lever. The HMU is also mechanically connected to the
power lever thus ensuring fuel control in case of failure of the EEC.
--
11.45
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
a gn,;d m ~
c 1i 11 w, h
clut,66p,o.cv,n question practice aid
=~
J:CL.\
~~;\
;t >
~~=
D.
-----
----
--------
I I
11.46
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
----
I~
c JOt 6pr
.co, ...
. . e- ....
t~
E' u d
Operation
The fuel flow supplied to the nozzles is mainly obtained through two valves:
a bypass valve
a metering valve.
The fuel enters the HMU from pump outlet with a constant flow. This flow is split by the bypass
valve into two flows, one for the nozzles (via the metering valve) and one bypass return flow to
the pump. The position of the bypass valve is a function of the loss of fuel pressure caused by
the metering valve. The metering valve is pneumatically actuated. In the pneumatic servo block,
the reference pressure is the HP compressor outlet pressure, P3. A controlled reduction of the
P3 pressure results in a variable Py pressure which when opposed to a bellows device, moves
the piston of the metering valve.
The pneumatic servo block is managed:
11.47
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
z
0::
0
~
_.:::s
~>c..
-~=>-2
-----
--------
--,,.'=':::,~
=-<
"'>
if.
n,
---':
:;;;
;;;
::;;~
tt~
,..~
=~
~="'
::,:
"'
~~
~:x~
"'~lwj~o
-o~
~~~
::, :,; x:
"'w:X:
"=~s:!
' "'
O
c: >-
w<tJ~vt
>~0:
:w~:C
~~:;5
.,..
~f
::,,Q."'
,..
"'"'
~~~
8c:
"'(
we-
11.48
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
11.49
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
11.50
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
",'
ii
~,'u', ,_,..... I CC'
yu
aid
E1.CTRICAL
ORDERS
EUCTRICAL.
PNEUMATIC
.. PUTS
FEEDBACKS
,..._
HYDROMECH.ANJCAL
UNJT(HUU)
EL.ECTRJCAL
FUEL
PRESSURES
\I
n
-
~\==:
~,,,.
-~/?~
v~
(
SENSORS
'
VALVES AND
SWITCHES
HYDRAULIC
ACTUATORS AND VAL YES
11.51
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
)psiqnE ~ ,n c
tt ,n ,1,t It ,
club66~ro.w,n question practice
,i:~
ECU Architecture
Dual Channel
The FADEC System is fully redundant built around two independent control channels.
Dual Input, dual outputs and automatic switching from one channel to the other eliminate
any dormant failure.
-....
(INTERFACING
DIGITALD~
PROCESSOR
A
CROSS
CHANNEL
DATA
LINK i
....
-- -
....
'
ELECTRONIC
CONTROL
UNIT (ECU)
PROCESSOR
--.....
-....
-....
CIRCUITS)
ACFT
ENGINE
SENSORS
ENGINE
CONTROL
----
--
.....
_.
(INTERFACING
ENGINE CONTROL
SYSTEMS
CONTROL CHANNEL A
------------
ENGINE
SENSORS
ENGINE
COM"tf\OL
SENSING
SUBSYSTEM
ACFT
_..
......
SIGMA.LS TO/FROM
AIRCRAFT
--
--------......
.....
-.....
--
--
--
CONTROL CHANNEL B
I~ -
CIRCUITS)
SIGNALS TO/FROM
AIRCRAFT
SENSING
SUBSYSTEM
ENGINE CONTROL
SYSTEMS
11.54
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
r~;;
c ut bboro.c or
, n
C:1
aid
status on each engine shutdown and the standby channel will become the active channel
on the next start.
Channel Transfer
Assuming the opposite channel is of equal or greater health, channel Active/Standby
transfer will occur after the engine has been run above 76% N2 and subsequently
shutdown (N2 less than 35%).
Dual Inputs
Electrical Inputs:
All command inputs to the FADEC system are duplicated.
Only some secondary parameters used for monitoring and indicating are single (e.g. the
EGT input on the CF6 engine).
To increase the fault tolerant design, the parameters are exchanged between the two
control channels via the cross channel data link.
Pressure inputs
Pressure tappings from the engine are plumbed directly into the ECU, either discretely to
each channel or a single tapping that is split within the ECU and then sent to discrete
channel transducers.
Hardwired Inputs
Information exchanged between aircraft computers and the ECU is transmitted over
digital data buses. In addition signals are hardwired directly from the aircraft where a
computer is not used. (Thrust Reverser feedback via RVDTs or TLA via an RVDT)
/
ECUCRA
J---+--T_R_A_(_A_)
--rEC U EXCITATIONS
TAA(B)
TAA SIGNAL
SCU CH. B
Figure 11.34: Example Hardwired Dual Input Device - Thrust Lever Angle RVDT's
Dual Outputs
All the ECU outputs are double but only the channel in control supplies the engine control
signals to the various receptors such as torque motors, actuators or solenoids. Further
information on output signal receivers can be found below in the HMU section.
11.55
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
De. or
j n
ss,
ation it
>
BITE Capability
The ECU is equipped with BITE, which provides maintenance information, and test
capabilities via an aircraft mounted component called MCDU (Airbus) or PIMU (Boeing).
The ECU performs a self-test on power up, and self monitors during operation. In
addition operation of a ground test switch powers up the ECU and hence a real time
ground test is carried out when this switch is operated. For Boeing airframes the ECU
stores faults in the ECU volatile memory until the aircraft lands. On landing the faults are
streamed to a Propulsion Interface Monitoring Unit (PIMU). There is a PIMU for each
engine. The PIMU holds the fault until a BITE test is carried out. An EICAS message will
advise maintenance staff to carry out this procedure even if the pilot has not noticed the
problem.
AIRBUS faults will be stored in the MCDU in real time.
BITE interrogation is airframe specific and cannot be covered in a generic FADEC
publication.
Using the BITE system, the ECU can detect and isolate failures in real time and hence
allows switching of engine control from the faulty channel to the healthy one.
Main Interfaces
To perform all its tasks the ECU interfaces with aircraft computers, either directly or via
the Engine Interface Monitoring Unit (EIMU). Principle among these are the aircraft Left
and Right Air Data Computers which supply data, notably Ambient Temperature (Tamb);
Total Air Temperature (TAT); Static Pressure (P50) and Total Pressure (PT). All of these
are required to determine that the thrust commanded remains constant for the ambient
conditions and that thrust and EGT limits are not exceeded.
Limits Protection
The ECU has a dual channel limit protection section comprising max limits for N1 N2 and
N3 (RR only) In addition various max limits are protected depending on the system, most
commonly Compressor Delivery Pressure(P s3)
11.56
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,u~
I- l'
,,
lie. ilid
Thrust Regulation
Thrust regulation on high bypass engine is calculated using ADC inputs to calculate the
required fuel to provide the commanded thrust. The thrust is measured in terms of N1
speed or EPR (RR Trent). For the EPR engine in the event of EPR signal failure then it
reverts to control by N1.
As a back up there is a mechanical high pressure compressor (HP2 or HP3) governor
located within the HMU
11.57
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
a)
AutoThrust Mode
The auto thrust mode is only available between idle and Max Climb Thrust when the
aircraft is in flight.
After take-off the throttle is pulled back to the max climb position, the auto thrust system
will be active and the Automatic Flight system will provide an N1 target to provide either Max Climb Thrust.
An Optimum Thrust.
A Minimum Thrust.
An Aircraft Speed (Mach Number). In association with the auto pilot.
b)
Memo Mode
The Memo Mode is entered automatically, from Auto mode if the N1 target is invalid.
One of the instinctive disconnect buttons on the throttle is activated.
Auto thrust is disconnected by the EIU.
In the memo mode, the thrust is frozen to the last actual N1 value and will remain frozen
until the throttle lever is moved manually, or, auto thrust is reset.
c)
11.58
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Power Supplies
Permanent Magnet Alternator (PMA)
A dual coil Permanent Magnet Alternator driven from the External or Accessory Gearbox
powers the ECU. The dual output is fed independently to the two Channels. The PMA can
provide all power requirements once the engine is running above 15% N2 (N3 for RR Engine).
28V DC Aircraft BUS
For engine starting an aircraft 28V DC supply is used. In addition a 28V DC Bus supplies power
for ground testing the system and for back up in the case of the primary 28V DC Bus failing.
Aircraft 28 V DC is also always available in the event of PMA supply failing to both channels.
28V DC is applied to the ECU when:
The start switch is activated
The Fuel switch is placed to on (for an in-flight windmilling start)
When ground test power is applied
115V AC 400Hz
The aircraft supplies a 115V AC 400HZ power source to each channel for ignition excitor # 1
and ignition excitor # 2. The inputs are routed to the exciters or terminated within the ECU by
switching relays.
It should be noted that if the ECU has a double channel failure then the engine will not start as
the exciters can only be powered via the ECU.
11.59
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Servo fuel pressure to the low pressure turbine case cooling (LPTCC) valve
Servo fuel pressure to the high pressure turbine case cooling (HPTCC) valve
11.60
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.
. .JObbpr .cor
'
'1~
t' , ,,
,v
!vE d
11.61
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
01 gn,d n a s, c1ct1 n wi h ti
club"..ipr..> . om qvestion practice aid
r--..,--.. ,. . .,-r-"'1-t l
~=====~-rtj--+.-tf~rr.-if,:
., i t r r r :
ECU
CHANNEi.
,-1
~BNHEl.
.....___ __,t-11 11
I
FIB
II
11 Is It 11 It 111
11111
II
tt
'
II
II
ti 11
II f I
II
II I
& I I
II I I
t1 II
I J It
II lI
FROltllSERVO
FUEL HEAT~
II
ti
__ . ,nti, , . .
. . ,
II
J ~
FROM NC
fl
FROMEHOIHE
FU~I. PUMft
TOFl.JEL
MOUL.Et
.)PVAWE
'------+..1-...1~
'--~~~~~~~~~----~~~~~_...,__.._
'--~~~~~~~~~-------~~~
N2
~..__.L..-----f
OVERS~OGO~
N2 :.1(K~
......---
TO F"UEL
RET\JR~ 'V,lllVE
RTIJRNTOtOGO,LCOOLER
AN:DfUELl"UKP
IJ
--~~------------~---------_J
11.62
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
l1
-,
(d' aid
Glossary of Terms
ACFT
ADC
BITE
ECAM
ECU
EEC
EGT
EHSV
EICAS
EIMU
EIU
EPR
FADEC
FMC
FMV
HMU
HPSOV
HPTCC
LPTCC
LVDT
MCDU
PIMU
PMA
Po
Ps3
PT
RACC
RVDT
Tamb
TAT
TLA
TMC
TRA
VBV
vsv
Aircraft
Air Data Computer
Built In Test Equipment
Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (Airbus version of EICAS)
Engine Control Unit
Electronic Engine Control
Exhaust Gas Temperature
Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (Boeing version of ECAM)
Engine Interface Monitoring Unit
Engine Interface Unit
Engine Pressure Ratio
Full Authority Digital Engine Control
Flight Management Computer
Fuel Metering Valve
Hydro-Mechanical Unit
High Pressure Shut Off Valve
High Pressure Turbine Case Cooling
Low Pressure Turbine Case Cooling
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (or Transducer)
Maintenance Display Control Unit
Propulsion Interface Control Unit
Permanent Magnet Alternator
Atmospheric Pressure
Compressor Delivery Pressure
Total Pressure
Rotor Active Clearance Control
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (or Transducer)
Ambient Temperature
Total Air Temperature
Thrust (or Throttle) Lever Angle
Thrust Management Computer
Thrust (or Throttle) Resolver Angle
Variable Bleed Valves
Variable Stator Vanes
11.63
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
11.64
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~...... .Hee mJ
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.12 Air Systems
12-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
gr .,d r ,
ti,
with It ,
Copyright Notice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
12-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,;"'
II
.,u
ce art
Table of Contents
Cooling
Turbine Blades and Nozzle Guide Vanes
Exhaust
External Skin of Engine
Cooling of Accessories
7
8
11
12
12
15
Internal Sealing
Abraidable Lined Labyrinth Seal
Thread Type Seal
Hydraulic Seals
Ring Type Seal
Carbon Seal
17
Clearance Control
19
21
23
15
15
15
15
17
17
17
17
17
12-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
)~sig ir 'IS.
~1 r wilt
clutioopro.~orr' question practice a"I
L ~
12-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,-
, ~ t'ce aid
--
"Engine Bleed" is referring to the tapping of pressurised air from the compressor at various
stages. Usually there are three positions along the compressor from which air is tapped as the
diagram below shows. The different temperatures and/or pressures of the three tappings make
the air useful for different things. Generally air is tapped for different reasons as follows:
12-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
12-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.r
;.,bot-pr . on . -r-
t;
.:
. ,., . "f' d d
r1w41n
Pnccoo..c~ ,
t:V fl Ens ETC
1 IR\,IS I A(
~nsR
,t
... lA'ICl( ~
ron
8UFOS ETC
'
t,-0:. CO-o\
A,11 Q
'Al vt
'f--------_J
l_ ~---
l.llO ~SSI.IIU$Al()tf
HtCCOOl.CA
12-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
LP Reeoup:. Overboard
FLAME ARRESTOR
CE:NTE.R VENT
TUBE(CVT)
HUB HEATING
12-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ueespro.cor.
'"
~"v
,- ~
tCe lid
Cooling
Turbine Blades and Nozzle Guide Vanes
As we have already seen, the thrust of the engine is determined by the maximum allowable
RPM of the engine. Centrifugal force is one limit to the RPM, but before this limit is reached,
the maximum turbine temperature limit is normally reached, due to the quantity of fuel being
burned. Clearly then, if the turbine components could be manufactured from a more heat
resistant material, or they could be cooled more effectively, then an increase in fuel could be
scheduled, which would result in an increase in RPM. and hence thrust.
Cooling allows the components to operate in a thermal environment 600 to 800F above the
melting points of the alloys used in their construction. With cooled blades the maximum Turbine
Inlet Temperature (TIT) is currently 3000F. The following cooling methods are utilised:Convection Cooling - is the passing of compressor bleed air through hollow portions of the
turbine blade or vane. The cooling air either exits from the top to join the main gas flow, or exits
via gill holes to become film cooling.
TIP CAP HO L.ES
SQUEALER TIP
TIP CAP
SQUEALER TIP
HOLE
GILL
HOLES
TRAILINGEOGE
MOLES
.w--....-
',.,_,l!d;::IJ!:::::;-J
SEAL LIP
(BOTH StCESI
..
12-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
O L.P.
cooling air
II
.11111.........:;
~-.,
~.:::
.,...-. :
, I
.
...
i:
!'
'
..
.,'
SINGLE PASS,
SINGLE PASS,
QUINTUPLE PASS,
(1960's)
INTERNAL COOLING
WITH FILM COOLING
INTERNAL COOLING
WITH EXTENSIVE
FILM COOLING
INTERNAL. COOLING
MULTI-FEED
(1970's)
MULTI-FEED
12-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
tb~}
ubEio~ o.corr
"
co
10
TRAILING
EOGE
SLOTS
Figure 12.5: Impingement Cooled, Nozzle Guide Vanes also showing Platform and Nozzle Film
Cooling.
Exhaust
It is often necessary to cool the exhaust section of the gas turbine engine. A common method
of doing this is an Insulation Blanket and Cooling Film
~iiilliiiiil~~=
Coolingair--
Fiber glass
Fiber glass foil
Aluminum
Silver foil
Exhaust duct -
oooF
12-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Zone1
Zone2
Cooling of Accessories
A number of aircraft accessories produce sufficient heat in normal use to require a cooling
system to prevent overheating. A good example is the aircraft electrical generator, which
produces considerable heat under normal operating conditions. Such accessories can be
cooled by ram airflow when the aircraft is flying, but will require an alternative cooling airflow
when the aircraft is on the ground. For ground running and taxiing, the generator for example,
is cooled by an airflow that is taken from the engine compressor. This air is blown through
nozzles to produce a venturi effect area of low pressure. The low pressure then induces a
continuous cooling flow of atmospheric air through the normal ram air passages. This is
adequate for cooling most accessories during ground running. Figure 12.7 illustrates a
generator cooling system. These are sometimes referred to as ejectors or eductors
12-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ol this chapter
,.11,::>t>opro.
0111,..
".,.
'-
NrT~ng
frofflCotrt~
Cooling Air
Figure 12.7: HP Air powering a jet eductor to draw air through a generator at low speed
12-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
12-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
,,
nee
Fan Air
Utilised for the pre-cooling of air conditioning air, cooling the ignition system and on some
engines, the Passive and Active tip clearance control.
Pressure Relief
Should the high pressure stage bleed valve fail in the open position, a pressure relief valve is
provided to protect the pre-cooler from over-pressure damage. The valve normally would
include a pressure switch connected to a PRESS RELIEF warning on the pneumatics display
on the flight deck. The operating pressure would be in the region of 100 psi. If the valve opens
the vented air escapes through a spring-loaded door on the cowl (blow out panel).
Temperature Control
The system normally consists of a pre-cooler temperature sensor and controller, pre-cooler and
control valves. This system stabilises the air going to the airframe system, by keeping it
constant at a value that the engine can achieve at all power settings. The valves are normally
part of the pre-cooler and flow of the fan air is regulated by the opening or closing of the valves.
When temperature at the bleed air outlet of the pre-cooler exceeds its limit (160-180C) the
pneumatic pressure is vented from the actuators to move the cooling air valves toward the open
position.
12-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
PNEUMATIC LINE
rAOM TEMPEAATl.flE
CONT~R
COOllNOAfl
VALVE ACTUATOR
COOUNG
AFtVAlVE
rnEssunr
SWITCH
EXIIAUST
DUCT
12-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
bbbprO.vO ..
l
'<
., ,
e ,fd
Internal Sealing
AbraidableLined LabyrinthSeal
Consist of a set of teeth bearing upon a honeycomb lining. The gap between the honeycomb
and the teeth is constantly varying with temperature and sometimes they make contact with
each other. For this reason the honeycomb is abraidable and replaceable at major overhauls.
High pressure compressor bleed air is used to force back any oil which tries to escape past the
seal.
Seals between two rotating shafts are more likely to come into contact with each other due to
flexing of the shafts - this would produce large amounts of heat due to friction. Here the
abraidable lining is replaced by a film of oil, which does not produce as much friction.
HydraulicSeals
Hydraulic seals are formed by a seal fin immersed in an annulus of oil which has been created
by centrifugal forces .Any difference in air pressure inside and outside of the bearing chamber is
compensated by a difference in oil level either side of the fin. Air does not pass acrossthis
seal.
Carbon Seal
A common type of seal which is abraidable and replaceable at major overhauls. The presence
of particles of carbon in an oil filter is an indication of one of the carbon seals breaking up.
12-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
&'
...
__,-----.._
CARBON Sc.AL
Sitahng a,r
(I]
Oil
O Ror:at,ng
11nemh<
/'
CERAMIC COATING
SRJSH SEAL
12-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
y,
,. ~
CC 1d
Clearance Control
Since the efficiency of the turbine depends a large extent upon the clearance between the
turbine blade tips and their shroud, it has been found possible on some engines to control this
gap within certain limits.
The system works by a system of pipes known as the "cooling manifold" as shown. Bleed air is
channelled through the pipes in varying amounts in order to cool the turbine casing and thus
reduce the turbine blade tip clearance as necessary. The system is sensitive to turbine
temperature and a valve will automatically channel the desired rate of cooling air depending
upon the turbine temperature.
HPTC
MANIFOLD
LPTC
MANIFOLD
HPTC
MANIFOLD
HPTC
VALVE
FAN AIR
SUPPLY DUCT
HEAD END
CHANNEL A
------CHANNEL 8
EEC
EHSV
c:::J
HMU
12-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
12-20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'1~
(_'::!
TU RAINE
RFARWARD LOAD
::J
SEAL
~ROLOAD
'ty\'
L/
ffi~
LOCATION
BEARING
PRESSURE BALANCE
SEAL
...
Internal air
12-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
12-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
h,.,&o.,ro.c or
',i, I~
yu
Figure 12.12: Anti-ice of the nose cowl, spinner and inlet guide vanes
The hot air system provides surface heating of the engine and/or powerplant where ice is likely
to form. The protection of rotor blades is rarely necessary, because any ice accretions are
dispersed by centrifugal action. If stators are fitted upstream of the first rotating compressor
stage these may require protection. If the nose cone rotates it may not need anti-icing if its
shape, construction and rotational characteristics are such that likely icing is acceptable. Rolls
Royce use a flexible rubber tip to their spinners that stop ice forming.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is usually taken from the high pressure compressor stages.
It is ducted through pressure regulating valves, to the parts requiring anti-icing. Spent air from
the nose cowl anti-icing system may be exhausted into the compressor intake or vented
overboard.
ns
12-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.,~~1.
~/)
NClllf
ANTI... C!
r-------------------
P1 PROBE
/
OVERHEAT
DETECTOR
FORWARO
~-
PRESSURE swiTCH
"
.,,
DISTR18UTOR RING
OVERBOARD
VENT~OUCT
REUEFVALVf!
12-24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1.
club6opo.cvrr
l,v . pi ~tice u d
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.13 Starting and Ignition Systems
13.1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
13.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.:~
,1
co aid
Table of Contents
Start Sequence
Crankingthe Engine
Self-SustainingSpeed
Idle RPM
Precautions
Start Control
5
5
5
6
6
6
Starters
Starter Motor Requirements
Cranking and Fuel Flow
Starter Cut-Off Before Self-SustainingSpeed
9
9
9
9
Electric Starters
Starter Generator Systems
Air Starters
11
15
17
25
25
25
25
29
Ignition Systems
Overview
Use of Ignition
A Typical DC Ignition Unit
AC Versus DC Input Systems
31
31
32
33
36
Igniter Plugs
Spark lgniters
Constrainedor Constricted Air Gap Type
Surface Discharge Igniter Plug
Glow Plugs
Glow Plugs
Cleaning, Inspectionand Testing
Fitment and Removal
37
37
37
39
40
40
42
43
45
47
47
13.3
Use and/or disclosure is
governedby the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Objective
Starting and lqnition Systems
Operation of engine start systems and
Ignition systems and components;
Maintenance safety requirements.
13.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EASA 66
Reference
Level
15.13
81
components;
,.
lice <.lid
Self-SustainingSpeed
This is the speed at which the energy developed by the engine is sufficient to provide for
continuous operation of the engine without the starting device.
P(A"
STARTING T.G.T.
IGNITION ON
START
SELECTED
10
15
20
SECONDS
25
30
13.5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Idle RPM
This speed is slightly above self-sustaining and is often referred to in the form of a percentage
of compressor speed, and on the ground is about 60% of the high pressure compressor, i.e.
60% N2 or N3. Note that on modern systems idle rpm is a throttle position (normally fully aft).
Idle RPM varies with altitude and can be increased under certain flight conditions, for example
on the approach or with anti icing switched on.
Precautions
If engine acceleration is retarded, the possibility of a light-up occurring reduces at low engine
speed, and would result in overfuelling and a high turbine gas temperature. The power supply
to the starter should always be checked before starting, and must not be less than the minimum
figure quoted in the aircraft Maintenance Manual. Facing the aircraft into wind will assist with
engine acceleration, particularly in the case of turbo-prop aircraft, the propellers of which are
normally provided with a special fine blade angle for starting and ground running.
There are many different methods used to crank the engine to self-sustaining speed,
depending on the operational requirements of the particular aircraft.
Where speed of starting is of the utmost importance, on fighter aircraft for instance, a cartridge
or mono-fuel turbine starter can be fitted. These devices are not used on civil aircraft however,
due to the high cost and the handling difficulties involved.
Start Control
The start master switch does not just switch the starting system 'ON'. On some aircraft will
prepare the aircraft electrical system for the start operation i.e. starter motors require a very
high current for starting which is usually too much for a single Transformer rectifier (TRU), so it
will parallel the DC systems. To ensure that a start is not carried out on a single TRU, it will
place all the AC power systems onto one generator, so if it fails the start is aborted. It will also
ensure that the engine gauging systems are all powered for the start in all conditions.
13.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
tCE'
"d
BUS BAR
IGHITlml SW
MASTER Sw
_L
STAIHtR
BUTTON
LI
~-
-'
RELIGHT BUTIOH
- - - - - -
COHTROL umT
CONTINUOUS
IGNITION
SWITCH
.___.. __
____,_ - ~ - - - i- - ~
-
IGN1TtON RELAY
l
STARTER OR
SfARTtR SYSTEH
HIGH
ENERGY
l@lTION 1JUT
Hl6K WtRGY
IGNIT10tt UUT
13.7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
13.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
t Jbf:opr .c 1, ... i
u ..
'c
11d
Starters
The two main methods used on transport aircraft are:
Electric starters - fitted to Turbo-Prop and small turbo jet engines
Air starters - fitted to large turbo jet and turbo fan engines
13.9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
13.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ciuoeepro.cor
It
'-t"
.....v , ,.,
~.
ce d
Electric Starters
Direct Cranking Gas Turbine Starters
Direct cranking electric starting systems are similar to those used on reciprocating engines.
Starter- generator starting systems are also similar to direct cranking electrical systems.
Electrically, the two systems may be identical, but the starter generator is permanently engaged
with the engine shaft through the necessary drive gears, while the direct cranking starter must
employ some means of disengaging the starter from the shaft after the engine has started.
On some direct cranking starters used on gas turbine engines no overload release clutch or
gear reduction mechanism is used. This is because of the low torque and high speed
requirement for starting gas turbine engines.
Starter Engagement
Starter Jaw A common method of coupling the starter drive to the engine is by means of a jaw
on the starter, which moves axially into engagement with a similar jaw on the engine gearbox
during initial starter rotation. Axial movement of this jaw is effected either by helical splines on
the starter drive shaft, as shown below, or by the pressure of a solenoid operated push rod in
the starter motor
COMMUTATOR
END PLATE
\
CLUTCH
BRUSHGEAR
13.11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Sprag Clutch- Alternative methods of engagement are the ratchet drive and sprag clutch, in
which the ratchet pawls or sprags rotate with the engine. Engagement and disengagement are
effected centrifugally, engagement by the engine taking place whenever its speed falls below
idling.
OUTER
STARTER MOTOR
ENGAGED
.
--------==-----
RACE~
AXIS OF (
SPRAG
ROTATION
..
--------
DRIVES TURBINE
-:
ST ARTER MOTOR
DISENGAGED
INNER RACE
---------
TURBINE OVERRIDES
13.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'.lllbbp O.COn .
..,v ~
II
, ,-,
tt
IC
r1
13.13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
28 VOLT O C. SUPPLY
BLOWOUT
" ~;
,.._.;:::;;;:=,,.---==='===;:====._
STAftT
STARTIAEUC3JiT
S~UCTO~ SWITCH
____ .. _,__.I _..,
------------r--~
INDICATOR
LIGHT 'ON'
:~GHT
'
II
I
J JI
____
Sll!rt
,
lnll i.tlort ;
jl,.~
_,,....,.
~
I
r--'
OVERSPE.EO
RELA'r'
IGNI .Ot\
SWITCH
ISOLATJl'\'G
RELAY
..
lGNmON
Act.AV
O o
"
MAIN RELAY
HIGH Et.JERGY
IGNmOt..i UNITS
10,,ITER PI.UG
Stert circ;ul1
---
AahgM. circuit
Slo-.,...out cire-ult
STAF!TER MOlOsi
13.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
l " ~
.-c
:e1
GEAR RATIO
TO VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
TO GENERATOR
OUTPUT
PARALLELING AND
PROTECTIVE
CIRCUITRY
13.15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
13.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ibE6pro.co, ..
I
i,
"
, ., u
tce Id
Air Starters
Air Turbine Starter
For large gas turbine engines, starter motors are mainly Air Turbine types. The power from the
turbine assembly is transmitted through a reduction gear and sprag clutch engagement
mechanism, to drive the engine rotating assembly. The engagement mechanism will allow the
starter to 'run down' after an engine start.
Starting air is supplied via the aircraft ducting to a selected engine.
The distribution of air is normally achieved by electrically operated valves, switch controlled,
from the flight deck.
Air for starting may be obtained from various sources, as follows:a ground supply truck,
an auxiliary power unit
an engine compressor tapping, from an existing running engine
CROSS FEED FROM
RUt1;NING ENGINE
AIRFRAME PYLO~
~--
__ >.._
AUXILIARY
POWER UNIT (A.PU l
~G"'.OUNO
START SUPPLY
-XHAJJST
AIR
ENGINE= A:R STARHR
13.17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Air turbine starters are designed to provide a high starting torque from a small, lightweight
source. A typical air turbine starter weighs from one quarter to one-half as much as an electric
starter capable of starting the same engine. It is also capable of developing twice as much
torque as the electric starter.
The typical air turbine starter illustrated overleaf consists of an axial flow turbine, which turns a
drive coupling through a reduction gear train and a starter clutch mechanism.
Air Starter Operation
Introducing air of sufficient volume and pressure into the starter inlet operates the starter. The
air passes into the starter turbine housing, where it is directed against the rotor blades by the
nozzle vanes, causing the turbine rotor to turn. As the rotor turns, it drives the reduction gear
train and clutch arrangement, which includes the rotor pinion, planet gears and carrier, sprag
clutch assembly, output shaft assembly, and drive coupling.
Sprag ClutchOperation
The sprag clutch assembly engages automatically as soon as the rotor starts to turn, but '
disengages as soon as the drive coupling turns more rapidly than the rotor side. When the
starter reaches this over-run speed, the action of the sprag clutch allows the gear train to coast
to a halt. The output shaft assembly and drive coupling continue to turn as long as the engine is
running.
StarterShut-Off
A rotor switch actuator, mounted in the turbine rotor hub, is set to open the turbine switch when
the starter reaches cut-out speed. Opening the turbine switch interrupts an electrical signal to
the pressure-regulating valve. This closes the valve and shuts off the air supply to the starter.
As the starter speeds up towards an over-speed, the ball weights centrifuge out forcing up the
bell housing breaking the micro-switch.
LOW
SPEED
HIGH
SPEED
13.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
" ,.
,cj
fragments and direct their discharge at low energy through the exhaust duct in the event of rotor
failure due to excessive turbine overspeed.
TURBIN[ ROTOR
HEOUCTION
GEAR
13.19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
i1t' Jf WI h tht:
question practice.~:u
TRANSMISSION
HOUSING
OAO CLAMP
FWD
DIRECTION
OF ROTATION
PRESSURIZED
OIL FILL
OUTPUT
SHAFT
FITTING ~ft---.
OflAIN PLUG
ANO CHIP
DETECTOR
OIL FILLER
PLUG
12 PLACES)
OVERFLOW
FITIING FOR
PRESSURIZED
Oil
Oil LEVEL
SIGHT GLASS
13.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
club66pro.c r. .
f''
re c110
oil-level holes, which are used to check the oil quantity. A magnetic drain plug in the
transmission drain opening attracts any ferrous particles, which may be in the oil.
Starter Attachment
To facilitate starter installation and removal, a mounting adapter is bolted to the mounting pad
on the engine. Quick-detach clamps join the starter to the mounting adapter and inlet duct.
Thus, the starter is easily removed for maintenance or overhaul by disconnecting the electrical
line, loosening the clamps, and carefully disengaging the drive coupling from the engine starter
drive as the starter is withdrawn.
Air Starter Valve
The air for starting is directed through a combination pressure-regulating and shut-off valve in
the starter inlet ducting. This valve regulates the pressure of the starter operating air and shuts
off the air supply when the maximum allowable starter speed has been reached.
The pressure-regulating and shut-off valve consists of two sub-assemblies:the pressure-regulating valve,
the pressure-regulating valve control.
Pressure Regulating and Shut-Off Valve Operation
The regulating valve assembly consists of a valve housing containing a butterfly-type valve. The
shaft of the butterfly valve is connected through a cam arrangement to a servo piston. When
the piston is actuated, its motion on the cam causes the rotation of the butterfly valve. The
slope of the cam track is designed to provide a small initial travel and high initial torque when
the starter is actuated. The cam track slope also provides a more stable action by increasing
the time the valve is open.
System Control
The control assembly is mounted on the regulating valve housing and consists of a control
housing in which a solenoid is used to stop the action of the control crank in the 'off' position.
The control crank links a pilot valve, which meters pressure to the servo piston, with the bellows
connected by an air line to the pressure sensing port on the starter.
Initiation
Turning on the starter switch energizes the regulating valve solenoid. The solenoid retracts and
allows the control crank to rotate to the 'open' position. The control crank is then rotated by the
control rod spring moving the control rod against the closed end of the bellows. Since the
regulating valve is closed and downstream pressure is negligible, the bellows can be fully
extended by the bellows spring.
As the control crank rotates to the open position, it causes the pilot valve rod to open the pilot
valve allowing upstream air, which is supplied to the pilot valve through a suitable filter and
restriction in the housing, to flow into the servo piston chamber. The drain side of the pilot
valve, which bleeds the servo chamber to the atmosphere, is now closed by the pilot valve rod
and the servo piston moves inboard.
13.21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
This linear motion of the servo piston is translated to rotary motion of the valve shaft by the
rotating cam, thus opening the regulating valve. As the valve opens, downstream pressure
increases. This pressure is bled back to the bellows through the pressure-sensing line and
compresses the bellows. This action moves the control rod, thereby turning the control crank
and moving the pilot valve rod gradually away from the servo chamber to vent to the
atmosphere.
When downstream (regulated) pressure reaches a preset value, the amount of air flowing into
the servo through the restriction equals the amount of air being bled to the atmosphere through
the servo bleed and the system is in a state of equilibrium.
Rotation
When the valve is open, the regulated air passing through the inlet housing of the starter
impinges on the turbine, causing it to turn.
Starter Cut-Out
When starting speed is reached, a set of flyweights in a centrifugal cut-out switch actuates a
plunger which breaks the ground circuit of the solenoid.
Valve Closed
When the ground circuit is broken and the solenoid is de-energized, the pilot valve is forced
back to the 'off' position, opening the servo chamber to the atmosphere. This action allows the
actuator spring to move the regulating valve to the 'closed' position.
When the air to the starter is terminated, the outboard clutch gear, driven by the engine, will
begin to turn faster than the inboard clutch gear, and the inboard clutch gear, actuated by the
return spring, will disengage the outboard clutch gear, allowing the rotor to coast to a halt. The
outboard clutch shaft will continue to turn with the engine.
Manual Starting
Sometimes the solenoid on the start valve becomes unserviceable, so provision is made to
enable the aircraft to be started manually. This can be by manually depressing the solenoid
valve or turning the butterfly itself.
13.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'1'"
I .... "
Cl
PRESSURE
CONTROLLER
POStTION
INOICATING
SWITCH
S=SHUT
O=OPEN
MANUAL OVERRIDE
ALIGNMENT MARKS
AIR flOW
TURBIN
,-
"FRE.SSUfJE
CIIIITROLLEA
fl.OW TO
MANUAL
Vt NT
0\/EIIRIDE /
v, N1 wru.o
\ SfU.eNom IOEENEftOIZEn~
13.23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
13.24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,_ r c..i a d
Procedure
The engines are equipped with air starters.
The air to start the engine is provided by:The APU, the ground connectors, or the other engine, if it is already running.
The starting system has provision for:Engine start.
Engine crank.
Continuous ignition.
RUNNING
ENGINE
STAflT VALVE
GROUND
SUPPLY
APO
LJLJ
The controlpanel
The control panel is located on the overhead panel.
Figure 13.16 shows the start panel with, at the top, the ignition selector which controls the two
ignition systems of each engine. The selector has three positions: CRANK in the vertical
position, then ground START ignition A or B when turned to the left and continuous RELIGHT
when turned to the right.
At the bottom of the panel is the master switch with ARM and START/ABORT positions.
Finally on each side, one yellow push-to-start button for each engine with its corresponding start
valve position light, which is blue and is marked OPEN.
The ignition system is supplied by two different electrical circuits.
13.25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
Jes.gned in ass ,c i; ti
Jr
System
witt thE
ENG START
CRANK
/"
STARl A
IB
a -:ONT
FlFLIGHi
START. VALVE
OPEN
START. VALVE
t.&~
I!'
ENG 1
ARM
OPEN
ENG 2
START ABORT
Figure 13.16: Engine start panel
115 VAC is used to energise the exciter and is controlled through the HP fuel shut off valve
lever, the ignition selector and the ignition relay.
The ignition relay is energised by 28 VDC when the master switch is in the ARM position and
the start button is pushed.
Starting is achieved in the following manner:Set the ignition selector to A or B.
Set the master switch to "ARM".
This arms the ignition circuit and closes the air conditioning system if it is open.
lights in the push-to-start buttons will illuminate during this transit.
The amber
When the air conditioning valves are closed, the lights in the push-to-start buttons extinguish
and the operator can push the start button which will latch. This increases the APU rpm to
100% to provide sufficient air for starting.
It also arms the ignition circuit and finally, provided that pneumatic power is available, it opens
the start valve and the blue OPEN light illuminates.
13.26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Training System
Copyright 2011
i1..,
c.e dl<.J
APU
ENG
-'li1wt
f'USH
-------IGNITION
TO
START
START
VALVE
Figure 13.17: When the Start Button is pressed, the APU goes to 100%
c_;:7,
;--~'....
, \
~
})~
HP
FUEL
VALVE
N 2 =10%
ON
"I
+-+
===- =-:::
IGNITION
13.27
Use and/or disclosure ls
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r.(~-1'
~/
,,J
Engine rpm should now increase to Ground Idle, which is approximately 65%
N2
and 24%
N1.
APU
IGNITION
13.28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,frieJ.
clubbbpr " r .
"1" ~ ,u . ,,,u
uce a 1
Engine lights up and reaches self sustaining speed, but then the rpm is
slow or fails to reach IDLE rpm, TGT on or near limit.
Likely cause is the FCU.
Wet Start
Excess fuel causing failure to light up. If start occurs, high TGT and
TORCHING.
Hot Start
Maximum start TGT exceeded - likely cause, low starter supplies electrical
and/or air.
Abortive Start
13.29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
13.30
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
. ..r. ~ '''CE
ld
Ignition Systems
Overview
The purpose of the ignition system is to provide a means of initiating or sustaining combustion
within the engine, an identical system is fitted to each engine. The system requirements are :Satisfactory engine starting
Relight at altitude when necessary
Continuous operation during critical flight conditions
High Energy (HE) ignition is used for starting all jet engines and a dual system is always fitted.
Each system has an igniter unit connected to its own igniter plug, the two plugs being situated in
different positions in the combustion chamber (usually at the 4 and 8 o'clock positions).
Ignition units are rated in "joules". A high value output (e.g. 12 joules) is necessary to ensure
that the engine will "relight" at high altitudes and is sometimes necessary for starting (especially
with engines fitted with a vaporising tube type nozzle). However, in certain flight conditions,
such as icing or take-off in heavy rain or snow, it may be necessary to have the ignition system
operating continuousto give an automatic relight should a "flame-out" occur. For this
condition, a low output (e.g. 3 to 6 joules) would be used because it results in a longer life of
both the igniter system and the plug. See diagram overleaf showing a typical large aircraft
ignition system.
13.31
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ai,
Use of Ignition
Many systems incorporate two circuits within the same casing - one a low energy continuous
duty circuit, the other a high energy intermittent duty circuit. Both plugs may be fired from the
intermittent duty circuits, but there is a second circuit which fires just one plug on a lower energy
output.
Continuous duty - is used for periods of flying in icing conditions or during heavy rain or snow.
The cockpit switches would be positioned to the left or right positions to protect against flameout. The energy output of this system is not sufficient to cause "light-up" in the air or on the
ground, but will merely help to sustain ignition in bad flying conditions.
Intermittent duty - is used for initial "light-up" on the ground or to "re-light" should a flame-out
occur at altitude. If the switch is placed in the "START" position, the intermittent duty circuit is
activated and the starter system is activated. In this position the "VALVE OPEN" light will
illuminate to show that the starter motor is being fed with supply air. If the switch were placed in
the "FLT START" position, the intermittent duty circuit is activated, but since the engine will be
windmilling, it does not require a starter motor, and hence this system remains off.
With the older types of intermittent system, the intermittent duty circuits have a time limit on their
operation. A typical time limit would be two minutes ON, with a three to twenty minutes OFF for
cooling.
13.32
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
' .
COIL
RESERVOIR CAPACITOR
H T. CONNECTION
TO IGNITER PLUG
SAFETY
RESISTORS
DISCHARGE
GAP
DISCHARGE
RESISTORS
------
RESERVOIR
CAPACITOR
RECTIFIER
..__.....
L T CONNECTION
DC. SJPPLY
H.T. CONNECTION
TO IG"JJTER PLUG:
l.T. CONNECTION
13.33
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
>
gm d
., th tr
question pr;,rticc 1id
I dSSO ic1ti<Jr
"'"'i61:i~,v.Cum
The secondary coil of the induction coil contains many more windings than the primary coil, so
a large current is induced in the coil. The electrons flowing from the secondary coil begin to
build up on the left hand side of the reservoir capacitor. The rectifier stops these electrons
flowing the opposite way round the circuit to the right hand side of the reservoir capacitor.
After about half a second of repeated cycles, there will be enough charge in the reservoir
capacitor to jump the discharge gap. All the charge in the reservoir capacitor will jump the gap
at once and so the igniter plug receives a large amount of current at once, which it conveys to
the earth circuit. The choke is fitted to extend the duration of the discharge slightly, especially if
there is more current than is required by the igniter plug at any one time. The cycle is repeated
about twice a second.
The discharge resistors are fitted to ensure that any stored energy in the capacitor is
dissipated within one minute of the system being switched off. The safety resistor provides an
alternative path for the discharge current if the igniter plug is disconnected but the system is still
switched on.
More modern circuits have the trembler mechanism replaced by a transistorised "chopper
circuit" which simply generates a pulsating DC supply.
13.34
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c J!luoprc.c ,.
CAPACITOR
CHOKE
,. '
L_..,., .,.
~ ......
---
TRANSISTOR
GENER~r---
._
--
CHOKE.
DISCHARGE GAP
,,.
-lice .no
~,'!-
CAPACITOR
>:
RECTIFIER
--it---I
I
I..
I
H.T. CONNECTION
TO IGNITER PLUG
...
DIODE
L.T t:ONNECTION
D.C. SUPPLY
SAFETY RESISTORS
/N--
NJ-
DISCHARGE
GAP
DISCllARGE
RESISTORS
..JI\~\/\,\
RESERVOIR
CAF'PCITOR
SPARK RAH.
m:SJ5TOn
l.ONNtt:llON
IO IGNI I CR PLUG
If I
--- ~-....
SUPPRESSOR
SPARK RATE
RESISTOR
l T CONNECTION
'I.OH C .l lJR<, u-.ro
("I~
l"I
t.~1l, Ot< ,
LT
:? ~)
CONNECT~~~
AC SUPPL~;-''"
13.35
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'l.,ll
The operation of an AC circuit is identical to a DC circuit except that the trembler switch
mechanism (or transistorised chopper circuit) is replaced with 115 V AC supply.
13.36
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,1
c Jb66pro.rc1, ., .
,S
..,
, c; dill
Igniter Plugs
Spark lgniters
Constrained or Constricted Air Gap Type
Constrained Air Gap Igniter Plugs for Gas Turbine Engines differ considerably from spark plugs
for reciprocating engines. The gap at the igniter plug tip is much wider and the electrode is
designed to withstand a much higher intensity spark. The igniter plug is also less susceptible to
fouling because the high energy spark removes carbon and other deposits every time the plug
fires. The construction material is also different because the igniter plug is made of very high
quality, nickel-chromium alloy for its corrosion resistance and low coefficient of heat
expansion. The threads in many cases are also silver plated to prevent seizing. For this
reason, it is many times more expensive than an automobile spark plug.
The shell at the hot end of the igniter is generally air cooled to keep it soo'r to
600F cooler than the surrounding gas temperature.
13.37
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
4. INSULATIOH HALS
S. WELD
QLA88 8EA1..
7.CERAMICINSULATOR
8. teNTER ELECTRODE
t. TUNGSTENTIP
13.38
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
nuob6pro.cor ..,~
~ . .::
t ce aid
TUNGSTEN TIP
TUNGSTEN ALLOY
SILICON CARBIDE
SEMI-CONDUCTOR PELLET
13.39
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Glow Plugs
Some smaller engines are fitted with a glow plug type igniter rather than a spark igniter. This
glow plug is a resistance coil of a very high heat value and is particularly effective for extremely
low temperature starting.
The glow plug is supplied with 28VDC at approximately 1 O amps to heat the coil to a yellow hot
condition. The coil is very similar in appearance to an automobile cigarette lighter. Air directed
up through the coil mixes with fuel sprayed from the main fuel nozzle. This is designed to occur
when the main nozzle is not completely atomizing its discharge at low flow conditions during
start-up. The influence of the airflow on the fuel acts as to create a "hot streak" or blow torch
type ignition.
13.40
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
TYPICAL FlRING
ENO CONAGURATlOH
GAP OESCRIPTION
--
bo6pr
.~o
t'-
,l
HIGH VOLTAGE
SURFACE GAP
YES
HIGH VOLTAGE
RECESSEOSURFACEGAP
YES
COIL EU:llt.NT
==
ce 11.1d
ENO
YES
SE~~
CONDUCTOR
. ,, _;,,
ClEANARING
HIGH VOLTAGE
AIR SURFACE GAP
LOW VOLTAGE
SHUNTEO SURFACE G.AP
(SELF IONIZJNO)
. .
Only clean if
manufacturer
allows
YES
13.41
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
13.42
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
The depth at which an igniter plug is fitted to a combustor is critical. Too deep and the plug will
be burnt, not deep enough and the spark will not ignite the fuel. To ensure the correct depth the
combustor is normally depth gauged from the boss on the engine outer casing into the
combustor liner. Spacers or gaskets are then fitted to the igniter plug to reflect the depth gauge
measurement. The depth gauge is a 'special to type' combustor tool. Refer to the applicable
AMM for details.
COMBUSTOR
cASI!
EIIGIII E OUTER
./
CASIUG
!XCfT!ATO
tONfffR PLUQ
HIGH VOLTAGE
LEAO
13.43
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
13.44
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
Ensure that the ignition switch is turned off before performing any maintenance on the
system.
To remove an igniter plug, disconnect the HE ignition unit input lead and wait for the
prescribed amount of time (usually 1 minute) to allow any residual charge to dissipate
through the safety resistors. Then disconnect the igniter lead and ground the centre
electrode to the engine to discharge any current stored in the plug, the igniter plug is now
safe to remove.
Ensure proper disposal of unserviceable igniter plugs. If they are the type that contain
aluminium oxide and beryllium oxide, a toxic insulating material, the usual method is to
place plugs in a sealed container and bury them at a designated disposal sight.
Exercise great caution in handling sealed ignition units. Some contain radioactive
material (caesium-barium 137) on the air gap points. This material is used to calibrate
the discharge point to a pre-set voltage.
If an igniter plug is dropped it should be discarded since internal damage can occur that
may not be detectable by testing or examination.
Always use a new gasket where the plug is reinstalled. The gasket is essential in
providing a good conductive current path to ground.
13.45
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
13.46
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.,u ,c;aad
L - ENG LIHllER
~-----
r~
Ccl
88
----ENGINE
L
ENG
VAL VE
SPAR
VAi VE
START----
l~~J
SPAR
VALVE
\f_J)-
R
VALVEAl
GNO AUTO
GN~~ONl
- R
Off.
CONT
fll
FLT
13.47
Use andJor disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
f".'
1r,
1\,
,r
:'
n ru restion practice
Oh,I
Control Sequence
115 volts AC is provided by the respective Left or Right AC buses to power igniters No. 1 on the
left and right engines white the standby bus normally powers igniters No. 2. The power sense
relay automatically selects standby power for igniter No. 1 in case main bus power is not
available.
The fire switch must be in normal and the fuel control switch (P10) must be in the RUN or RICH
position.
Normal Sequence
The ignition select switch selects the ignition system to be used.
When the engine start switch is selected to the GND position it energizes the starter solenoid
and a holding coil which maintains the GND position until N3 reaches 47%. Above 47%, N3 the
engine start switch springs to AUTO.
With the switch in the AUTO position ignition is provided when the Flaps are not up, when the
engine anti-ice is on or when a signal is received from the Transient Pressure Unit (TPU)
FLT provides ignition for in-flight starts and CONT ignition is used during turbulent conditions or
takeoffs and landings, if AUTO is not selected.
High Energy Ignition Units Control
Whether the output of either 10- or 4-joules is applied, is determined by the position of the
engine start switch or whether or not a signal is received the transient pressure unit.
Normal power sources for the ignition units are the 115 volt ac buses. Interruption of power from
the normal bus sources causes automatic switching to the standby bus.
13.48
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
-~9-J
!:
__ l C
...
~
~0
=~
r.
z<.,:)
z:,
z
!:
:::
-..,,
::::
~,,
--
....;
...:
'-'
< 0 "-
::;
<C:
- "'c
~:;; ~
"-
:::
...."' "'0
:,
":,
"'z;;
;:;
:z
"'
z:::,
"'
"'
......"'
... ..."'...
~=...
:::,,"-
:,
"-
...
z-
:,
:z
C)
z'-"
"-
"'
::';
:z
Q
"' ...:,
::,;
... 0
- :z
......
0
...:z ...
.... ...I
0
-'
...
:: ;
"'c
z-
...
~ ....
:,
"'
... "' t
z<.,:)
C'\J
-~-=:::)
g:
~~
:: - :::
::::=z
- -:Jc.."""
::
l..7w
- ~
VI -
~
ii<
"'
~
::~
:::> -z
u
z
_
~w
-:. : : ._,
.%
zuc:cz:::s
- C O 1"' )It O - 0
1,.,.1-----..nv,c..
Cl:Yol
~
-iii "'
> E: 7 >
v"IOZ:D
CZ:
.....
T
v,
-:c~-a::::::i
......... -
v, Q
i;c.
13.49
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
13.50
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,r-
Module 15
r
r-
Part-66
Licence
Category
81
r,--
Volume 2
Exclusively from
WWW.BiffeChbOOkS.COm
rt~l!Y
~;
..,
,....
. ,..
. tee d1J
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category 81
Gas Turbine Engine
15.14 Engine Indication Systems
14-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'i lr~1
clut; vp ... w,n questlon practice
u ,.
CopyrightNotice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
14.2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
I.
'"
,,
( ce u :l
Table of Contents
Module 15.14 - Engine IndicatingSystems
Cockpit Displays
Analogue
Electronic IndicatingSystem
EICAS and ECAM
5
5
5
7
8
Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple
ResistanceThermometers
Wheatstone Bridge TemperatureSensor
DC Ratiometer
9
9
9
11
11
15
15
22
23
Pressure Measurement
Direct Reading PressureGauges
Remote Reading Pressure Instruments
25
25
28
Engine ThrustIndication
Engine Pressure Ratio
RPM
33
33
36
37
37
39
41
41
42
43
44
44
Engine Speed
Tacho-generator
Phonic Wheel and Pulse Probe
45
45
46
Vibration IndicationSystems
47
Torque IndicatingSystem
51
14-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'lS::,O'
o, "''
ti -~
14.4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
i'-'
v .. f-'
fee <11Cl
14-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
14.6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
ii"'
JLo!>tmpr ..
,c.
.CE .Jd
14-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
14.8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
I-'
ce
Temperature Measurement
There are two types of sensors:
Thermocouple sensors
Resistance Bulb thermometers
Thermocouple
Works exactly the same way as the EGT system and requires no external power. There is likely
to be only one thermocouple however - this is the reason that Iron and Constantan is
sometimes used as the dissimilar metals as they give a greater current flow per degree Celsius
than Alumel/Chromel.
Resistance Thermometers
Resistance thermometers are used as the sensing device for both Wheatstone bridge and DC
Ratiometer circuits. The device is usually a platinum or nickel wire sensor wound on a former
made of an insulating material such as mica. This assembly will be enclosed within a steel tube.
The resistance of the wire will increase with increasing heat and hence it will act as the variable
resistance element of either of the above instrument types.
Ccnnection
Resstance "nermometer
to leads
Connection Leads
Sheath
Insulator
14-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.
1 r
,, ..,
'"
clut, ,v,,,v.~v,n question practice
u u
Figure 14.8: Fan inlet temperature sensor in the CFM56-3 engine intake (8737)
14.10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
pr . o . ..,
,. ,-,
DC Ratiometer
A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge,
especially when the supply voltage varies. Typically, a simple ratiometer circuit consists of two
parallel branches powered by the aircraft electrical system. One branch consists of a fixed
resistor and coil, and the other branch consists of a variable resistor and coil. The two coils are
wound on a rotor that pivots between the poles of a permanent magnet, forming a meter
movement in the gauge.
The shape of the permanent magnet provides a larger air gap between the magnet and coils at
the bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density, or magnetic field, is progressively
stronger from the bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow through each coil creates an
electromagnet that reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet, creating torque that
repositions the rotor until the magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of the
temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal, current flow through each coil is the same and
the indicator pointer remains in the centre position. However, if the probe temperature
increases, its resistance also increases, causing a decrease in current through the temperaturesensing branch. Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the temperature sensing branch
14-11
Use and/or dlsclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
""'
1r
decreases, creating an imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each coil reaches a null, or
balance. The pointer attached to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature
Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are especially useful in applications where
accuracy is critical or large variations of supply voltages are encountered. Therefore, a
ratiometer circuit type temperature sensing system is generally preferred over Wheatstone
bridge circuits by aircraft and engine manufacturers.
SENSITIVe'.
ELEMENT
(BULB)
/
.:
-,
""
--~.,.._~~~~~~~~----"-~~-,
___
Rx
,)
-.
INDICAT0R
SENSOR
UNIT
14.12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
' bttiJ-)rQ.L
.....
1,
t ce ..i J
--
14-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
14.14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
J0c;igne:J rr a 1 i )I ,.,1, 1 he
club6bro.~.)mquestion practice
..iiu
CTJ.!ER~r
fl
I
Chromol
-K
II--
Q ~
I
I
'
Alumel {-)
Chrome!()-
B -
Power
Supply
Exhaust
Temperature
Indicator
Referen~
Junction
compen,etlon
.:..
Lights{~~
tl- -
---t"
....
Lott Engine
EGT
Thermocouple
Alumel has an excess of free electrons and is usually colour coded GREEN
Chrome! has a deficiency of free electrons and is usually colour coded WHITE
These metals are used as a standard in the aircraft industry, not because they give the
best current flow per degree centigrade, but because they are most reliable.
2
There are at least eight thermocouple placed in parallel around the exhaust and each
within a casing which helps to protect the delicate wires from the hot gases. In this way,
a thermocouple may burn out and it will not affect the sensitivity of the system.
All the thermocouples come together at a common cold junction which is where the
indicator is situated. The indicator is a sensitive ammeter but indicating degrees Celsius
instead of amps. This is a moving coil ammeter and is very delicate. During transit of
the instrument, the terminals should be shorted by a piece of copper wire. This will help
to damp the internal mechanism and should only be removed when the indicator is
connected to a thermocouple. This type of instrument is sometimes called a D' Arsonval
meter.
4
In the circuit will be situated a calibrating resistor (or sometimes a dummy thermocouple).
This resistor is temperature sensitive and is subject to ambient temperature. It has two
functions:
It calibrates the system since the lengths of the wires from the sensors to the indicators is
critical (see below)
14.18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
uOb pro.co .. 1
., ~
c ..ml
The Thermocouple
,--
If two wires of any different metals are joined together at both ends as shown, then heat is
applied to one of the junctions, a very small current will flow around the wires. The reason for
this, is the fact that every metal has a different electrical potential to the next, or a different
amount of free electrons, or even a deficiency of free electrons compared to other metals. The
heating of one of the junctions, known as the hot junction allows free electrons from the wire
with the greatest electrical potential, to flow into the wire of the lesser electrical potential - this is
known as the Seebeck Effect. The flow of electrons is continuous for as long as the heat is
applied and is directly proportional to the amount of heat applied. The current flows right
around through the cold junction and back to the hot junction in a complete loop. Although the
current is very small, it can be measured at any point in the loop by a sensitive ammeter.
Note that no external electrical supply is needed.
14-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
., Jned n s~
'i ,n ""ith tr
clut~o,., ~. ~..1111 question practice ato
Alumel
Chromel
.. t l&IIIOllll
14.16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.,l)t:.f>or .c r,.
I
u
..,
""
J"" ~
ce il d
The exhaust gas temperature EGT system for a turbine engine is similar to that for a
reciprocating engine except that several thermocouples are used. These are arranged around
the exhaust so they can sample the temperature in several locations.
For accurate temperature indication, the reference junction temperature must be held constant.
It is not practical to do this in an aircraft instrument, so the indicator needle is mounted on a
bimetallic hairspring in such a way that it moves back as the cockpit temperature increases.
This compensates for reference junction temperature changes.
Pylon
Disconnect
Calibrating
Resistor
Left Engine
Exhaust Gas
Temperature
r1
t
a
Btmutaltie
Tomp
Corracllon
14-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r , ""
. ,.,. , ~
,, ~
thermocouple
millivolt meter
(calibrated in degrees!
compensating leads
,----~--------,
I
I
I
1
---
.,.,
instrument connected
to cold junction
hot junction
ballast
resistor
CALIBRATING
RESISTOR
LU MEL
WITH INDICATOR
~SCONNECTEO
SYSTEM RESISTANCE
IS150HMS
(:t .05 OHMS) NOMINAL
----HARNESS
SPLICES
ALU MEL
(-)
CHROMEL
(+)
14-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
STAGNATION
TYPE
COUPLE
OtrrLET
RA.PIO
RESPONSE
TYPE
COUPLE
OOT
Figure 14.17: Stagnation Type and Rapid Response Type thermocouple probes
14.20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,.
otipro. or..
~L
.,
_e .1 t1
JUNCTION BOX
...
\ ',
TO GAS TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SYSTEM
14-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
j(
d
.~
r
Cl!Jt:..v,,,v.,v n question practice ~~
A Modern ThermocoupleSystem
Modern thermocouple systems do not use the simple moving coil instrument. If the engine uses
an instrument, them it is likely to be a moving coil ratiometer, where the cold junction is in fact
one leg of the ratiometer device.
In a FADEC engine the cold junction is within the FADEC EEC.
For Non FADEC engines with glass cockpit (Boeing 757) the cold junction will terminate at the
EICAS computer. See below for the RB211/8757 EGT system
THERMOCOUPLE
T2/T7
TEST
RECEPTACLE
COMPENSATING
<FIXED)
RESISTOR
17 DUAL
HEAD
GREEN WHITE +
BALLAST
RESISTOR
(SELECTED)
EICAS DISPLAY
THERMOCOUPLES
UNIT (P2)
EICAS
..-----, :~~~~M~::-:--~E..___--t--.-~
4
CR
[ ll'Jl'J]
JUNCTION BOX
CortPUTERS
E4-2
AVERAGE
..___, CHRortEL
TERMINAL
BLOCK
COMPENSATING
RESISTOR
TERMINAL
STUD LINK
STANDBY ENGINE
INDICATORS <Pl-3)
TYPICAL)
Note that the compensating resistor is fitted to adjust for variation in ambient temperature at the
cold junction, whilst the ballast resistor standardizes EGT output to enable variation in individual
engine performance to be eradicated in the interest of fleet commonality.
14.22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
01; .~ .... ~ ,
r ~ '\.c aid
Thermocouple Maintenance
Maintenance of thermocouple EGT system consists of testing the circuit. This may be done in 2
ways.
The Jetcal Analyser
The Jetcal analyzer is a RPM and EGT test set. In the EGT mode it tests the following:
Continuity Check of aircraft EGT circuit
Functional Check of Aircraft EGT Circuit
Resistance and Insulation Check
EGT Indicator check
The first three above are carried out by heating a probe that fits over a thermocouple and the
output is cross checked between the test set and the cockpit gauge. None of these tests require
compensation for ambient temperature because the aircraft circuit and the test set are
automatically corrected.
The EGT indicator test is carried out by removing the indicator from the aircraft and connecting
to the test set. Correction for ambient temperature is not required.
Resistance and Continuity Checks
On modern engines you should confirm serviceability of the system by checking continuity and
resistance of the system using Multimeter and Ohmmeter. Thermocouples are also checked
individually by isolating them and checking resistance.
Fault diagnosis
For all power settings
False Low EGT
- Corroded terminals
- leads too long after repair
- Loose terminals
- Gauge Fault
14-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
14.24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c un
o o.cor "" _,
. , , , t ce
Pressure Measurement
Oil pressure is electrically transmitted to an indicator on the instrument panel. Some
installations use a flag-type indicator, which indicates if the pressure is high, normal or low;
others use a dial-type gauge calibrated in pounds per square inch (PSI). EICAS and ECAM
display oil pressure and temperature on the appropriate engine page.
Electrical operation of each type is similar; oil pressure, acting on the transmitter, causes a
change in the electric current supplied to the indicator. The amount of change is proportional to
the pressure applied at the transmitter.
The transmitter may be of either the direct or the differential pressure type. The latter senses
the difference between engine feed and return oil pressures. The differential pressure type is
normally used on modern engines as it will take into account changes of altitude, which
in a direct reading gauge would affect the indication.
In addition to the pressure gauge operated by a transmitter, an oil pressure switch may be
provided to indicate absolute minimum allowable oil pressure.
Bourdon
Tube ---.\.
Sector
14-25
Use andfor disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Pressure Capsule
Aneroid
Chamber
Pressure Bellows
Pointer
14.26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Pressure
Entrance
'
...
Pressure
Entrance
14-27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Vt'
.J.w
~
I[
Electric
Resistance
]I
,.
I[
'
,J
Substrate
JI
Measuring
Conductor
Pressure
=::::t:=
_r.,~A
fi
: ___{-'All
~t
82A
Oxygen Cylinder
Quantity
Indicator
14.28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
LOb6r, O.C.
--
: I".,..,
CEl
.d
Piezo-Resistive Sensors
P- or N- conducting elements are diffused into a pure silicon substrate. This so called piezoresistive effect changes the resistance with a much higher sensitivity than what a metallic strain
gauge does.
Semiconductor based sensors are in many different forms. The substrate of the pressure
sensor shown in figure 14.26 has a dimension of 3.5 x 3.5 mm. Inside there is a bridge with 4
elements.
Pressure
Silicon
Substrate
14-29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Frequency
Linear
'~
'
. . .J,_
I
Range
- -+
-f- - Nonlineair
... ,
Parameter
Diaphragm
Assembly
Oscillator
Coil Assembly
Vacuum
Reference
Temperature
.....,.__.;,..i.....,~::.-- Sensing
Resistor
Cable
14.30
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
l
C-ubooprc.~o.
Pressure
Vibration
Diaphragm
Transducer
FREQ
PROP NL
to Press
Sensor
Temperature
FREQ/
Digital
Converter
Temperature
Compensated
Pressure
Calculation
'I"
,,pu
ce aid
Pressure
Signal
14-31
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
_ _,
14.32
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'
ubpr._i_,
011 'iu
.,
1 f' '"
tee a'd
The engine pressure ratio (EPR) is a widely used thrust indicating system and is becoming
more popular than the RPM as an indication of thrust. The pressures sensed are usually
compressor inlet pressure (P1) and turbine outlet pressure (P6), by a series of pitot
pressure probes. A ratio of the two pressures are converted into an electrical signal by the
pressure ratio transmitter for transmittal to the flight deck indicator.
Although an EPR of say, 1.6 (typical for cruise) is not a direct indication of the thrust itself, since
other factors are involved (such as nozzle area), the ratio does vary linearly with thrust and can
therefore be used as a thrust "indicator".
The Pressure Ratio Transmitter consists of a series of bellows sensitive to the air pressure
tappings, which when processed into a ratio by mechanical means, is converted into an
electrical signal for indication in the flight deck by a voltmeter, or, a Desynn or an Autosyn
position indicator is used. Whichever system is used, it requires an electrical input.
Engine pressure ratio does vary with increased forward speed due to Ram Effect. Increased P1
will affect the P6/P1 ratio so that the ratio will decrease.
Note that High Bypass Fan engines variously define EPR as Fan Outlet Pressure to Fan Inlet
Pressure or Turbine Integrated Pressure plus Fan Outlet Pressure to Fan Inlet Pressure.
Engine Turbine Discharge/Jet Pipe Pressure
This indication of thrust utilizes a pitot probe to measure the dynamic pressure of the jet stream
aft of the turbine. The output will be in to a gauge that is calibrated in either:
Lb/in2
Inches of mercury (in Hg)
Percentage of the maximum thrust
14-33
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CIULvuiJf-.C
Pressure Sensors
The exact position of sensors varies from engine to engine
P6:P1 = EPR
E.g.:
CFM 56
Note: With increased forward speed EPR indication decreases due to the rise in P1. The
engine will normally have been set up to maintain a certain EPR (Cruise, climb, MaxT/0) and as
a result will increase fuel flow to provide extra RPM which will produce the extra thrust to
maintain the EPR value.
14.34
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c Jb6bpro.cor.
r
,.,v . ;., u~t'c:eaid
'-i'-'
J-{
-~
~!---.........__. ___
--_ _J
__
....____
IOTfM
I
I'
[>
--
-----~TfDJ.
_ _J
14-35
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated
Training
System
.
.
.
lt:
11
RPM
Older engines simply used compressor RPM as the indication of thrust. The higher the RPM the
greater the thrust
High Bypass Fan RPM
In a high bypass engine the fan produces 80% of the thrust therefore it is reasonable to use N1
RPM as an analogy of thrust. The GE CF6 series engines are a good example of this. The RR
Trent uses EPR, but has N1 available as a back up.
14.36
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Dbbpr . o .
-i ~
. ~
r,ce aid
Oil QuantityMeasurement
Systems
Modern oil tank indicating systems utilise a sliding magnet around a series of reed switches. As
the oil level varies the magnet floats up and down the probe causing the reed switches to open
and close. Current to the indicator varies as a function of the resistances in the probe circuit
OIL
OIL TANK
QUANTITY
INDICATOft
OIL QTY
J<MTR
REED.SWITCHES
QUANTITY
PROBE
14-37
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,r v.,tl
TO OIII..CtTY
G.IUGE
~I
l8 /
.11CJ
+28VOLT$
cp
--ef
~-
s2
14.38
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'
.. ;, ' e
.;
Oil pressurewarninglight
Oil pressure is also monitored by an oil pressure switch (figure 14.21) that puts a light on when
the oil pressure reaches a low level. The light is usually red and will be incorporated into the
aircraft warning systems to alert the pilot. On later aircraft the pressure switch may have two
pressure switched within it. A speed comparator will decide which switch to monitor. The idea
being that a low oil pressure of say 20 psi is fine at low engine speed, however at higher engine
speeds the engine could be sustaining damage due to insufficient oil pressure even though it is
above 20 psi. The second pressure element would be activated when the engine speed was
greater than say 80% and the oil pressure less than 50 psi.
28 V de
ANNUNCIATOR
LIGHTS
r------+--~
LOW OIL
PRESSURE
Oil FILTER
BYPASS
11
LOW
~H=IG=H-+---11
-
I
FILTER INLET
-FILTER OUTLET
(a)
(b)
PRESSURE CONNECTION
14-39
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
\.I
fl
j,
Intentionally Blank
14.40
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ot this chapter
,{~~;
Integrated Training
System
l
. .
c.
C Ul'bt>pc.
IT.
i"'- "
.,
. " ,-.,,
d l
Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight may vary slightly between engines
of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of the satisfactory operation of the
engine.
the flight, which is a better measure of the fuel usage over a period of time.
,/
CAl.lBRATEO
SPRING
14-41
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
DECOUPUNQ
DISK
TURBINE
IMPElLER
~'1"'""11""-
--JMPELlE
~OTOA
FLUID
PASSAGE
TRANSMITTER
B C
11e V.A.C.
MOTOR
CIRCUIT
INDICATOR
14.42
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1 ,_ ...i .. ,
c aid
This type of fuel flow transmitter consists of a housing containing a swirl generator, a freespinning rotor and a turbine, which is restrained by a spring attached to the housing.
Two permanent magnets are fixed, 180 degrees apart, at the forward and aft end of the rotor.
With each complete revolution of the rotor, the forward end magnet induces an electrical pulse
in a small coil mounted on the outer wall of the housing. This is known as the 'start' pulse. The
aft end magnet aligns with a signal blade fixed on the turbine. As the magnet passes the signal
blade, another pulse is induced into a second, larger coil, which is also on the outer wall of the
housing. This is known as the 'stop' pulse.
One 'start' pulse and one 'stop' pulse are generated through the coils at each revolution of the
rotor. If the rotor could spin without fuel flow, the start and stop pulses would occur
simultaneously.
--
--
When the fuel starts flowing, the rotor spins at a speed that is proportional to the fuel flow and
the signal blade on the turbine, restrained by the spring, begins to deflect along the path of
rotation. The stop pulses now begin to occur after the start pulses.
As the mass flow (weight) of fuel through the transmitter increases, the turbine deflects further
and further, and the time difference between the start and stop pulses increases proportionally.
It is this time difference which is measured by the ECU, and converted to Fuel Flow and Fuel
Used values, which are then made available to the A/C for cockpit indication. The operating
range of the fuel flow transmitter output is from O to 170 milliseconds, which corresponds to a
fuel flow range of O to 27000 lbs/hr.
START COIL
,--------o
PERMANENT
MAGNET
START
r-----,----<1
~-,
PULSE
COMMON
STOP
PULSE
HOUSING
STOP COIL
FLOW
DIRECTOR
----------
RESTRAINING
SPRING
GENERATOR
ROTOR
(FREE SPINNING)
SIGNAL BLADE
PERMANENT
MAGNET
14-43
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C.. !L
,,
c.,
I'
'
question pr CW:u u u
Maintenance Practices
Fuel flow transmitters that are not installed within 24 hours must be treated to prevent corrosion.
Fill the transmitter with engine oil to coat all internal parts, then drain. Install protective covers
on the open ports.
14.44
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
, ~ . ,,.
' d ::I
ic o
Engine Speed
Because no two engines and no two compressors N1 and N2 operate at the same speed,
percent revolutions per minute is used to simplify the flight deck indications.
There are two systems in common use, often both systems are used on the same engine.
Tacho-generator
Phonic wheel and pulse probe
Tacho-generator
The tachometer is an independent electrical system, consisting of an engine driven three
phase AC generator and a synchronous motor driven indicator. The frequency of the
generated current is dependent upon the speed of the engine. The tacho-generator is
connected to the main gearbox, which is driven by the high pressure spool, and therefore is
most commonly used to indicate the HP spool speed.
\
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR f'IEU)
TYPICAL ROTOij
POINTER
YOKE __ ......,
LOCATIONTA.CfiOMETER
Gfffl;RATOR
N2 ACC!:SSORY DRlVE PAO
N, ACCESSORY DRJVE CASE
--
14-45
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
II
ANO INDICATOR
14.46
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
l"
""
~ 1 ce a d
SUSPENDED
MAGNET
115V 400HZ
SINGLE- PHASE
SUPPLY
---
An alternative system consists of a piezo-electric crystal and a mass inside a casing. As the
engine vibrates, the mass will exert a force upon the crystal which will emit a small alternating
current of a frequency equal to the frequency of vibration. This is then amplified and displayed
in the flight deck via an ammeter.
,-
14-47
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
TYPICAL VIBRATION
SENSOR
PIEZO ELECTRIC
DISCS
'------+---l+------------1
QUANTITY
OF
CURRENT
PROPORTIONAL
TOG LOAD
BASE ATTACHED
TO ENGINE
14.48
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
VIBN
TEST
ti.-.,
,i
. ..,
01
INOlCATOfl Ho.1
~OICATC>R Ni:i.2
1~!CATOR N"
MONITOR
CENTRE INSTRUMENT
PANE\.(ZONE 2fl-22-00
f
BLARE '5Hll.D AMBER WARI\ING LIGHTS
14-49
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ti
tl
u ~
STATIONARY
AJNG GEAR
STATIONARY
RING GEM
DIRECTION Of CRANKSHAFT
>n ....
ROTATION
..,.
rnRECTION OF PROPEU.ER
SHAFT ROTATION
14.52
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c JObbP'".C L ..
The torouerneter
>
~v
c e aid
measures hydrauhcally
when transmitting
to 1he propeller
a driving
torque
HCLICAL GEAR
...
Axial thrust
II
Torquerneter
oil pressure
PHOPELLER SHAFT
TOROUEMETER PISTON
--
14-53
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.J iqn -d t ass,
i ior w th tt
clutu:, ... o '1 question practrce ai.,
y
...
Intentionally Blank
14.54
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
, Jbc6prt'.'.COi
.l
. 'l ec
,Ir'
, fJ u"'
110
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category 81
Gas Turbine Engine
15.15 Power Augmentation Systems
15-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
-ln.l
Copyright Notice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
15-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,(a~Y
~
C ubbbpr').IX)'., '-'"
. ,,. ~ ICE1
Table of Contents
Introduction
ReheatSystem
Reheat System Components
Hot Shot Ignition
Catalytic Ignition
Operation and Control of a Reheat System
7
7
9
1O
11
Water/MethanolInjection
Engine Operation in Adverse Conditions
Water Injection Theory
Water/MethanolInjectionTheory
Types of System
15
15
15
15
16
ns
15-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
15-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
If
bbbprC'.
)f
o .
yu
,,.
." u
ce
increasing the normal engine power at sea level (to take-off with heavier loads, or
for military interception)
restore the engine power output to standard sea level conditions, in situations of
high atmospheric temperature, or high altitude airfields, or both.
or
15-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
15-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'ltd
Reheat System
This system is normally only used on turbo-jet or turbo-fan engines to augment the thrust of the
engine for short periods, e.g. takeoff, climb, acceleration. Increases in thrust ranging from 5%
to 100% are possible - but they are expensive in extra fuel.
The increased thrust is obtained by injecting and burning large quantities of fuel in the specially
shaped engine exhaust system. The resulting combustion causes a large increase in gas
temperature, giving a rapid expansion of the gases and thus an increase in the exhaust gas
velocity. By Newton's third law, there is a reaction to this increase in speed called THRUST.
Note: Reheat system does not increase the mass of air entering the engine, nor does it affect
the operation of the rest of the engine. It therefore works on the second of the two principles of
THRUST as listed above under "Introduction" - that is increasing the speed of the air.
15-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lfrifl!'Y
~,,)
AFTERBURNER
'
RA~GE I
: NORMAL
I
<,
\
RANGE
.-
"
~-
PILOTS ~
CONTROL LEVER
CUTOFF
L
PRESSURE RATIOr--1---".'.c'I
CON ROL UNIT 1---~-r
::::ro)~~
j \
I
,:..,
"
:1
11 AFTERBURNER
CAM BOX
fUEL INLET
I)
AFTERBURNER
FUEL
FUEL CONTROL
UNIT
'-J-~--~
0
,-------1NOZZLE 011
P"UMP
PRESSUR[ Oil
I
I
lp6
I
_____
I
'
...L__!, I _ _,I
L _
II
----j
VARIABLE
AREA
PROPELLING
NOZZLE
~;;;;;~~===;:.:::::=~-~~:==~~
,--__.,;
15-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Systems
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
tc
1,d
Several concentric fuel spray rings or spray "bars" and "V" shaped flame stabilisers are
fitted at the front of the jet pipe. These provide the low velocity air circulation for good
air/fuel mixing, good combustion and flame stability.
Variable area final nozzle - When combustion takes place in the reheat jet pipe, the
rapid expansion of the gases results in an increase in velocity. If the exit area of the
nozzle were not increased to allow the expanding gases to escape, the exit nozzle would
cause a restriction and there would be a build up of pressure inside the jet pipe.
This increase in pressure is effectively a back pressure which is felt right back through
the engine and could cause compressor stall or surge. To prevent this happening, a
variable area final nozzle is fitted. The nozzle is normally closed (convergent) when
reheat is not operating, and it is opened just sufficient to stop a "back pressure"
developing (as sensed by the P3 and P6 sensors). In use the nozzle may be parallel or
more likely slightly divergent. The nozzle is moved by a system of hydraulic rams
(automatic nozzle control system).
Nozzle Control System - This consists of an automatic control unit and a series of rams
to move the nozzle itself. The unit receives sensing signals of P3 and P6 and adjusts the
nozzle area by the use of the rams to maintain the correct ratio.
Ignition System - injection of the fuel into the jet pipe will not normally cause combustion
to take place. Also, the gases are travelling too fast for combustion to be self sustaining
even after ignition has occurred. Therefore some form of continuous ignition is required.
There are three ways of providing this;
Spark Ignition functions in a similar way to normal combustion chamber igniters. Light-up
is initiated by a pilot fuel supply, and an igniter plug. A tapping from the main fuel flow
supplies fuel for the pilot burner. The burner sprays fuel into a region of low velocity
inside a cone forming part of the reheat assembly. The igniter plug is of the spark gap
type and projects into the cone adjacent to the pilot burner. When reheat is selected, the
ignition system is energised via a time switch. The switch will cut out ignition after a predetermined time.
Is operated by two fuel injectors, one spraying fuel into one of the combustion chamber "cans",
the other spraying fuel into the exhaust system. The streak of flame initiated in the combustion
chamber ignites the fuel/air mixture in the reheat jet pipe. The turbine blades are not damaged
by the hot streak because of its relatively low energy content and the fact that reheat is used
only briefly.
15-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
FUEL Fl:l:O
Catalytic Ignition
Consists of a platinum/rhodium element in a case fitted
into a housing secured to the burner hub. The housing
contains a venturi tube, the mouth of which is open to
the main gas stream from the turbines. Fuel is taken to
the throat of the tube and the fuel/air mixture is
sprayed on to the element of the igniter. A chemical
reaction between the fuel/air mixture and the
platinum/rhodium element lowers the flashpoint of the
fuel to below the normal temperature of the exhaust
gases (about 800C).
FUEL FEED
IGNITER
15-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
club66p o.c
,~
~a
1 C':J Qld
NOZZLE OPERATING
SLEEVE
REBURNT
GASES
AFTERBURNER
JEl PIPE
VARIABLE
PROPELLING NOZZLE
Systems
15-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
NOZZI.E
OPERATING RAMS
NOZZLE
INTERLOCKING
FLAPS
Figure 15.5: Variable Area Nozzle, and Typical Reheat Jet Pipe with Catylitic lgnitor
15-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Systems
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
' ....
\.,'
11<1
CATA~YTIC IGNITER
HOUSING
NOZZLE
ACTUATING SLEEVF
I
N072'l
OPERATING RAM
HFATSHlti
-..;;--
~-
15-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ol this chapter
Intentionally Blank
15-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r.
ub66pr
or..
;u
. "'
ce d
Water/Methanol Injection
Engine Operation in Adverse Conditions
Adverse conditions, as far as the engine is concerned, is operation in high ambient temperature
and/or high altitude. It may be possible for an aircraft to fly into a hot/high airfield with low fuel
payload, but to take-off again with full payload of passengers and fuel requires maximum power.
In such adverse conditions, the air density is very low hence the mass flow of air through the
engine is low.
To compensate for this, the pilot must pump more fuel into the engine to increase the engine
RPM. and hence restore the thrust. However, extra fuel means a higher turbine temperature,
and this must be limited to protect the turbine components. It may be possible that the turbine
temperature limit is reached before the aircraft has enough power to take off.
Water InjectionTheory
Water injection increases the thrust by two different methods;
Injection of water into the engine inlet will cool the inlet air and hence its density will
increase. The greater the density of air going through the engine, the greater the mass
flow, the greater is the thrust of the engine.
When the water hits the turbine components, it will cool them to below the maximum
allowable temperature. This will allow the fuel control system to schedule more fuel into
the engine, and thus increase the engine RPM to a point where the turbine temperature
again reaches its limit OR the maximum RPM is reached.
The water flow rate for the required turbine temperature reduction is set by the engine
manufacturers. Generally, water/air ratios are 1-5:100 by weight. The quantity of water carried
is usually sufficient for ONE "wet" take-off only.
Take off thrust can be increased by 10 to 30% by the use of water injection.
Water/Methanol InjectionTheory
It can be seen that the fuel control system schedules more fuel into the engine to increase the
engine RPM. If the fuel was mixed with the water then there would not need to be any
adjustment to the fuel control system, as the fuel in the water would ignite and therefore turn the
turbines with greater speed.
15-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
uesg l m
~i n vd~ t
ctub6bpr0.com question oracucc a,J
Why methanol?
Methanol is used for two reasons; the first is that it acts as an anti-freeze for the water in the
water tank, and secondly, it is the only fuel that will mix completely with water. As it is a fuel it
will increase the power output if it is burnt in the combustion chamber, albeit not by a lot as
methanol has a low calorific value.
Note that the prime purposeof Methanol is anti-freeze not increase in fuel for burning.
Types of System
The water or water/methanol may be injected either into the compressor inlet, or the combustion
chamber inlet. The latter is more suitable for engines with an axial flow compressor. This is
because a more even distribution can be obtained and a greater quantity of coolant can be
satisfactorily injected. Also, the greatest advantage of the water injection system is the cooling
of the turbine components. The gain due to reduction of inlet air temperature can usually be
neglected.
In the combustion chamber inlet injection system, a non return valve must be fitted in the water
delivery pipe to prevent Compressor Delivery Pressure entering the water injection system
components.
Note: Demineralised water is used to avoid fouling the compressor or turbine blades, etc. with
the impurities normally found in household drinking water. The water should contain no more
than 10 parts per million of solids or the life of the engine may be seriously reduced.
Note: Methyl/ethyl mixtures will generally be a blend of 35 to 50 percent alcohol in either
demineralised or distilled water.
15-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Systems
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
c ububpro.co
.:jl,
:,t" ....
Jv
ce
Shut Off
Valve
~ .
Fuet.
, ~tiol u~tt.
...E..>
--
CD
>
u, Cl
Syst
Low level
-~-
. _ Indication .
Arm/Off
Position Indication Light
15-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
WATER
SHUT-OFF VALVE
WATER FLOW
SENSfNG UNIT
FROM WATER
TANK
TO FUEL FLOW
REGULATOR
BEA"INJ
COOLING
WATER
FLOW
EXHAUST
RESTRICTOR
9'-----'-""'
n-----
METERlNG
PISroN
ORAIN VALVE
O L.P.
water
H.P. water
D Cooffng \AJSter
H.P. air
.Oil
15-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,J
lu r,opro.cor
ti
..,
ir
~ ~ , J.J
...i cfl
a i
WITH WATER
ltl.JECTION
THRUST CONTROLLE)
AY POWER LIMITER
ti 100 1---------~~-,-----.:---~,
'
:)
a:
:r
f-
u
!-
4:
f-
,--
90
(/)
----LL
,o
..
WITHOUT WATER
,NJECTION
x<l'.
,--
' .. -,
80 t--------.------~---------
AiR TEMPERATURE
Deg. C.
a.
::i::
(/)
~-;-----l
<t 90
*'
. I
Take-off power boosted
by water' methanol mjection
80
---
,....
injection
AIR TEMPERATURE
Deg. C.
15-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
15-20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,...
'n
nd
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.16 Turbo-prop Engines
16-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CopyrightNotice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
16-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
, , ~. ,
. C il j
Table of Contents
Module 15.16 - Turbo-prop Engines
,--
Introduction
Reduction Gears
Types of Reduction Gear
Parallel Spur Gears
Epicyclic Reduction Gears
Compound Spur Epicyclic
Gear Train I Epicyclic
9
9
11
13
14
Engine Controls
Alpha Range
Beta Range
Engine Operation
15
15
15
15
17
17
18
18
19
22
23
24
25
27
28
28
28
29
29
31
16-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
De iqn ~d 'r ~
ior w tn rh
clutb(,,m.,.c.0m question practrce ai~
16-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.,~~;
~\
1--
16-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
16-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1.
, ,..
,e n d
One of the operational differences between the PT6 free-turbine engine and the TPE331 singleshaft engine is that the TPE331 is shut down with the propeller blades held against low pitch
stops to minimize the load on the starter when the engine is being started.
The propeller on the PT6 is allowed to go to its feather position when the engine is shut down
because the starter rotates only the gas generator turbine and is not loaded by the propeller and
power turbine during an engine start.
The turbine that drives the propeller is turned by the hot exhaust from the gas generator.
16-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'10
n question pracnc
CIUt.vbf-v.w
~v
------
POWERSECTION
i-----
dud
lt
comp
...~
I.~-.
----.,.....--
or
rtductfo11
s, .. ,box:
Figure 16.2: PT6 Free (Power) Turbine Engine
16-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Reduction Gears
-
Power turbines run at speeds, which suit the design characteristics of the rest of the engine.
This does not have anything in common with the speed of the propeller, which is set by its own
characteristics, chiefly blade diameter.
This, as has already been seen, compromises the design and operation of the coupled turbine
engine but is much less problematic in a free turbine design.
As power turbines can be spinning at up to 38,500 RPM and anything much over 2,000 RPM is
considered quite fast for a propeller, it is obvious that a means of reducing this speed difference
must be found. A suitable gear train will carry out this function.
S1.tt
Combustion
cha
r
16-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
)E igntd ir
SSO ,I, !i,1n 'N th t
cl;it:.u.JJ)ro ... ,~.r question practice u;u
Propeller
shaft
CrankShaff
Onve
oear------i
Crankshaft
16-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
v , ~ u
tc
cl d
EpicyclicReduction Gears
A gear train consisting of a sun (driving) gear meshing with and driving three or more equispaced gears known as 'Planet Pinions'. These pinions are mounted on a carrier and rotate
independently on their own axles. Surrounding the gear train is an internally toothed 'Annulus
Gear' in mesh with the Planet Pinions.
Large Planet Wheel
16-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Pl.:,oot Pinions
Annulus Gell
Figure 16.6: Epicyclic Gear train with Fixed Annulus Ring Rear
If the annulus is free, rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet pinions to rotate about their
axles within the annulus gear. With the planet pinion carrier fixed and the propeller shaft
attached to the annulus gear, rotation of the planet pinions causes the annulus gear and
propeller to rotate in the opposite direction to the sun wheel and at a reduced speed. (Fig.16.7.)
Pa:inet ,,Plnkm$
<,
Carner)ixed)
Annulus Gear
Figure 16.7: Epicyclic Gear Train with Fixed Planet gear Carrier
16-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'
c Jb6t,pn,ro. ..
, . ,, ~
fl
c ,d
lOWSPEEO
/INPUT
?ROPiELLER
SHAFT
ROTATING
HIGH SPEED
GEAR CARRIER
SHAFT
, .,./
STATIONARY
ANNULUS GEAR
LA YSHAFT GEAR TRAIN
LOW SPEED
I
FIXE.D
HIGH SPEED
GEAR CARRIER
PROPELLER
SHAFT
INPUT GEAR
.I
ROTATlNG
ANNULUS GEAR
Engines
16-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Figure 16.9: Cut-away showing combined compound epicyclic and gear train
=~~~li]i;~,~~~~Wl
p ed
16-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
IC
ro.cor .... ~
.. ,, ~ ice ad
Engine Controls
Because the engine and propeller must work together to produce the required thrust for a turboprop installation, there are a few unique relationships. The turboprop fuel control and the
propeller governor are connected and operate in coordination with each other. The power lever
directs a signal from the cockpit to the fuel control for a specific amount of power from the
engine.
The fuel control and the propeller governor together establish the correct combination of RPM,
fuel flow, and propeller blade angle to provide the desired power.
Alpha Range
The propeller control system is divided into two types of control: one for flight and one for
ground operation. For flight, the propeller blade angle and fuel flow for any given power
setting are governed automatically according to a predetermined schedule. This is known
as the alpha range.
Beta Range
Below the "flight idle" power lever position, the coordinated RPM blade angle schedule
becomes incapable of handling the engine efficiently. Here the ground handling range,
referred to as the beta range, is encountered. In the beta range of the throttle quadrant,
the propeller blade angle is not governed by the propeller governor, but is controlled by the
power lever position. When the power lever is moved below the start position, the propeller
pitch is reversed to provide reverse thrust for rapid deceleration of the aircraft after
landing.
Engine Operation
Turboprops are constant-speed engines, because they operate throughout the operational cycle
at near 100% RPM. To hold the RPM constant, the fuel control adjusts the fuel flow in relation to
the engine load.
-
When idling, the RPM remains high, but the propeller pitch is reduced until almost flat, so it
produces very little thrust and requires a minimum fuel flow.
Considering the engine type there will be two groups of engines:
Hydro-Mechanical Fuel Control (older generations)
FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control)
16-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
16-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r.
. ,..
--
Power Lever
The power lever operates in a quadrant slot labelled "POWER" with positions (from rear to front)
labelled "MAX REV", "DISC", "FLT IDLE" and "MAX". The power lever is connected by cables,
pushrods and bellcranks to the control system and PCU of the associated powerplant. The
power lever quadrant slot has a lockout gate at the FLT IDLE position, which is controlled by a
finger latch below the power lever knob. Raising the latch permits aft movement into the ground
range.
The power lever controls power in the forward thrust range and blade angle in the flight Beta
and ground Beta ranges. The flight Beta range extends from a blade angle of 26to 19
(minimum in-flight blade angle). The power lever controls blade angle from aft of FLT IDLE to
MAX REV.
The spring-loaded, detented DISC position produces at 0 blade angle or flat discing; further aft
movement increases blade angle in a negative direction until at MAX REV the blade angle is 11.5~ Both of these positions will assist in slowing the aircraft during landing.
While operating in the Beta range, the HP fuel control regulates engine power, providing Np
underspeed governing between FLT IDLE and DISC and both engine power and blade angle
control in the reverse thrust range.
When the flight control gust lock lever, labelled "CONT LOCK" is at the on position, the power
lever cannot be moved to the MAX position. This lever will also lock the aircraft flight controls.
16-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CROSS SECTION
BETWEEN
POWER LEVERS
c-v
FOLtO .. ~
tAOLl '11
00t:lfT101'4
1.\'[RS
Ffl.lCTION
KNOB
DETENT ARIA
16-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Obbpro. or ..,,
e did
,..
Beta Range
The term "Beta Range" is used to define propeller operation from a maximum Beta setting
(propeller blade angle 26) to a full reverse setting (propeller blade angle - 11 .5). The Beta
range is divided operationally into two ranges by a gate on the associated power lever which
controls blade angle from 16 to 19 above the gate and below the gate to full reverse.
Propeller blade angle at full feather is 86 +/- 5.
--
16-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~~iY
r assc
m e111
1P
~-)
Reverse Beat
Flight
Beta
!PROP Governinqj
I
Range
I
Full
scu
I ECU Maintains
PROP _.....,..
I
.
_ _..I
Conros-t I
Increase of
I out of Restricted Range I
I
I
(PROP Underspeed
I
I
Power
I
Governing)
I
I
I
I
I
I
Power
LouietTaxi
Mode
Zero
Max
Reverse
Discing
Flight
Idle
._PROPGoverning
goo
Flight
....
Q)
>
Q)
_i
Q)
0)
c:
ro
.._ 0:::
a> ro
3::
O -Q)
Q. Cl'.l
0~~~
-3.2~
Ground
Operation
16-20
Use and/or disclosure ls
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,~ ,f
.. 11 ~
ce a rJ
Max Continuous
Power Detent
\
Coarse
Pitch Stop ( +50)
Flight Cruise
Pitch Stop ( +27)
\
Flight Fine
Pitch Stop (+14)
Ground Fine
Reverse
Braking
Stop (-15)
Figure 16.14: Power Lever Quadrant and associated typical blade angles
16-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ign,~ct ir c,
tior v. tth I '"rut-6l ,O.w,n question pracnc... ~id
16-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,r
c l.Obt.pro "0 , -.
' ,.. ~
ld
The PT6 (typical free turbine engine) is controlled by engine and propeller control systems that
are operated by three levers: a power control lever, a propeller control lever, and a start control
lever.
The power control lever - is connected to the fuel control and is used to control the engine
power (Torque) from full reverse thrust, through idle, to takeoff.
The propeller speed lever - is connected to the propeller governor to request blade angle and
maintain the desired propeller RPM. When moved to the extreme aft position, it causes the
propeller to feather.
The start lever - attaches to the fuel control and it has three positions: Cutoff, Idle, and Run.
The emergency power lever - used to directly control engine power if the pneumatic side of
the fuel control unit fails.
PROPELLER
SPEED
LEVER
START
CONTROL
LEVER
EMERGENCY
POWER LEVER
Figure 16.15: PT6 Engine Control
16-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
J !S1gr e 1 m
o- iur 11 h
c1ut.i61-,.e-.c~,n question pracncs aiu
PROP Control
Modulates
Power
Max
RPM Control
in Aipha Range
Power
Pitch Control
m Beta Range
Sets Governors
(Remains set)
lever.
T /0 Climb/Cruise/Landing
Condition
Lever
Low
RPM
Emergency
Feather
and Fuel off
16-24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 ot this chapter
1uoo6pro.cor , -.~
~~
)>
'~
~'
REV
~/
'~
,,
R~
></ /> /
100%
MAX
//'
Power Lever
'7',\
//
'
~I
'':t('
Condition Lever
16-25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
16-26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,... ~ tee
;d
Tachometer
Torquemeter
Exhaust
Gas
Fuel Flowmeter
16-27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
increases the blade angle, which causes the RPM to remain constant and the power produced
by the engine to increase. When the power lever is moved back, the fuel flow is reduced, and
the RPM begins to decrease. But the propeller governor decreases the blade angle, which
causes the RPM to remain constant, and the power to decrease.
Starting
The pilot must monitor the compressor speed during engine start up, and upon reaching the
prescribed speed for light off, advance the condition lever to maximum speed position to initiate
fuel flow. The fuel control unit will automatically regulate fuel flow during the acceleration to idle.
Propeller unfeathering will automatically occur with the propeller beta valve regulating the blade
angle. A ground start is accomplished with the power lever placed into flight idle position.
On FADEC controlled engines the start-up sequence is accomplished automatically, when the
condition lever is moved to the START position. When the engine reaches ground idle RPM, the
operator moves the condition lever to the RUN position to conclude the start-up sequence.
Engine Run
For low power settings during the engine run the condition lever should be put in the MAXIMUM
PROPELLER SPEED range. The power lever can then be moved freely to obtain the desired
thrust.
For high power settings, i.e., takeoff power, the condition lever should be in the position for
100% propeller speed, allowing the propeller governor to maintain the compressor speed
control. The power lever controls the power setting of the engine. The power lever must be
controlled so as not to exceed the turbine outlet temperature and torque limits.
On FADEC controlled engines only the power lever is used to change power settings and
propeller pitch, the FADEC system monitors and controls the power and propeller settings
according to the position of the power lever, inputs from other systems and flight face. During
normal engine operation the condition lever remains in its RUN position.
Stopping
Engine stopping is effected by shutting off the fuel supply by means of a fuel control cutoff
valve. At the same time the propellers move to the feathered position. The condition lever
controls both the fuel cutoff and propeller feathering. Make sure that before the engine is shut
down, the power lever is first put in the Ground Idle position, and allow the turbine outlet
temperature to stabilize for two minutes.
The condition lever is then moved to FUEL SHUTOFF and PROPELLER FEATHERING.
16-28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ibbbpr".c,
~l'
n. ,
,v
, ce
c..1ia
Overs peed
governor
Propeller
governor
Oil dump
to gearbox
--
16-29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
1rv '1th
ciubuso.o. Nn question practice ak,
Intentionally Blank
16-30
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Training System
Copyright 2011
IL obp
'
,011
.,..,
,, ~
cc ._d
FADEC ControlledPropellers
The functions to limit the speed of the propeller/power turbine rotor are as follows:
The FADEC software adjusts the propeller blade angle through the pitch control unit
(PCU) to control the propeller/power turbine rotor speed.
A hydro mechanical overspeed governor supplies the emergency protection if a
propeller/power turbine rotor overspeed condition occurs (power changes momentarily or
a failure occurs).
If the propeller/power turbine speed is more than the limit for the propeller governor, the
FADEC software sends signals that decrease the fuel flow, and thus the engine power
level.
The FADEC has microprocessor-independent over speed protection to stop the flow of
the fuel. This prevents an overspeed condition that can cause damage to the engine.
16-31
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
. ...
"'
Intentionally Blank
16-32
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'ubt>~pr').CO
,(
"~
~.. , r
.'
,11d
,--
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category 81
Gas Turbine Engine
15.17 Turbo-shaft Engines
17-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D :ir
ii 1:-,s, ci or with tt
Clubl.cif.. o.corn question pracncc ~j
Copyright Notice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
17-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
on iu
"
..,.......
,IC('
Table of Contents
,---
5
5
11
Freewheeling Units
Sprag Clutch
13
Helicopter Couplings
15
21
13
21
21
23
17-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
17-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
0.(
r~ .
1u
, u
.,.
1CE.'l ci' 1
17-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
j,,
.,
tt
..,,J
Aircraft
Transmissio
n
Compre11or
Turblnn
Exhauat
Exhaust
17-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.Cvl.,
r,
t1C'Cl
Advanced air-cooted
gas generator turbine
Twin centrifugal
compressors
i\
II
',
"
,r'
,,,,,,
2-stage \\
power turbine
,,/
Annular reverse-flow
combustion charnber
2-stage
power turbine
J
//
\\
\,
\\
v.
/{
\\
'\ ' \
'
I I
I
'I
\\
///
/:/
if I /
I!/
.:
/11
fl!/
II;.
! I
//
I
//
I
f
h,./
/:,'
/ i
Compressor (3 axial
and 1 centrifugal stages)
i
I
Annular combustion
chamber
/
Power output shaft
I
23,000 rpm
Engines
17-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by lhe statement
on page 2 of this chapter
COMBUSTOR
COMPRESSOR
AIR INLET
OUTPUT
SHAFT
LJ
P3AIR
AIRFLOW
COMBUSTION
(2PLACES)
(4 Pl.ACES)
GP
TURBINES
Turbines
Nozzle
separator
17-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
A typical power turbine of a turbo-shaft engine operates at about 35,000 RPM. On the other
side a helicopter main rotor turns between 300 and 400 RPM. The tail rotor turns at around
2100 RPM.
Between the power turbine and the main rotor, the following components are installed:
Power out pad
Drive shaft
Freewheeling unit (clutch)
Transmission (main reduction gearbox)
17-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
17-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
u esrro.cor
...,
17-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
17-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r.
,~
,.,
: c<1 aro
Freewheeling Units
A freewheeling unit is sometimes referred to as the over-running clutch. This component will be
found on all helicopters regardless of the powerplant. On multi-engine helicopters one will be
located on each engine. The purpose of this freewheeling unit will allow the engine to drive the
transmission and prevent the rotor from driving the engine. Without this unit the engine would be
driven by the rotor any time an autorotation is attempted. In addition, any seizure of the engine
would prevent the possibility of autorotation. For this reason the helicopter, equipped with two
engines, must have a freewheeling unit on each engine output. Although practically all
helicopters use the same type of unit, their location and size vary from one helicopter to
another. The operation of the units will always be automatic.
Sprag Clutch
The most commonly used freewheeling unit on helicopters is the sprag clutch. This clutch allows
movement in only one direction by having an inner and outer race, which are often at the end of
the driveshaft.
The sprag assembly is made up of a number of sprags resembling the rollers in a roller bearing.
The sprags, unlike the circular bearings, have a figure-eight shape. The vertical height of each
of these sprags is slightly greater than the gap between the inner diameter of the outer race and
the outer diameter of the inner race.
This engaged position places the sprags against both races at a slight angle. Rotation from the
engine on the outer race jams the sprags between the outer and inner races and this
interference fit drives the inner race, which is attached to the driveshaft. If the driveshaft
attempts to drive the engine, the sprags will be relived and the driveshaft will rotate without the
engine. The same would happen if the engine stopped.
Sprag Unit
Sprags Engaged
to Gearbox
from Engine
Sprag Unit
no Movement
Sprags Disengaged
17-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
17-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
"
ll
JI
lie~a d
Helicopter Couplings
Because of the requirement to make maintenance tasks such as engine removal/refit, gearbox
removal/refit easier, it is necessary to have a means of coupling the turboshafts output shaft to
the helicopter main rotor gearbox input shaft together. This coupling must possess qualities
which will allow movement of both the engine and the rotor gearbox independently of each other
i.e. it must be flexible. It must also be finely balanced to reduce vibration.
One of the most common couplings in use is the 'Thomas Coupling', sometimes referred to as
the engine 'high speed drive shaft' (figure 17.8). The engine is joined to the main rotor gearbox
by this high speed drive shaft. The shaft is belled at either end , one end being attached to the
power take off shaft by means of Thomas flexible steel coupling. Each coupling consists of a
number of steel discs, indexed by flats to ensure correct alignment when assembled. Two
different numbered discs are used, each disc having a grain running either parallel to the flat or
perpendicular to the flat. The discs are assembled alternately with the grains at 90to each
other. The bolts, nuts and washers securing the shaft to the engine are part of the fine
balancing of the assembly and must always be replaced in the same position.
r
- ;: -(()
'
. 1~}
,-
I
. '\')
SEE DE"rML C
DCTAiL S
OETAIL /'.;.
--r"'
i
SEE DETAIL A
/
1.
.1
4
){~')
{'-'-
-e-
DRIVE SHAF
Nl,JT
OOLT
NUT
G
Ci
r.
8.
BOLl
HI L OC C Olt.AA
l,D/,17TEA
CONICAL WASHtH
9
10
11.
llLJ[--~J I
. ....-....-
_..-:::::-----
CONICAL WA:.H(A
THOM.6.S COllPUNG
BOLT
---- -f
______.--D
tTA:, C
11.
CONIC/\l.. WASr'rn
13
CONICAL WASHEA
MI-LOC COlLATI
17-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
0.
in a .s .~1ation th tr'l
cc. n question practice,
u.
Yet another method of coupling the engines power output to the main gearbox is shown in
Figure 17.9.
The engine front mounting is bolted with the reduction gearbox to the hub of the air-intake case;
it supports the engine in the aircraft and serves as a torque reaction point. The mounting, which
is of the gimbal type, is bolted to a gimbal ring, which is bolted to a similar mounting on the
aircraft main gearbox, thus forming a gimbal coupling.
The engine output drive is transmitted to the aircraft main gearbox by a flanged coupling, which
is secured via a flexible laminated disc coupling (Thomas Coupling) to a drive assembly. The
drive assembly consists of an engine coupling and an aircraft main gearbox coupling bolted
together, with a flexible laminated disc coupling (Thomas Coupling) at each end.
17-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Cl'
jJ
nn-P
11
r,
"
10
2. ENGll!E WR N.OUNTIN;
t.
Figure 17.9: The Thomas coupling and gimbal mount of an RR Gem engine
Module 15.17-TurboshaftEngines
17-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r,
siqr, ::i 11 1. ,,
11'
wilt' t!i
clutn..b,v.~.:>rn question practice Jit.
Finally as an example of the end product of a typical, turboshaft engines power output Figure
17. 11 shows the main rotor gearbox of a Westland S-61 N helicopter. The two engines are Rolls
Royce Gnome 1400 series turboshaft engines, each producing approximately 1400 S.H.P.
Figure 17.10 shows the gearbox together with its monitoring devices and transmission.
The free-wheel system enables disconnection of one or both the engines in the event of failure.
ENGJN~ i'il'VT
lftTe~M(OIO,ff
'if lil'll!OJ.
1s. ~
T"'II.
CEAA60..c
.;..C"l'.lJA f{C)
<
<>~
[Wt'Ef
17-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
._,
'1
J ~ u
...
YV
.ce ard
17-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
System
qr -d ir associ
wth t~
ut >t>vpro.~...,m quest'on practice a J
),
Intentionally Blank
17-20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
01. y,
.,
ICE'
17-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D s g,
requirements of the load to maintain rotor speed, regulate load sharing, and limit engine power
turbine inlet temperature.
Metering of fuel to the engine and basic engine control computations are performed in the HMU.
The electrical and hydro-mechanical control units compute the fuel quantity to satisfy power
requirements of the engine. The fuel and control system contains the following components:
Np
Np
J!2
101'%
re-
,--N---,_-------------~-----pR
u_:-,,u
...
I
T
I
I R.t~ee
I
I
Temperatv...
Limit
Amplifier
LoadShCircuit
'
'
Torque
:
Computation
I
Circuit
I
....,._...
,:_-_-..,..~---_
..__,,__
.-
01
02
Fuel Flow
Stablllz.tion
FNdback
Torque
Motor
Amplifier
I
I
I
SeleelLoww
I
I
I
----~~lo l!l~--~~-4----
------,
~--- -------~---J
,-.-,.-------- ---------'
toHMU
(LDS)
17-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c b&f.ipro.con.
'1"
...
c i"d
Tail Rotor
""'
/
Accessory
Aircraft
Transmission
..,...........,.W..lr..-~::f1r1-
HP
I Shut OH I
TocLkpft
Beeper Switch
I
I
Twist Grip
Collective
Stick
17-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
l~i:!Y
~;,)
Intentionally Blank
17-24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
II
. ,,
'
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.18 Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)
18-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D, ir =d r as
-c i ,n wit!"' tr
ctubsep.o.co n question practice ai.,
CopyrightNotice
Copyright.All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
18-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
I
rubbbp . or , .i .
I
.. . ,, ~ ce a 1
Table of Contents
Module 15.18 - Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)
,--.
Introduction
13
15
17
19
21
21
21
22
22
22
18-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
:,t
m wt.1,t
Objective
Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)
Purpose, operation, protective systems.
18-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EASA66
Reference
Level
81
15.18
'
.1b66pro.r.01. ....
- ,.. ~ , ce alo
18-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~ e ~., d in
:!~l!'J,
~!
.::::!
0
ll:
~
...I
fi:
::::!
a:::
u.;
I-
...J
rr::
..J
6
Cl:'.
o
I~
a::
w
2
UJ
t,D
fl:'.:
8
0
.:J
I-
:::E
o:
.J
-c
I-
:::)
u,
<,'}
=1n,
-s
w
~
~
n:::
~
0
us
uJ
:J
...J
Cll
18-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r. ~
. Jbt.bpro.co11 'i'-'
-~
..
..,
cc ad
ELECTRICAL
GENERATOR
II
I
L~~_!_!_~-~-ER_..,H
STARTER
--
A
1~&.ET
N1 TUR81ME
NOZZU'
ACTUATOR
(;)
BLEED AIR
EXTltAClbON
GEAR BOX
Figure 18.4: APUs with two shafts (N1 & N2) which extracts the bleed air from the N1Compressor driven from the N1-Turbine (MD-11 ).
18-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
atv
Intentionally Blank
18-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Uboopro.cor.. -iu
u . .,,
.nce aid
ACCESSORY
LOAD
POWER
GEARBOX
COMPRESSOR
SECTION
DUCTS
FUEL
GENERATOR
COMBtJSTOR
GEARBOX
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
STARTER
INLET
AIR
18-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
With this configuration we can see that air is taken from the compressor when pneumatic power
is required. Although such an APU layout is acceptable on smaller aircraft where pneumatic
power demand is small, it was found to be unacceptable on larger aircraft as the air being
drawn from the compressor for pneumatic purposes, reduces the air going to the turbines for
cooling purposes. This reduction of cooling air leads to a reduction in the life of the turbine.
On later models of APU this problem has been eliminated by the inclusion of a load
compressor.
FUEL
TO PNEUMATIC DUCT
GENERATOR
\
GEARBOX
EXHAUST
~MPRESSOR
LOAD
COMPRESSOR
INLET AIR
18-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
IUDt6po.COI 1
1,
.,(II., . f' a
,,
a1d
AIR INLET
CENT1Uf'UG/\L
LOAD
(2)
---AJRFLOW
PNEUMATIC
EiLt....1:1:>
otlJ'LET
18-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
asiqned in
,c,, ,ati ,r w,tt h~
clubv6pro.co.n question practice ...u..
INLET DUCT
PLENUM AIR
/INLET CHAMBER
AUXILIARY
POWER UNIT
HORIZONTAL
STABILISER
18-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,.. ~
cl O
INLET DOOR
EXHAUST
DUCT
AIR
- -------
18-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
18-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c .Jbtf,pro.con. ~
.,,t,,.,:. ,~ c
aid
AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURE
FLEXIBLE
BELLOWS
ASSEMBLY
EXHAUST
FLANGE
HOT EXHAUST
GASES
LEAF
WITH INSULATED
BLANKET
SPRING
SUPPORT
18-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,11
with
tr
Intentionally Blank
18-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~ re 1 d
DOOR
DOOR
SEAL
PROXIMITY
SWITCH
DOOR
DRIVE CLUTCH
DISCONNECT MECHANISM
18-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Des ;r vJ
,r
CIUl:i6t,...~.,w,n
",<
'lt10n w1tti tr
question practice <1,,1
Intentionally Blank
18-18
Use and/or disclosure is
"1~
~ ., '"'
DOOR ACTUATOR
L ___
,...__,.
APU
o~~o.,,
/
STAAT'E:R
COm'ROL
UNIT
,--.~--~~-----------~[IGNITION
BOX
Figure 18.13: Start system schematic
Note: Boeing 757 and 767 aircraft utilize a separate battery for APU starting. In some instances
a tapping from the aircraft 115VAC is taken via a TRU, th us saving either battery.
18-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~1!1
~/
Intentionally Blank
18-20
Use and/or disclosure is
i -,.
c-
18-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
/.
""
The APU will control at this constant speed for as long as the APU is switched on. There is no
limit as to time run, however there is a limit on starts - usually 3 consecutive starts then a 60
minute cool down period.
APU AutomaticShut-Down
An automatic shut-down is automatically activated by the ECB to protect the APU from damage
if operating limits are exceeded or important APU components fail.
An automatic shut-down will stop the APU immediately without any cool down time.
18-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
_ _,,
Copyright 2011
_ _,
c ubthpro co,,
~l. _ t
111 r '
, P acncc did
Figure 18.15: APU fire handle on main engine fire panel (8737)
18-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
_,
OVHOPNL
FLT OR
FIRE+
TEST O
GND
ECAM
FUEL LO PR
FLAP OPEN
APUBLEED
EGT
LOW OIL
LEVEL
MAINTENANCE
PANEL
(APU Page)
FIRE/EM ER
STOP
AUTO SHUTDOWN
ON/OFF
ECB
ELECTRONIC
CONTROL
BOX
>95%RPM
EXTERNAL
POWER
CONTROL
PANEL
STARTER ON/OFF
EGT
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
_,.
..
EXHAUST
.
LOAD
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
COM-
PRESSOR
18-24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Jb6tJPf..,_.l"Q
1,
'-f;'-'
.-n'V
p1u.u1
Ce
aid
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.19 Powerplant Installations
19-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D<> ,qr
in 'IS~c ilf ,, w, h tr
clut.obpn.... cum question practtcc a: 1
Copyright Notice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
19-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
uborpr,.co:,
'i.J
\,I
"VO.!-'
,u e
)10
Table of Contents
---
----
Introduction
Powerplant Location
Firewalls
13
Cooling
Cooling Requirements
Acoustic Linings
Abradable Linings
15
Engine Mounts
Wing Pylon Mounted Engine (Turbofan)
Wing Mounted Engine (Turboprop)
Rear Fuselage Engine Turbofan
21
Engine Drains
Controlled Drains
Uncontrolled Drains
27
Engine Controls
Maecanical Throttle Controls
Turbofan Engine Controls
Turboprop Engine Controls
31
35
45
47
15
17
20
21
23
25
27
29
31
31
33
35
47
55
55
55
19-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Objective
Powerplant Installation
Configuration of firewalls, cowlings, acoustic panels,
engine mounts, anti-vibration mounts, hoses, pipes,
feeders, connectors, wiring looms, control cables and rods,
lifting points and drains.
19-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EASA66
Reference
15.19
Level
81
2
~ ,
tee aid
Powerplant Location
The power plant location and aircraft configuration are of an integrated design and this depends
upon the duties that the aircraft has to perform. Turbo-jet engine power plants may be in the
form of pod installations that are attached to the wings by pylons, or attached to the sides of the
rear fuselage by short stub wings or they may be buried in the fuselage or wings. Some aircraft
have a combination of rear fuselage and tail-mounted power plants, others have wing mounted
pod installations with a third engine buried in the tail structure. Turbo-propeller engines,
however, are normally limited to installation in the wings or nose of an aircraft.
The position of the powerplant must not affect the efficiency of the air intake, and the exhaust
gases must be discharged clear of the aircraft and its control surfaces. Any installation must be
such that it produces the minimum drag effect.
19-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
[1f's ;ir
rri.;Y
~,'
19-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
l'"
,e >ild
,--
19-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
19-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
qu
. .,
llC0 di j
--
Nacelles and pods are streamlined enclosures used on multi-engine aircraft primarily to house
the engines. They are located below, or at the leading edge of the wing or on the tail of the
aircraft.
An engine nacelle or pod consists of skin, cowling, structural members, a fire-wall, and engine
mounts. Skins and cowlings cover the outside of the nacelle. Both are usually made of sheet
aluminium alloy, stainless steel, or titanium. Regardless of the material used, the skin is usually
attached to the framework by rivets.
The framework can consist of structural members similar to those of the fuselage. The
framework would include lengthwise members, such as longerons and stringers, and widthwise/vertical members, such as bulkheads, rings, and formers.
A nacelle or pod also contains a firewall, which separates the engine compartment from the rest
of the aircraft. This bulkhead is usually made of stainless steel, or titanium sheet metal.
Cowlings
Openings in structures are necessary for entrance and egress, servicing, inspection, repair and
for electrical wiring, fuel and oil lines, air ducting, and many other items.
Access to an engine mounted in the wing or fuselage is by hinged doors; on pod and turbopropeller installations the main cowlings are hinged. Access for minor servicing is by small
detachable or hinged panels. All fasteners are of the quick-release type.
A turbo-propeller engine, or a turbo-jet engine mounted in a pod, is usually far more accessible
than a buried engine because of the larger area of hinged cowling that can be provided. The
accessibility of a wing pylon mounted turbo-fan engine is shown in figure 19.6 and that of wing
mounted turbo-propeller engine is shown in figure 19.7.
19-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ACCFSS
R.H. 510(
se
RELH:F DOOR
FUEL FILTER
POP.OU'! INDICATOR
GAS GENERATO;l
FIXED O)WUHG
E, G!NE SWIGlilG
JcT PIPE
FJJRINCi
ACCESS
AIR
um. 11 ANO
NOSE COWL
AUA towui,rc;
~
DOOR
HOO~ lAiC>iES C2)
fN LATCH
19-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Training System
Copyright 2011
[
11
15
.
cumesorc.c r, ,,, , ,
.,,u~l
Ce 'd
REMOVABU! 11!:AR
lA Tt:llALCOWLS
19-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CIUttif.ip
v.Cv.'TI
"'th t ,
QUOSfon praC!ICL ,.:J
Intentionally Blank
19-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,..
nee aid
Firewalls
The firewall is a seal which separates the engine into two zones. Sometimes referred as the
"wet zone" and "dry zone", but more commonly called zone one (front) and zone two (rear). The
firewall forms a barrier that prevents combustible fumes that may form in the front section
(zone-1 ), from passing into the rear section (zone 2), and igniting on the hot exhaust section.
Dependant upon aircraft/engine design the fire walls design and location will differ, Figures 19.8
and 19.9 refer.
19-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
v,
D ~;igr a ir a: c ti with t~
ctub6bp, ..- ... v,n question practice a.J
19-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ubbbp .co,..
-- ..
r .,r , c .
J cl
Cooling
Turbine engines are designed to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. The combustion
process is continuous and, therefore, heat is produced. On turbine engines, most of the cooling
air must pass through the inside of the engine. If only enough air were admitted into a turbine
engine to support combustion, internal engine temperatures would rise to more than 4,000
degrees Fahrenheit. In practice, a typical turbine engine uses approximately 25 percent of the
total inlet airflow to support combustion. This airflow is often referred to as the engine's primary
airflow. The remaining 75 percent is used for cooling, and is referred to as secondary airflow.
When the proper amount of air flows through a turbine engine, the outer case will remain at a
temperature between ambient and 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit depending on the section of the
engine. For example, at the compressor inlet, the outer case temperature will remain at, or
slightly above, the ambient air temperature. However, at the front of the turbine section where
internal temperatures are greatest, outer case temperatures can easily reach 1 ,000 degrees
Fahrenheit. (Figure 19.11)
CoolingRequirements
To properly cool each section of an engine, all turbine engines must be constructed with a fairly
intricate internal air system. This system must take ram and/or bleed air and route it to several
internal components deep within the core of the engine. In most engines, the compressor,
combustion, and turbine sections all utilise cooling air to some degree.
r+:
COOLING AlJ:C TO
AFT COMPARTMENT
AFT COMPARTMENT
ENGINE:
EXHAUST
NOZZLE
,-EXIT
FUME-PAOOF SEAL
\_ FORWARD COMPARiUENT
Figure 19.1O: Typical nacelle cooling using ram air from the intake duct
For the most part, an engine's nacelle is cooled by ram air as it enters the engine. To do this,
cooling air is typically directed between the engine case and nacelle. To properly direct the
cooling air, a typical engine compartment is divided into two sections; forward and aft. The
forward section is constructed around the engine inlet duct while the aft section encircles the
engine. A seal or firewall separates the two sections.
19-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
[ srjn
d in as" ti
with thr
clubo6p --C.Orn question pracncc aid
741"
Figure 19.11: Temperatures that may be experienced around a turbojet engine (F)
In flight, ram air provides ample cooling for the two compartments. However, on the ground,
airflow is provided by the reduced pressure at the rear of the nacelle. The low pressure area is
created by the exhaust gases as they exit the exhaust nozzle. The lower the pressure at the
rear of the nozzle, the more air is drawn in through the forward section.
19-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C JOtf)pr
01
1,
~~;
nd
AcousticLinings
One method of suppressing the noise from the fan stage of a high by-pass ratio engine is to
incorporate a noise absorbent liner around the inside wall of the by-pass duct. The lining
comprises a porous face-sheet which acts as a resistor to the motion of the sound waves and is
placed in a position such that it senses the maximum particle displacement in the progression of
the wave. The depth of the cavity between absorber and solid backing is the tuning device,
which suppresses the appropriate part of the noise spectrum. Figure 19.12 shows two types of
noise absorbent liner. Figure 19.13 shows the location of a liner to suppress fan noise from a
high by-pass ratio engine and also the use of a liner to suppress the noise from the engine core.
The disadvantage of using liners for reducing noise are the addition of weight and the increase
in specific fuel consumption caused by increasing the friction of the duct walls.
19-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
I
.- . ..-,--
... --
l-~-
------..-.. ..
--
----
19-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'ti
P ~
c aid
V.:inc
Forw~rd L..1"111':r
'5.~g fn(,!"lt
19-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
DYNAROHR ACOUSTIC
TREATMENT
CARBON FABRIC/CARBON
EPOXY COMPOSITE
TAPE
SHEET METAL
CONSTRUCTION
SHEET MET AL
CO~N
SHEET Ml:TAL
CONSTRUCTION
DYNAAOHR ACOUSTIC
TREATMENT
DYNAROHR ACOUSTIC
TREATMENT
ACOUSTIC TREATMENT
Abradable Linings
Abradable Linings are usually made of a composite material which will be abraded away should
the tip of a rotating blade touch the material. In flight the casings of an engine are subject to
large changes in ambient temperature, so they will expand or contract. As we know the air
temperature at 30,000ft is close to -50'C this would cause the casings to contract onto the rotor
and the blades will then rub. To overcome this problem abrasive materials where used on early
engines to wear down the tip of the blades, but this may cause balance problems. So most
engines now use abradable linings that maintain minimum tip clearance but do not affect
balance. They are usually found on the fan as this is the cold area of the rotating assemblies
(see figure 19.14)
19-20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
II
.,r.
r " ce
d.d
Engine Mounts
Engine mounts are designed to meet particular conditions of installation, such as the location
and the method of attachment of the engine mount and the size, type, and characteristics of the
engine it is intended to support. An engine mount is usually constructed quickly and easily from
the remaining structure. Engine mounts are commonly made of welded chrome/molybdenum
steel tubing, and forgings of chrome/nickel/molybdenum are used for the highly stressed fittings.
19-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
rm
(ID
IH&OARO MOUNTlNG
&RAaCET 'SSDel.Y
19-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r uo66pro.
01 , ,1
~ ., .
r,
ICC'
,."d
19-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
AFT LATERAL
SHOCKMOUNl
TORQUE
COMPENSATOR
19-24
and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Use
v .. ...,
"
id
the trunion
The trunion transmits the engine thrust to the airframe. The Trunion fits in the trunion housing
on the forward crane bean attachment.
Between the trunion housing and the aft beam attachment is a thrust strut. This strut divides the
engine thrust between the forward and aft beams attachment. The shear shell between the
crane beams makes the engine mounting more rigid.
1'HRU1l STRUT
vaR.i.lllN !SOU.TOR
19-25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Tl! lOI.T
s,LIT
t11.1$H
lAPEll IOl T
D1C111t ~~us~
llllO,C;,J.-TE CAS ;
19-26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.. ,
t , ~
,,
Cl
Engine Drains
There are two types of drains:
ControlledDrains
When an engine stops, fuel from the fuel manifold and combustion chamber drains either
overboard, or as is more usual into an 'ecology drain tank'. This tank is automatically emptied,
(the fuel being fed back into the engine) next time the engine is run. (figure 19.20)
19-27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~U'Rtft.K
. "UHteGlO
LP SHAFT
~~c
'
PS
STARTER
Ga./t~NOll
~ fUEl.
Stl/TCJF
V4.1.vt
IOCi
fUEl FLCM
AIRFLOW
Rf:GtJlATOR
SIGNA..
CONTROL
SMtmR
HP
RJR PlK>
.,TEAHJ.l
GEAR.ID
L.P Fllfl
PU'1P
OJtAIHS
EJECTOR Pl.ti)
OVUtSOAP.O
DRAIN
19-28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'C
UncontrolledDrains
Engine driven accessory drive shafts require lubrication. This will be provided by the engine
lubrication system. To ensure proper lubrication, the drive shaft bearings are sealed to prevent
loss of oil. These bearing seals are monitored for leaks, by the engine drain system which
consists of a number of shrouds, enclosing the drive shaft bearing, and pipes leading either an
overboard series of drain pipes (figure 19.21) or a collector tank (figure 19.22). These drains are
often referred to as 'witness drains or dry drains' as if they exhibit signs of leakage they bear
witness to a potential drive shaft failure.
FUEL BOOST PUMP
SCAL DRAIN
HY DAAUUC PVMP
DRAIN
STARTERDRIVE
DRAIN
/
<, ~
~EAi.DRAiN
/
SUPPORT
BRACK ET
19-29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~ntegrated
T .
System
sgn d m ass
. ra1n1ng
clut..,6,..,.c
ENGINE UPPER
COWLING ORAi
r>
~-~
WATERO~j
-:
r>-
-.
~<.-,.
-~~
DRAJN
HOLES
__
>
( (
<,
'-{
~n(-r..
/---.......]
,'\: : . . __
'-...SIGHT GLASS
., COLLECTOR
~
O
RAIN
'
,
,.----....
.,'
\'----
.,.
E LECTRICA
DRAIN
HOLES
DRAIN
CVGACTUATO
.
.: . : . ~ -; ,
... ...__
,.
--~AAI
-
-- - .
....
'
~ , . ,.;,:-/..
...
LGENERArofis-.
~~~:
.~--.
: .\
.,_.
.. ..-~.
,~~/
., ~\~'
, :.,:,:
=r;:uuc~
STARTE
DRAIN
..
FUEL' PUMP
DRAIN
---
.. - \
OlL SCUPPER\
ORAIN
. . . . . . .,
THRUST
DRAIN REVERSER
.B--
___.-:;;,-
11\ i"-?=~
} I
~-- -
19-30
Use and/or di
governed b :~closure is
on page 2 ~ e statement
o this chapter
POWER
lEVERS
POWER uveq.
10.1,11cRo.sw1 rcH
UNtt' ROO
HHMU
,oweR lE.VER
D Ft.Ex10.e coN'rAol
c u,Hr
MICROSWITCH
19-34
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
r,
c uoobpro.c r . ""
r ', ...
ice ad
Engine Controls
Mechanical Throttle Control
Engine controls are very similar to flying controls, and the same types of equipment are used,
such as rods, bellcranks and cables. Most control systems use either one or two systems to
control the engine.
In a two path system the high pressure cock is controlled separately from the throttle, in a single
path system they are combined.
Figure 19.23 shows a typical mechanical control system for a turbofan powered aircraft. It uses
a single path system to transmit power requirements to the engine. The thrust lever is
connected to a rod that transmits the movement down below floor level to a quadrant. The
quadrant outputs to two cables which initially run under the floor of the flightdeck and then along
the roof of the passenger cabin. They then pass through pressure seals and along the leading
edge of the wing before dropping down to a cable compensator in the top of the pylon. The
output from the compensator quadrant is a Teleflex push/pull cable. This Teleflex cable passes
down into the engine nacelle to a torque shaft mounted on the nose cowl assembly. The output
from the torque shaft moves a rod which provides the input to the fuel control unit. The Teleflex
cable has a disconnect break mechanism in it to facilitate engine changes.
To allow autothrottle functions the quadrants below the thrust levers can be moved by an
actuator which drives all four levers via clutches.
19-31
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
F\.t;:XISl E
C'ONIROI.
19-32
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
--
, ic a
__ ...
/
,I
,,,
- "fiVfltSiE
-"O~t~
----/
/
/
_,.
/
,/
//----
I'
,,
/
/
19-33
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.,
ca
dlO
TurbofanEngine
The manufacturer delivers the engine to fit the no-2 (right) position.
Conversion from the no.2 (right) to the no.1 (left) position requires re-position of:
The front engine mount adaptor.
The trunion mount.
The HP compressor 7th and 12th stage bleed air ducts.
The electrical harness on the engine.
The external igniter leads on top of the engine.
The engine vibration transducer wiring.
19-35
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
10
20
30
40
50
60
120 110
40
100
90
100 70
BO
40
160 150
140
130
170
19-36
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Number
Item
10
20
30
40
--
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
120A
130
140
150
160
170
~lice u ::1
--
19-37
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
[, ~ ;i ~flt
, u soc i, r witt ti,
clut...i6p1v.Cv,n question practic... ~:J
30
c.o
2l)
10
t>O
70
80
20
qo
-----i---t--~.~~__,.~__,----r.1:----,rr-------------1
iOO
'10
19-38
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c ubo6pro.~o,
Number
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
. !
,..
I-''" ,t ce d il
Item
Igniter Leads
Igniter Leads
Anti-Ice Electrical Harness
Anti-Ice Electrical Harness
Electrical Harness on the Hydraulic Pumps No. 1 and 2
Electrical Harness on IDG and IDG Oil Temperature Switch
Vibration Transducer Electrical Harness, LH-Engine
Vibration Transducer Electrical Harness, RH-Engine
Electrical Harness on Fuel Flow Transmitter
Electrical Harness on PLA-Transducer
Fire Detection Element
19-39
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
[1 gnlJ-.,as,o:it'
r ~-hth
CIUbl.v,-lfv.Cv,n quest on practice a;J
0
VI
0
...:t
g
m
0
('I
19-40
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Number
10.
20.
30.
40.
50.
60.
70.
80.
90
95.
100
110
120.
130.
140.
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
'
'iu
.., v,
f"
ce aid
Item
Engine Mounts - Forward Isolators
Engine Mounts - Forward Frame Assy
IDG Assy
I DG Support Bracket
Pitch Control Unit and Control Rods
Lever Bracket and Interconnection Rods
Bleed Air - Low Pressure Check Valve
Electrical Harness
Bleed Air, High Pressure Bleed Valve
Heat Shield Installation
Back-up Firewall
Bleed Air - Low Pressure Off-Take
Female Flange - Exhaust
Main Fuel Supply Tube
Drain Hoses
Pipe Lines Installation for Oil Pressure Transducer & Oil Pressure
Switch
Oil-Pressure Transducer, Oil-Pressure Switch, Oil-Temperature
Detector and Fuel-Temperature Detector
Heat Exchanger
Airduct and LHS & A-Frame
Oil-Cooler Assy
Propeller
Spinner
19-41
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
[Jes,qnf' j ir ,
atior w'tl' th
c.lub6..i)ro.... -im question practice.aid
,....
C>
,.iut--trk-,'-.!--._ ~
,.,..,
19-42
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
:rri;J
~-
Number
220
230
240
250
260
270
275
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
370A
,,
. .,
ice, d
Item
Vertical Firewall
Bleed Air - High Pressure and Low Pressure
Fire Extinguisher Tube
Starter Motor
Hydraulic Hose Assemblies and Hydraulic Pump
Feathering Pump
Brush Block
Drain Tubes
Torque Tube Isolator
Air Intake
Engine Seal Assy
Hydraulic Pump Seal Drain
Fuel Flow Transmitter
Oil Drains
Fuel Lines on the Engine
Spray Pipe for Air Intake
Engine Mounts
Engine Mounts - Rear Isolators
19-43
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
19-44
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lu sepro.co
l
I
'iU
.
u l
ce
..l
FIREPROOF
BULKkEAO
19-45
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
All fire zones are sealed from adjacent areas. Fire resistant rubber seals are fitted to the edges
of all doors, panels and bulkhead fittings to prevent fire spreading. Each of the zones will be
ventilated to prevent the build up gases or pressure and to cool the outer casing of the engine
and accessories. Fire break in panels will be built in to allow the use of external fire
extinguishers, these may also operate as blow out doors to prevent pressure build up in the
zone.
19-46
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
I.
. ,-,,
d!Cl
Removal
To prepare an aircraft for engine removal, check that the aircraft weight and balance will not be
adversely effected when the engine is removed. Most engines weigh between 0.5 and 1 ton.
Trestles may be required to stabilise the fore and aft axis of the aircraft.
The aircraft fuel system does not have to be drained, but the LP fuel valve must closed and a
label attached to the LP Cock handle, in the flightdeck, to prevent inadvertent operation. In
addition, the aircraft should be made electrically safe which will entail isolation of the engine
starting and ignition system.
Planning is an essential part of any engine removal activity. The Supervisor and personnel
involved, should ensure that all necessary resources, such as sufficient manpower, special
tools, lifting equipment and an engine transit I storage stand, are available.
The engine access doors and fairings will either have to be removed or supported clear of the
engine.
Due to restricted access of some engine accessories and components, it is, in some cases,
much easier to remove these items with the engine installed in the aircraft.
Once the engine has been initially prepared for removal (accessories removed etc) the
procedure of disconnecting the engine systems, at the engine/ aircraft interface, can begin.
Most engines employ quick release plugs and sockets for ease of disconnection of the electrical
systems, however some electrical systems, with heavier duty cables, such as the starter and
generator cables, may be bolted connections. Disconnect any cable cleats going across the
engine I airframe interface.
The hydraulic pipes are usually quick release/self-sealing connections at both the hydraulic
pump and the engine I airframe interface. Air supply connections will generally interface with a
'vee band' type of clamp or a bolted connection.
The engine LP fuel inlet pipe must be drained, before disconnection, into a suitable container
and the waste fuel disposed off in an approved manner. With the exception of the main engine
bearers, all mechanical links must be released and either removed or tied back to prevent
fouling during the removal operation.
19-47
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'Ii I
Lll'OC$ SIJPf>Of\ Tl rJ
1111:000RS
BOU
Ht.AH HU I'S T
av
AlTACHMEITT
QUICK-RELEASE PlN
..;;,i,.~--
TUBE
PIP PIN
OOCK RELEI\Sf
PIN INSTJ.l.U.iK>N
( TV'PICAL Of
DO:lR SUPPORTS)
.,.,,..
------
l!:!J
/JSSi:M6L't'
19-48
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'Jbot-or .
0 ., ~
,~
"'
If the engine is not being replaced or refitted immediately, all open pipes must be blanked off to
prevent foreign particle ingress and all electrical plugs tied back and protected.
Once satisfied that the engine is ready for removal the lifting equipment can be fitted in
accordance with the AMM. Jet engines are installed and removed utilising gantry cranes,
mobile cranes or in many cases by use of 2, 3 or 4 mini hoists.
Whatever method is used the lifting equipment must be inspected before use. Particular
attention should be paid to ensuring that the equipment has approval documentation and is of
the correct 'safe working load' for the task. Cables should not show evidence of twisting or
fraying and end fittings should be free of damage, corrosion etc. When mini hoists are used, the
brake and clutch mechanisms of each hoist should be functionally checked and that the correct
hoist is being used as similar units are rated at different settings.
Supervisors should double check that all the lifting equipment is serviceable and correctly fitted
prior to commencing the removal process. The supervisor should also carry out a final check of
the engine I airframe disconnect points to satisfy himself/herself that the engine and equipment
is safe for removal.
Each winch I hoist is to be manned at all times during the removal process and at least one
person who can check the engine to ensure it remains in a safe condition during removal. The
supervisor must ensure that all team members are fully aware of the process and briefed on
what is required of each individual. All instructions should be given in a clear and unambiguous
manner and where hand signals are required, all members can see the supervisor and are
aware of their meaning. Only the supervisor of the task should issue instructions during the
process and unnecessary talk and noise (i.e. riveting operations in vicinity) minimised or
stopped.
Immediately prior to removing the engine and finally releasing the engine mounts I attachments,
the weight of the engine must be 'taken' by the lifting equipment. This will ensure that there is no
unnecessary 'jerking' or 'snatching' of the cables. With mini hoists this is achieved by winching
the cable in until the clutch in the handle breaks (Always re-engage the handle before
progressing further). At this point the effectiveness of the brake unit in the mini hoist should be
checked following the relevant manufacturers procedures. Once the supervisor is satisfied that
all procedures have been followed correctly and that all resources are in place the engine
mountings I bearers can be disconnected and the engine removed I lowered from its housing.
At all stages of the removal procedure checks should be carried out to ensure that the engine
does not become caught on the airframe structure or components.
WARNING
NEVER WALK UNDER A SUSPENDED LOAD. EVERY EFFORT SHOULD BE
TAKEN TO MINIMISE THE TIME NECESSARY TO CARRY OUT ANY
MAINTENANCE BENEATH A SUSPENDED LOAD
When lowering an engine using a mini hoist system, the weight of the engine should always be
taken by the winding handle and the brake should be released and held off.
An engine stand should be positioned ready to accept the engine and any pins or mounts,
between the engine and its stand, connected prior to allowing the weight to be removed from
the winching system.
19-49
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
~j
If the engine is to be replaced remove any further dress items that have not already been
removed. Complete and attach an equipment label to the engine detailing its condition, life
used, etc.
To avoid or minimise deformation on the aircraft structure due to removal of the engine, it may
be necessary to fit a component called a 'jury strut'. This requirement will be clearly stated in the
relevant procedure of the AMM.
Once removed further inspections on the engine and the nacelle will be carried out. If the
engine is to be returned to the manufacturer these will entail blanking of exposed pipes and
protection of exposed cables and components. If the engine is to be refitted to the same aircraft
then these checks, often referred to as 'bay checks' are more involved and are designed to
ensure that the condition of the hard to see areas of the engine and engine bay are thoroughly
checked.
19-50
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C. .Jb6oprC.(01.1 ~,.
t.
I. [.
dCfl d d
Cl 01SCONNECT/CONNECT POINTS
N
FRQNT
SUk'O!NG
POINT
19-51
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
DETAlL@J
0TAiLl!I
DElAll(Q)
DETAIL
(ci
19-52
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,(~f.!)
~
UbbopeO.C
( .. ,.4
11 /
INTERFACE
~'-..._f!EMO"Al.
'
fr-,'*=fl-
OETAIL
[fil [Hl
tlCP
RE.MOVAl
,-,.....~~--...._~....-.~!,./
f'ROOT MOUNTING
'iJ
OISCOtlNECT JC~NECT
REAR M()UNTING
INTERFACE
[El
OETAH.
OOCONNECTICONNE:CT
Hl"AIRPIPE
19-53
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Q]
Ftia
Pl PE CLAMP
[Kl
e~oc~
ENGINE FUE.L
Ol~ONNECT
47
II]
@]
T,Gr DISCONNECT
[J
T.Gi~ DLSCONNtCT
(POST MO[) 402l5AJ
PSO
Pl
P2
Pl
X87
If]
GENERA.TOR Cit,. SI.ES DISCONNECT- t ANO Ii E.N.OINES
ELECTRICM.
OlSCOt-lNECl'S
19-54
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lil
J
ice,, d
Fitting
Prior to fit remove the label from the engine and attach it to the paperwork for safekeeping.
Check the engine over to ensure it is complete and check the label for any tasks required before
fit. Fit any dress items that need to be fitted prior to fit.
Check round the bay to ensure it is clear to fit the engine and remove the jury strut if fitted.
Check the lift gear is correctly installed and that it is serviceable.
Position the engine and correctly attach it to the lift gear (double check this).
Lifting the engine in follows the same basic rule as lowering. If using mini hoists there is no need
to operate the brake when hoisting as it ratchets. When the engine nears the installed position
the person in charge and his assistant will align the mounts and fit the pins or bolts, this is a
critical time and may require very small movements on the lifting gear to allow the mounts to be
connected. Great care and concentration is required to prevent damage or injury. Do not use
your finger to check alignment as a very small movement of the engine could trap or sever it.
Once the mounts are made, and locked the lifting gear can be removed and the engine systems
and accessories can be reconnected which is the reverse of the removal. Remember to fit new
seals to the components.
,--
After engine fit the electrical systems can be reset. The LP fuel valve opened and the engine
fuel system bled to remove any air. The engine oil system is then checked and followed by an
engine ground run. During the ground run leak and performance checks are carried out to
ensure that the engine is satisfactory. After the run the chip detectors are checked and
duplicate inspection is required on the engine controls.
Flight Transit
To allow an aircraft to return to a suitable base for an engine change, some multi engine aircraft
can be flown with one engine shut down. In the case of the BAe 146 it has sufficient power to
take off and fly on 3 engines. To prevent damage to the engine rotor locks are fitted to the LP
and HP systems to prevent rotation. The starting and ignition systems must be inhibited for that
engine to prevent damage by inadvertent election.
19-55
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
[)(' g1 J in 3 OLr"ll;
W tt ths
CIUb6bp1~.wOm question praCIIC1. aid
r,;"l RIGHT-HAND
L!iJ
SIDE SIMILAR
19-56
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
IUObbj'.)rO.COI
'1V
~ h,,
,,
~~
ICO ad
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.20 Fire Protection Systems
20-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Objective
Fire Protection Systems
Operation of detection and extinc:::iuishing systems.
20-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
EASA66
Reference
Level
81
15.20
a. ,c,, rat
,n
tr
CopyrightNotice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
20-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ce c. l
Table of Contents
,--
Introduction
7
7
8
8
12
14
14
15
Fire ExtinguishingSystems
Typical Large CommercialTwin Jet Fire ExtinguishingSystem
Common ExtinguishingAgents, Approvedfor Aircraft Use
DischargeIndicators
Extinguisher Weight and PressureChecks
Storage
Pipelines
19
20
22
23
24
25
26
20-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c Lbuopr .co..
It
f'
u-. ce 1 d
ns
20-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
d1,..
20-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
v'1 ,,
v' e
IJ
There must be approved, quick acting fire or overheat detectors in each designated fire
zone, and in the combustion, turbine, and tailpipe sections of turbine engine installations,
in numbers and locations ensuring prompt detection of fire in those zones.
(b)
(c)
No fire or overheat detector may be affected by any oil, water, other fluids, or fumes that
might be present.
(d)
There must be means to allow the crew to check, in flight, the functioning of each fire or
overheat detector electric circuit.
(e)
Wiring and other components of each fire or overheat detector system in a fire zone must
be at least fire-resistant.
(f)
No fire or overheat detector system component for any fire zone may pass through
another fire zone, unless:
(g)
Each fire detector system must be constructed so that when it is in the configuration for
installation it will not exceed the alarm activation time approved for the detectors using
the response time criteria specified in the appropriate Technical Standard Order for the
detector.
20-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
_...,
20-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CUbbop O.COI
'-I,
I.,..,._
."
id
--
,....._
Loop
Fire-warning
light
~
0
t5
CL>
a>
0
~
~
Fire-warning
test switch
Test
relay
20-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
"
-d r '15
ti n ""'th fr
CIUbbbpr v. uvm question practrcc ai.,
Thermocouple
Measonng Junctions
..
.-
.
.
..
,------:.
...
...
..
......
.,
..
Sensrtiw
Fire-waming
tight
relay
Test
swnch
':=!'
7
Test thefmocoupte
Slave
relay
The thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metals such as chrome! and alumel. The
point where these metals are joined, and will be exposed to the heat of a fire, is called a hot
junction. A metal cage surrounds each thermocouple to give mechanical protection without
hindering free movement of air to the hot junction.
In a typical thermocouple system installation, the active thermocouples are placed in locations
where fire is most likely to occur, and one thermocouple, called the reference thermocouple, is
placed in a location that is relatively well protected from the initial flame. The temperature of the
reference thermocouple will eventually reach that of the other thermocouples, and there will be
20-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
n ~ .. ,ce aid
20-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Continuous-LoopDetector Systems
A continuous-loop detector or sensing system permits more complete coverage of a fire hazard
area than any type of spot-type temperature detectors. The continuous-loop system works on
the same basic principle as the spot-type fire detectors, except that instead of using individual
thermal switches the continuous-loop system has sensors in the form of a long lnconel tube.
20-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C'IUbbbD0.{0,
uu
:,
. '
v ,u, ......
,ce
ad
internal ground. The second wire is a hot lead (above ground potential) that provides an
electrical current signal when the ceramic core material changes its resistance with a
change in temperature.
The Kidde sensing elements are connected to a relay control unit. This unit constantly
measures the total resistance of the full sensing loop. The system senses the average
temperature, as well as any hot spot.
Both systems continuously monitor temperatures in the affected compartments, and both
will automatically reset following a fire or overheat alarm, after the overheat condition is
removed or the fire is extinguished.
Note that both systems are purely resistive and are powered by 28V DC.
INCONEL
TUBE
CENTER
CONDUCTOR
EUTECTIC
SALT
bus
Sensing Element 1
Bell
.---~~~~~[~-~-~->~~~~
cutout
switch
Controller
~Test
switch
115-V AC
bus
20-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
SENSING ELEMENT
WARNING
LIGHT
INTE(lRITY
SWITCH
20-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Jb(f)p,C.CQI
'-''
.;j
lu~fCe
..lid
central core material has the unique property of releasing an extremely large volume of gas
whenever any finite section is heated above a certain temperature. The other mode is a general
increase in temperature over a large area, causing an "average" temperature rise, increasing
overall gas pressure. Either of these modes are completely reversible. Should the temperature
decrease, the gas pressure will decrease and the system will return to normal.
-
.--
Each detector assembly consists of a support tube assembly, Teflon liners, clamps and two
detector elements. The support tube establishes routing configuration of the detector element
and provides attach points to the airplane.
Testing of Continuous Loop Systems
The Systron Donner system is the current system of choice for Boeing and Airbus. Its great
advantage is that if a detector looses pressure a fault will be instantly registered. The Graviner
system can register a continuity fault in flight, but only if a test is carried out from the flight deck.
False warnings are an issue with the earlier systems largely due to chafing or cracking of the
detector wires. Insulation testing of the elements is carried out during maintenance by using a
250Vsafety ohmmeter. Resistance values vary, therefore the AMM for each installation should
be consulted.
20-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
LOOP 1 \
\. {~==OR
looP:
FIRE DETECTOR ASSEMBLY
Grav Iner
Systron Donner
power up and manually if the Eng/Fire/ APU test switch in the cockpit is pressed.
The Fire Detector Unit requires a fire signal from both loops before it will signal a fire, if the
loops are both serviceable. In the event of 1 loop being detected as unserviceable the control
unit reconfigures to indicate a fire from a single loop.
20-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ubbopr .
N
<L
'---++-------'
'----+------'
~
..
u
"'
:!;
z
~---~
,.'"'
<C
i.. ..~
ii
-.......
....
......
-""....
z:
0
t;
~
.,,
...
z:
Figure 20.12: Typical Large Commercial Twin Turbo Jet (Boeing 757/767) Fire Warning System
Note: The detector loops can be Systron Donner or Graviner. Therefor if an engine is changed
that swaps types of firewire the only action required is to replace the detector cards with the
appropriate type.
ns
20-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
20-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
h,b&bpro. or.. ,
r_
fir .t c
Fire ExtinguishingSystems
These systems are provided for power plants, APUs, and in some types of aircraft, for landing
gear wheel bays, baggage compartments and combustion heater installations. A system
generally consists of a number of metal containers or bottles, containing an extinguishant which
is pressurized with an inert gas and sealed by means of a discharge or operating head. When
operated, either by selector switches in the cockpit or crash switches, an electrically fired
cartridge ruptures a metal diaphragm within the discharge head and the extinguishant is
released to flow through spray pipes, spray rings or discharge nozzles into the appropriate fire
zone. Electrical power is 28 volts d.c. and is supplied from an essential services busbar.
20-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
/{rii'l!'Y:
e>d .n 1"
di ,n w,th th
~/
DISCHARGE NOZZLE
LOW
PRESSURE
SWtTCH
PRES.WRE
GAGE
DISCHARGE HEM>
tFWD
20-20
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ns Integrated Training
System
Copyright 2011
OlSCH
.......--.R
FIRE WARNING
SWITCH
ice
c,
!>ISCH
~""'R
L BOTTLE
DISCHARGE
R. BOTTLE
DISCHARGE
20-21
Use and/or disclosure ts
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
i~'e'Y
~/
Carbon Dioxide (C02)- The oldest type agent used in aviation. It is non-corrosive to
metal parts but can cause shock to hot running parts of the engine if used in great
quantity. Extinguishes by dissipating oxygen. C02 is considered toxic.
20-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
:(u~)
~-'
.Jhbbpro.c
, ce aid
Discharge Indicators
In fire extinguisher systems of the fixed type, provision is made for positive indication of
extinguisher discharge as a result of either (a) intentional firing, or (b) inadvertent loss of
contents, i.e. pressure relief overboard or leakage. The methods adopted are generally
mechanical and electrical in operation.
Mechanical Indicators - Mechanical indicators
are, in many instances, fitted in the operating
heads of extinguishers and take the form of a
pin that under normal conditions is flush with
the cap of the hollow junction box. When an
extinguisher has been fired, and after the
charge plug has been forced down the hollow
junction box, the spigot of the plug strikes the
indicator pin causing it to protrude from the cap,
thereby providing a visual indication of
extinguishant discharge.
Pressure gauges - In the extinguishers
employed in some types of aircraft, mechanical
type pressure gauges are embodied in the
containers and these serve to indicate
extinguishant discharge in terms of pressure
changes and, in addition, serve as a
maintenance check on leakage.
,
Figure 20.14: Fire extinguisher bottle indicators
ns
20-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
111 'IS
I or .vith
Electrical Indicators Electrical indicators are used in several types of aircraft and consist of
indicating fuses, magnetic indicators and warning lights. These are connected in the electrical
circuits of each extinguisher so that when the circuits are energized, they provide a positive
indication that the appropriate cartridge units have been fired. In some aircraft, pressure
switches are mounted on the extinguishers and are connected to indicator lights which come on
when the extinguisher pressure reduces to a predetermined value. Pressure switches may also
be connected in the discharge lines to indicate actual discharge as opposed to discharge
initiation at the extinguishers.
Extinguisher Weight and Pressure Checks
The fully charged weight of an extinguisher should be checked at the periods specified in the
approved Maintenance Schedule, and before installation, to verify that no loss of extinguishant
has occurred. The weight, including blanking caps and washers, but excluding cartridge units, is
normally indicated on the container or operating head. For an extinguisher embodying a
discharge indicator switch, the weight of the switch cable assembly is also excluded.
Figure 20.15: Engine fire bottles with pressure gauges (8737 NG)
20-24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ubbboro. o,.
NOTE:
~I
J/'.
u ~tu,1 u, , t -e u d
The provision of discharge indicators in fixed extinguisher systems does not alter
the requirement for periodic weighing which is normally related to calendar time.
The date of weighing and the weight should, where specified, be recorded on record cards
made out for each type of extinguisher, and also on labels for attachment to extinguishers. If the
weight of an extinguisher is below the indicated value the extinguisher must be withdrawn from
service for recharging.
For extinguishers fitted with pressure gauges, checks must be made to ensure that indicated
pressures are within the permissible tolerances relevant to the temperature of the extinguishers.
The relationship between pressures and temperatures is normally presented in the form of a
graph contained within the appropriate aircraft Maintenance Manuals.
900
800
a:
400
tl.
300
,,_...
200
100
.
..-- ..
+
-----
--~
r-,
--
30
-20
~
~
I
-r
v --
'
...;.-- v --:
l/
_,,,,, i.--- .
I
~ ~
-- .
.
.
.
40
--
.....
~
----
----.,.,
600
!=, 500
w
a:
-I
in
~
(/)
700
10
10
20
30
40
so
I
I
60
70
80
90
100
TEMPERATURE: ( F)
ns
20-25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
is removed from its bag, the life expiry date is two years from the date of removal, provided the
expiry is within the normal five year period.
Defective or time-expired cartridge units must be disposed of in accordance with explosive
regulations.
Pipelines
Extinguishants are discharged through a pipeline system which, in general, is comprised of
light-alloy pipes outside fire zones and stainless steel rings inside fire zones, which are
perforated to provide a spray of extinguishant in the relevant zones. In some cases,
extinguishant may be discharged through nozzles instead of spray rings. Flexible fireproof
hoses are also used, e.g. between a nacelle firewall and spray rings secured to an engine.
Pipelines are colour coded for left and right engine. As an extra safety precaution there are also
different pipe connection sizes to avoid cross connections.
20-26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
;;;:
'
...
..
- -
........
...
"'
<II<
'"'""
tI:
UN
...z:::,
Q
...:::,
.:>
...
1I
a::
r-----I
'V.......~
"''
,.......
>
"'
.J
w
....
N
-...
..
....
{,~ l~
I
"'
lo~
"''"'"'
ill""'
"'"'
~;1
... ~
ie
.......
00
0.
IC
IICU
<
::ao
a::"
oa::
... <
- ...
w
>
"u
zo-
=<
0
~ <
!a,:;
o ...
...10
_ ...
~;
> ......
...
~
...>
ct:J
;... i.
!~_
ct::1
::;!1
I
~8~
.. -...
~
1-iJ
-+-
c:r:::J
Figure 20.17: Boeing 757 engine fire bottle system
20-27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
20-28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'i"'
n 1,
re J1d
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
15.21 Engine Monitoring and Ground
Operations
,-
21-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
_:J
Copyright Notice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
21-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
_,,
._.u
,. .
Table of Contents
Module 15.21 - Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation
Ground Running
Safety Precautions
Engine Preparation
Ensure that restrictionson ground running with certain cowlings open are adhered
to.Starting
Starting
Testing
Stopping
5
5
6
6
7
9
9
Hazard Areas
General
Using the Thrust Reverser
Wind Direction
11
11
13
13
15
15
15
17
Special Inspections
Bird Strike
Engine Surge
Over Temping and Over Speeding
Lightning Strikes
19
19
19
19
19
21
21
23
Oil Analysis
Oil Filter Debris Analysis
SpectrometricOil Analysis Programme(SOAP)
25
25
25
27
27
31
32
34
35
35
36
38
39
40
42
21-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
u: ...
EASA 66
Reference
Objective
Engine Monitorinq and Ground Operation
Procedures for starting and ground run-up;
Interpretation of enqine power output and parameters;
Trend (including oil analysis, vibration and boroscope)
monitoring;
Inspection of engine and components to criteria, tolerances
and data specified by engine manufacturer;
Inspection of engine and components to criteria, tolerances
and data specified by engine manufacturer;
Compressor washing/cleaning;
Foreign Object Damage.
21-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
15.21
Level
81
3
Training System
Copyright 2011
'-jU
..,
f'
Cf' c..'d
Safety Precautions
Turbine engines ingest large quantities of air and eject gases at high temperature and high
velocity, creating danger zones both in front of and behind the aircraft. The extent of these
danger zones varies considerably with engine size and location and this information is given in
the appropriate aircraft Maintenance Manual. The danger zones should be kept clear of
personnel, loose debris and equipment whenever the engines are run. The aircraft should be
positioned facing into wind so that the engine intakes and exhausts are over firm concrete with
the jet efflux directed away from other aircraft and buildings. Silencers or blast fences should be
used whenever possible for runs above idling power. Additional precautions, such as protective
steel plates or deflectors, may be required when testing thrust reversers or jet lift engines, in
order to prevent ground erosion.
Air intakes and jet pipes should be inspected for loose articles and debris before starting the
engine and the aircraft main wheels chocked fore and aft. It may be necessary to tether vertical
lift aircraft if a high power check is to be carried out.
Usually on large aircraft one member of the ground crew is stationed outside the aircraft and
provided with a radio headset connected to the aircraft intercom system. This crew member is in
direct communication with the flight deck and able to provide information and if necessary
warnings on situations not visible from inside the aircraft. Due to the high noise level of turbine
engines running at maximum power it is advisable for other ground crew members to wear ear
muffs.
A suitable C02 or foam fire extinguisher must be located adjacent to the engine during all
ground runs. The aircraft fire extinguishing system should only be used in the event of a fire in
an engine which is fully cowled.
,...
21-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'
t.
w t~ t
Engine Preparation
It is usually not necessary to increase the temperature of a jet engine before you start it during
cold weather operation, The normal engine starting procedure will usually be adequate.
Before you start the engine:
In the event that the ground personnel are required to carry out inspections or adjustment
ensure that they are correctly briefed and have the tool to do the job.
Ensure that restrictions on ground running with certain cowlings open are adhered to.
21-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
,(
I - . t>
m..
e 11d
Starting
There are many different types of turbine engine starters and starting systems, therefore it is not
possible to give a sequence of operations exactly suited to all aircraft. The main requirements
for starting are detailed in the following paragraphs.
Particular attention should be paid to the positioning of the aircraft and its ground support
equipment (GSE). The aircraft should be facing into wind and securely chocked (possibly with
the front and rear chocks tied together). The visual and free movement of both compressor and
turbine should be checked, and the engine air intake examined for loose articles. The areas to
the front and rear of the aircraft should be checked for loose articles and spilt fuel, which could
cause a hazard to the aircraft during the run.
The technical log must be checked to ensure that no outstanding entries will jeopardise the
operation or function of other aircraft systems. Other entries may require functional checks to be
carried during the ground run, which may also require involvement in the run of other
tradesmen. Ground support equipment should be positioned to ensure their safe operation and
movement, if required, during the start and run.
Prior to starting the engines all personnel involved must be made aware of their responsibilities
and role during the run. If hand signals are to be used (figure 21.1.) they should be agreed and
understood by all concerned. All personnel outside the aircraft must wear ear-defenders, if
possible one or more of the external team should have an intercom headset for direct
communication with those inside.
The person(s) operating the controls during starting and running must be familiar with the
controls, instruments and limitations associated with the engines. In particular they should be
aware of the limitations imposed upon the engines turbine temperature during start.
NUMBER OF FINGERS
INDICATES WHICH ENGINE
-,
START ENGINE
STOP ENGINE
SAFETY MAN TO POSITION HIMSELF
WHERE HE CAN BE SEEN
YES (OKI
NO (not OK)
21-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
An external electrical power supply is often required and should be connected before starting.
Where a ground/flight switch is provided this must be set to 'ground' and all warning lights
checked for correct operation.
Where an air supply is required for starting this should be connected and the pressure checked
as being sufficient to ensure a start. If the electrical and air supplies are not adequate for
starting purposes it is possible for a light-up to occur at insufficient speed for the engine to
accelerate under its own power. This could result in excessive turbine temperatures and
damage to the engine.
The controls and switches should be set for engine starting, a check made to ensure that the
area both in front of and behind the engine is clear and the starter engaged. When turbine
rotation becomes apparent the HP cock should be opened and the engine instruments
monitored to ensure that the starting cycle is normal. When light-up occurs and the engine
begins to accelerate under its own power, switch off the starter. If it appears from the rate of
increase in exhaust or turbine gas temperature that starting limits will be exceeded the HP cock
should be closed immediately and the cause investigated.
-------
21-8
Use andlor disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
, .,, , ....
'ce
Testing
When a new engine has been installed a full ground test is necessary, but on other occasions
only those parts of the test necessary to satisfy the purpose of the run need be carried out. The
test should be as brief as possible and for this reason the aircraft Maintenance Manual specifies
a sequence of operations which should always be observed. Records of the instrument readings
obtained during each test should be kept to provide a basis for comparison when future engine
runs become necessary.
Each aircraft system associated with engine operation should be operated and any warning
devices or indicators in the cockpit checked against physical functioning. It may be necessary in
certain atmospheric conditions to select engine anti-icing throughout the run and this should be
ascertained from the minimum conditions quoted in the Maintenance Manual. Icing conditions
are deemed to exist at less than+ 10C with visible moisture.
The particular tests related to engine operation are idling speed, maximum speed, acceleration,
and function of any compressor airflow controls which may be fitted. Adjustments to correct
slight errors in engine operation are provided on the engine fuel pump, flow control unit, and
airflow control units. Observed results of the tests must be corrected for ambient pressure and
temperature, tables or graphs being provided for this purpose in the aircraft Maintenance
Manual. Adjustments may usually be carried out with the engine idling unless it is necessary to
disconnect a control. In this case the engine must be stopped and a duplicate inspection of the
control carried out before starting it again. An entry must be made in the engine log book
quoting any adjustments made and the ambient conditions at the time.
Stopping
After completion of the engine run the engine should be idled until temperatures stabilize and
then the HP cock closed. The time taken for the engine to stop should be noted and compared
with previous times, due allowance being made for wind velocity (e.g. a strong head wind will
appreciably increase the run-down time). During the run-down fuel should be discharged from
certain fuel component drains and this should be confirmed. A blocked drain pipe must be
rectified. When the engine has stopped, all controls and switches used for the run must be
turned off and the engine inspected for fuel, oil, fluid and gas leaks.
After a new engine has been tested the oil filters should be removed and inspected and after
refitting these items the system should be replenished as necessary.
21-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D s,gned in 1
:i 11
with till
C'Ub66pru. v.n question pracncc aid
Intentionally Blank
21-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ciubssp-o.c n ,..uL
'.;
~ ,c
1
aid
Hazard Areas
General
Because aircrafts are equipped with engines of different power, it is impossible to make a rule.
The only rule that can be made is: Never stay behind a running engine! The diagram on page 5
shows the hazard areas around operating turbojet engines. Pay particular attention to the area
in front of the aircraft. Before starting the engine, check the area ahead of the inlet duct for
loose objects that could possibly be ingested when the engine sucks in the tremendous amount
of air that flows through it when it is operating. Rocks and loose bits of concrete can cause
expensive damage. No one should approach within about 20-m of an inlet duct when the engine
is operating in idle power, because the low-pressure area ahead of the engine is strong enough
that a person could be sucked into the engine. For inspection purposes you can approach the
engine through an entry corridor as shown in the following illustration.
If the engine operates above idle power, keep away from the engine in a safe distance.
At some time, when the engine is started, fuel which has not been burned in the combustion
chamber can ignite in the exhaust area. This can cause long flames to blow out of the exhaust
nozzle.
In the following example, keep in mind that distances and values vary from type to type.
21-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
MAXIMUM
R.P.M.
MAXIMUM R.P.M.
TEMPERATURE
DROPS
ro
1/ELOCITY
DROPS
TO 20 M.PH.
so-c ta6"Fl
'
FORWARD THRUST
15ft.--------190f1.------------'
REVERSE THRUST
SS ft
L._
.;
must be
D Thu,
using thrust reversers.
area
Figure 21.3: Fokker 100 Aircraft showing the engine running danger areas at idle and full power
and during reverse thrust
21-12
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
C' bot,pr' . 0 . yu
, v,
Wind Direction
Wind direction and velocity can change the stability of the engine. Where possible, the engine
must be operated with the intake pointed into the wind as specified.
The wind velocities shown are for constant wind conditions only. You must reduce the maximum
wind velocity limits shown for gusty wind velocities. Stop the test if the engine EPR or N1 speed
are not stable. Stop the test if, at steady state, the inlet noise increases or changes to a blow
torch sound or if vibration increases. To get information about wind speed and direction, contact
the local meteorological office. You can find VHF frequencies on the airport approach or
departure map.
21-13
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
21-14
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
cu obpro. er,
'1-'
( I~
ice"' d
~ , , .,.
On-Condition Maintenance
Turbine engines are not necessarily removed from the aircraft and overhauled when a specified
number of operating hours or operating cycles have been-reached. Some engines are
maintained according to an on-condition maintenance program.
On-condition maintenance is described in detail in the operations manual for the particular
engine. It consists primarily of monitoring the engine performance at regular intervals and
determining when maintenance is required, based on the deterioration of certain operating
parameters.
Trend Monitoring
Trend monitoring is a system of routine comparison of engine performance parameters with a
base line of these same parameters established when the engine was new or newly
overhauled.
Graphs or curves are used to show trends in changing conditions, and trend monitoring curves
reveal much about the internal condition of a gas turbine engine. The engine manufacturer or
overhauler collects several datas such as NI, N2, EGT, fuel flow etc. when the engine is run in
the test cell. This data is reduced to standard day conditions and used to create a series of
standard reference baselines. Routinely, checks are made to compare the current performance
of the engine with its test-cell performance. The same parameters are measured and reduced to
standard day conditions, and the differences between the original and the new readings are
plotted on a graph. One or two deviations from the baseline do not necessarily indicate an
abnormal condition, but when the deviations in all the parameters are plotted over a number of
operating hours or a given period of time, trends become apparent. These trends, when
properly interpreted, are important maintenance tools that warn of impending problems before
they could be detected by any other method.
21-15
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
" t
'0
u,.J
-+---,r-
* *
-----
* *
--* -- ----
:>
Mill
(c1
- .. - .. -+-y-
-ir-..l.
_:!, _
* *
_! _ - --
10
+tO
~
ll
- -
0
6
1
I
$(141.0UUO INl(ltVAL
* *
,o
11
21-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
'l
c t,::lbbpro.cor,. "y ~
. ,.. u
CE
ad
. . . ..
..
J .,,
.J
. .
. .. ... ..
! 1
~
. ..
. . .. .. .
Ii.--
. . ~' 1 . : . .
"
--.x. . . ----~---....
~-
... ,c..:: ..
21-17
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
21-18
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lub6o;:>r .
~- '1"
r,
ice
Special Inspections
Special Inspections are called for after certain incidents the following list is an example only.
The AMM is the only reference
Bird Strike
Engine Surge
The extent of the inspection will depend on the degree of exceedance. Ultimately an
engine will be replaced for overhaul.
Hot end inspection for damage and heat distress.
Hot end inspection for damage and heat distress.
Heavy Landing
LightningStrikes
Examine engine and cowlings for signs of burning or pitting. If a lightning strike is evident
tracking through the bearings may have occurred and oil filters and MCDs should be monitored
for a specific number of running hours after the occurrence.
21-19
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
21-20
Use and/or disclosure
('
' Ctu
Procedure
There are two recommended procedures to clean the engine gas path:
Dry motor the engine for two minutes while you inject water 360 degrees around the LPC
inlet, through the fan blades.
Let the engine soak for 5 minutes .
Dry motor the engine again for two minutes, while you inject water 360 degrees around
the LPC inlet, through the fan blades.
Let the engine soak for 5 minutes .
Dry motor the engine again for two minutes .
During the first minute only, inject water 360 degrees around the LPC inlet, through the
fan blades. The engine must be started within 30 minutes of the last wash cycle to purge
the lube and sump system of any water ingestion.
21-21
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
(A}
PRESS. CAUCE
SHUT.()FF
VALV!!
.--C-l_(:_A_N-:0-R--, i
REOULA.TEO
OE
AIRNITROGEN.
PRESS.
NE.RALIZEO
wA1en
r::>
RIHG
SHUT.OFF
OESAI.IN,'\HON SYSTEM
VAlVE
,----1 CLEANIMG
SOLUT10N
PRl:SS. GAUGE
REGULATED
AIR.tl!TROGEN ----
PFIESS-
CLEAN Off
PERFORMANCERECOVERY SYSTEM
DEMINEAAU2EO
WATER
\_ SHUTOFF VALVE
(8)
PT6
(A)-Compressor wash schematics of the PT-6 for desalination and power reco~ery washes.
(BJ-Water Is Introduced Into tmgine lnl~t. (CJ-Large englntJ eomprossor wash.
21-22
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ctunobp o.cor,
ti
'tu
,v ..,,
H.
l ce d 1
Anti-freeze Mixtures
Anti-freeze mixtures must be used at temperatures below 50C. Mixtures can be prepared as
follows:
For temperatures of 50C to -50C, mix 25 percent of isopropyl alcohol to 75 percent of water.
For temperatures of -50C to -10C, mix 35 percent of isopropyl alcohol to 65 percent of water.
Do not wash the engine gas path at temperatures below -10C.
AbrasiveGrit
This method of cleaning involves injecting an abrasive grit into the engine at selected power
settings ( Figure 21.15) grit used may be ground walnut shell or apricot pits. The type and
amount of material and the operational procedures will be described in the AMM. The main
advantage of this procedure is that allows the time between cleaning to be extended because it
produces a better result. However because the grit is mostly burned up in the combustion zone
of the engine, it will not give an effective cleaning of the turbine blades and vanes as the fluid.
21-23
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
o, si -i
Intentionally Blank
21-24
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Integrated Training
System
.
.
~ ..
.
U06':.1prO.('Or,. yu
"',
f'
"t~E),
Oil Analysis
The oil analysis program for a turbine engine consists of the same two areas used for
reciprocating engines: spectrometric analysis of the oil and an evaluation of the contents of the
filter element. The laboratories used for the oil analysis program should be approved by the
engine manufacturer. This assures recognition of any abnormal growth trends of a particular
metal in the oil. The kit furnished by the lab includes containers for the oil taken from the oil tank
and from the filter element, instructions for taking the samples, and forms for recording the
results of the tests.
Normally, the sample of oil should be taken shortly after the engine has been run. A tube is
inserted into the oil tank to get a sample of oil from the middle of the tank, and this oil is placed
in the sample bottle furnished in the kit. The filter is back-flushed to remove entrapped metal
particles, and any that are found are examined to determine where they came from. The sample
sent to the laboratory must be identified with the type and serial number of the aircraft and
engine, the number of hours on the filter since the last oil change, the number of hours since the
last sample was taken, and the amount of oil added since the last sample. This information
allows the laboratory to make a meaningful analysis of the engines gears, bearings and of
course the oil itself.
21-25
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D siqn .o ir a: s,
1ro,
v.itri th,
CIU066i:,,L.(;("lm question pracncs
,tlu
incorrect oil, it is possible to sample the fleet using spectrometric analysis, to determine which
components have the wrong oil in.
on. FILM
SPARK PROOUCING
ELECTRODES
ON ROTATING
PLATE
'!;LECTAOOE
L.LSAMPL.E
CONTAINER
UGHT
SPECTllUM
LIO!iT SLITS
ELl:CiRONIC
MULTIPLIER
TUBES
ELECTRONIC
--COUNTER
DETAIL-A
21-26
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
tuoesp-o.c r., .. ~
....
'
~lea dlcl
It has long been the practice when inspecting reciprocating engines to disassemble them and
examine the component parts. As engine output increased over the years, the susceptibility to
detonation became a serious problem, and borescope inspection of the inside of installed
cylinders becoming important maintenance tool. Turbine engines are lightweight for the amount
of power or thrust they produce and are expensive to disassemble. Because of this, engine
manufacturers have placed borescope ports at strategic locations, so that technicians can
examine critical internal areas without disassembling the engine.
21-27
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
L 1e ign, Cl in l~
ti n w1 t t
clut "'6p.~ .~0111 quesdon practice
There are three types of internal visual inspection instruments commonly used in
turbine engine maintenance:
rigid-tube scope
flexible fiber optic scope
video-imaging scope
Rigid-tube Scope
A rigid-tube borescope can be inserted into the engine through an inspection port, and a
controllable power source allows you to regulate the intensity of the light produced by the lamp
at the end of the scope tube. Insert the tube into the appropriate port and adjust the light. Aim
the instrument at the area to be inspected and focus to get the sharpest image. Flexible-tube
fiber optic scopes are more versatile than the rigid-tube scope.
21-28
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
-,
, ., ,
Bending and focusing controls on the instrument housing allow you to guide the probe inside
the engine and focus to get the clearest image of the area. Adapters are normally included that
allow attachment of a still or video camera to the eyepiece, providing a permanent record of the
interior of the engine.
Video Imaging Scope
The probe is inserted into the engine through one
of the inspection ports, and the tip is guided to the
area to be inspected. The sensor in the tip of the
probe acts as a miniature camera and picks up an
image of the area illuminated by the probe. This
image is digitized, enhanced, and displayed on a
video monitor. It can also be recorded on video
tape.
Figure 21.9:
21-29
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
HP TURNING TOOL-METHOD 2
PAD
HP TURNING TOOL-METHOD 1
Figure 21.11:
BLANKING
PLUG, HP5S
21-30
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Compressor Damage
Foreign objects often enter engine air intakes either accidentally or through carelessness. Items
such as pens, pencils cigarette lighters etc. can be drawn out of pockets and ingested by the
engine. The compressor could be damaged beyond repair. Likewise, tools left in engine intakes
could be drawn in causing damage. Prior to starting an engine therefore, the AME should
ensure that all tools used in the vicinity of the intakes are free of any foreign objects and the
area in front of intakes should be cleared of any loose stones or rubbish. Examples of the
typical types of damage to be found on compressor blades is shown in Figure 21.16 and
possible causes of damage and the terminology used in Figure 21 .17.
CORROSION
(PITTING)
SCO~E
-, .
,,,
f
'n:V',
'9\
,,... SCAATCttES
BURN
"/I
I)
J,
----
---
CRACXS
b---
'-
r1
'.
I
'
DAMAGE
--::
_..,.. :\:
I #REPAIR
(BLEND)
---
21-31
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.....
ti
~ Tenn_
Its;:Bliend
--------
------
Smootti
__
A~,a~~--
rep91f of
--------
Bow
. Ben1 ~-
Bumi~
: Damage to sui'fKN
..._1..::orl'!_!eV~
1
,__
.vt~
by dlacol<>,ratlon
__
lt=s..._)
....
--------~I
.J!rlndlng Of ~~tlon.
Dent
Gan
I ' iglng
_ -----
_J
~1-1al!i.o'Hfheatlng.
Smell smooth rounded hollow. ----~S;;::.;tr::.:.lk:.:.:l:.:AL.o::.:.f..::eJ~__a
du.!!J)~
, A tnmafw o1 metal from on. 9~rtac,e to another.
s.v.,- n.Jbb4
Dlsplacement of matefW from su.rface; a
Growth
Pit
A pa,Ual fracture(...,.-.tion).
Cracu
Exceutve heat.
~urr --------...:A;;..:.:::11.11::.::..!'::...:::tu:.:.med=
ed.i_O.
~t
Corro.ion
.....,
_
.....;.fo.!_9l_sl~t
See CorT2!_lon.._ _
Qttltrl
fore..
---------------
I Prom_e__~--~~~-+-~Co;.:;;.;..;.nt.ou~
of.; .;. .; ; c~~~ede=-"-~'~~u~rtace==~-----~t~
.=..r
Score
I Scrateh
DNp scmchM.
j Nanow al\allowma~
-- -
Elongationof blade.
Pl"t ..
~-;,f chips~~-
21-32
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the slatement
on page 2 of this chapter
CIUbobp .C '-
---
,11d
...
__ ------
r0.060
A.REA
. r .. I'C
PERMISSIBLE OAMAGE
BLADEl
AREA '
No damage
I Ar-0a E I tfllet
areas.
penniSsible in
- 1
NOTES:
0.;25~_
0.15()
AREA 'E'
SECTIOl'l AT VIEW Pi.
21-33
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
order to isolate the starting and ignition circuits. A safety man may be required who's job it will
be to look after your interest. Don't get sucked in!!!
COMBUSTOR
GEARBOX MODULE
TURBINE
MODULE
21-34
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.cor .
;iu
. f'"'
ICE' c11d
21-35
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
o,
iri it 11 ,,
tio v r tt
cluLC..,p1--.<..om question practice u:d
I
I
INSPECTION
BL.IJYE SHlFT
..
.AREA
I ckl
N
-- r
A.
(3 maxlmum.)
O.Ob and~
M..>UMUM
SEA'VICEABLE
~-~-of
et'IY b41N root
I must be 4qual within O ~1 S"'
eittlar IJdl 9f dla
(3 maxtmum.}
-+
MAXlMOM
CORRECTION
R_EP...RA.!1'-:~------~~ION
Not repcMl'Jlb..
Return bladed dis.It
G.010" deep
-.,
I
UMfflbty to lll'I
overttlUt
tJCU -- .....
15~:~:~
t
Repl8Ct t,lade
-~--1N~l.~.....
=-=~~-~-+-~~.:.:...:..~b~~~~~-1
21-36
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
c :JbtbpO,COL, yl, ;v ,, u
,ce ard
(B)
{A)
14~-.
_! __
,-flL.LET
AI\EA
I
TR.Alt.Uta
eoce
18'
FILLET AAEAS
CRITICAL HO
DAM.AG! PE~r.tn'TEO
NQTE.
RtPPUf+J OF
1:0GEISNOT
f\EPAIR~O
R.AlUNG
ACCl:P'fAGLE
BlAOE
(C')
YnDTH (APP~X}
8 "0" DEPTH
ROOHO!D
EOOE
SECTlOHA.A
{A)-Pmwtr turbine btadll r:t,palr IJmJl's. (8)-Hep(J'ired .DltJtttt. (C}-T'ypt{;lll btenctng gutd'~s tor tt,1rblm:,
blade d'1fects otier men crecx.
21-37
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
21-38
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
clut 66po.c- r .
1..
.,
t,
<.. co .:1
= UOt.tENT WEIGHTS
,so
CHllNGE
MET HOO
120 C~IANGE
METHOO
Figure 21.23: Typical turbine blade moment weight coding and change methods
21-39
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
D s gr o tn af c .;.,t'
tr tile
clutc6bp.o.wm question practice arJ
PURPOSES ONLY
21-40
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
. ..
(A)
[I
(Bl
T1\KE
MEASUREMENT
ltERE
(C)
31$
3[-\
INCH
INCH
VAM.: NOl Wt:LOEO
TO OUTER SHftOUO
HOil CON\'CnGING
CRACia
CONVERGING CRACKS
ACC~PTAEILI: 1F CJSTAN~ "X"
IS flREATER THAti Ll=NGni "Y"
O VCF\GltiO
At.lUWAUl.l:c
CRACKS
THAt,/LENGTll "'Y"
\~
i=:::::::::!!;::::'.\~~
13URNING
\~
fA)-T:irbinenozzle vane bowing Chlifek, (8)-Vane repair by welding in 8 new segment. {C)-Vanes
oocoploblc if they do not exc<'~ tnes tlmlts (alme11:c,/oos typli;at (JI ::,mall~ugfn,,1~).
Figure 21.25:
21-41
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
CIUu~--f,,-.w
n question practice av
Exhaust SectionInspection
Inspection of the exhaust section of the engine can be done visually using an appropriate light
source. The exhaust cone and jet pipe are examined for signs of cracking, warping, buckling or
hot spots. Hot spots identified on the exhaust cone may be the result of a defective fuel nozzle
or combustion chamber resulting in the requirement for further investigation.
(
Figure 21.26: An exhaust system
21-42
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Module 15.21
'Ubbbp!C'.
I, '"
,v
, ,u ,t
ce d d
0
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category B 1
Gas Turbine Engine
_
.--
22-1
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Copyright Notice
Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Total Training Support Ltd.
LEVEL 1
A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
22-2
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
ic E
Table of Contents
Module 15.22 - Engine Storage and Preservation
Introduction
Installed Engines
Short-termStorage
Long-termStorage
Blanks
7
7
7
8
Uninstalled Engines
Protection
Records
Fuel System Inhibiting
Blanks
9
9
10
10
10
11
11
11
13
13
13
13
Removalfrom Storage
15
22-3
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
22-4
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
. C'r .
'i"
1cP
22-5
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Intentionally Blank
22-6
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
.
s
r. -jl _
~ .,.
,ce
"
Installed Engines
Installed turbine engines which are to be out of use for a period of up to seven days require no
protection apart from fitting covers or blanks to the intake, exhaust and any other apertures, to
prevent the ingress of dust, rain, snow, etc. A turbine engine should not normally be ground run
solely for the purpose of preservation, since the number of temperature cycles to which it is
subjected is a factor in limiting its life. For storage periods in excess of seven days additional
precautions may be necessary to prevent corrosion.
Short-term Storage
The following procedure will normally be satisfactory for a storage period of up to one month.
Fuel System - The fuel lines and components mounted on the engine must be protected from
the corrosion which may result from water held in suspension in the fuel. The methods used to
inhibit the fuel system depend on the condition of the engine and whether it is installed in an
aircraft or not and are fully described in the appropriate Maintenance Manual. On completion of
inhibiting, the fuel cocks must be turned off.
LubricationSystems - Some manufacturers recommend that all lubrication systems ( engine
oil, gearbox oil, starter oil, etc.) of an installed engine should be drained and any filters removed
and cleaned, while others recommend that the systems should be filled to the normal level with
clean system oil or storage oil. The method recommended for a particular engine should be
ascertained from the appropriate Maintenance Manual.
External Treatment - Exterior surfaces should be cleaned as necessary to detect corrosion,
then dried with compressed air. Any corrosion should be removed, affected areas re-treated
and any damaged paintwork made good in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Desiccant or vapour phase inhibitor should be inserted in the intake and exhaust and all
apertures should be fitted with approved covers or blanks.
Long-term Storage
For the protection of turbine engines which may be in storage for up to six months, the shortterm preservation should be applied and, in addition, the following actions taken:Grease all control rods and fittings.
Blank-off all vents and apertures on the engine, wrap greaseproof paper round all rubber parts
which may be affected by the preservative and spray a thin coat of external protective over the
whole engine forward of the exhaust unit.
--
At the end of each successive six months storage period an installed engine should be represerved for a further period of storage. Alternatively, the engine may be removed from the
aircraft and preserved in a moisture vapour proof envelope.
22-7
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
Blanks
Approved blanks, covers or seals should be used whenever possible. These are normally
supplied with a new or reconditioned engine and should be retained for future use. Pipe
connections are usually sealed by means of a screw-type plug or cap such as AGS 3802 to
3807 and plain holes are sealed with plugs such as AGS 2108; these items are usually coloured
for visual identification. Large openings such as air intakes are usually fitted with a specially
designed blanking plate secured by the normal attachment nuts and the contact areas should
be smeared with grease before fitting, to prevent the entry of moisture. Adhesive tape may be
used to secure waxed paper where no other protection is provided, but should never be used as
a means of blanking off by itself, since it may promote corrosion and clog small holes or
threads.
Figure 22.1: Covers and blanks fitted to a jet engine and a turboprop engine
22-8
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
lt.b&bpro. 0' ,
'-4U
u,
'
c 'lid
Uninstalled Engines
Protection
Engines which have been removed from aircraft for storage, or uninstalled engines which are
being returned for repair or overhaul, should be protected internally and sealed in moisture
vapour proof (MVP) envelopes. This is the most satisfactory method of preventing corrosion and
is essential when engines are to be transported overseas.
A turbine engine should be drained of all oil, fuel system inhibited, oil system treated as
recommended by the manufacturer and blanks fitted to all openings.
Particular care should be taken to ensure that no fluids are leaking from the engine and that all
sharp projections, such as locking wire ends, are suitably padded to prevent damage to the
envelope.
22-9
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
v'
Engines in storage should be inspected periodically to ensure that no deterioration has taken
place.
Engines which are not preserved in a sealed envelope should be inspected at approximately
two-weekly intervals. Any corrosion patches should be removed and the protective treatment reapplied, but if external corrosion is extensive a thorough inspection may be necessary.
Envelopes on sealed engines should be inspected at approximately monthly intervals to ensure
that humidity within the envelope is satisfactory. If the indicator has turned pink the envelope
should be unsealed, the desiccant renewed and the envelope resealed.
Records
Appropriate entries must be made in the engine log book giving particulars of inhibiting
procedures or periodic ground running. Such entries must be signed and dated by an
appropriately licensed engineer or Approved Inspector.
Blanks
Approved blanks or seals should be used whenever possible. These are normally supplied with
a new or reconditioned engine and should be retained for future use. Pipe connections are
usually sealed by means of a screw-type plug or cap such as AGS 3802 to 3807 and plain holes
are sealed with plugs such as AGS 2108; these items are usually coloured for visual
identification. Large openings such as air intakes are usually fitted with a specially designed
blanking plate secured by the normal attachment nuts and the contact areas should be smeared
with grease before fitting, to prevent the entry of moisture. Adhesive tape may be used to
secure waxed paper where no other protection is provided, but should never be used as a
means of blanking off by itself, since it may promote corrosion and clog small holes or threads.
22-10
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
o.
Equipment
The spraying equipment should be of a type approved by the engine manufacturer and should
be operated in accordance with the instructions issued by the manufacturer of the equipment.
For inhibiting cylinders a special nozzle is required and this should be checked immediately
before use to ensure that the spray holes are unblocked. Correct operation of the spray gun
may be checked by spraying a dummy cylinder and inspecting the resultant distribution of fluid.
Material
Only the types of storage and inhibiting oil recommended by the manufacturer should be used
for preserving an engine. American manufacturers generally recommend oils and compounds to
American specifications and British manufacturers generally recommend storage oil to DEF
2181, wax-thickened cylinder protective to DTD 791, turbine fuel system inhibiting oil to D. Eng.
R.D. 2490 and external air drying varnish approved under a DTD 900 specification. Only
approved alternatives should be used and any instructions supplied by the manufacturer in
respect of thinning or mixing of oils should be carefully followed.
22-11
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
:l 1r as, o
1 ,r t 11
question pracncc a1J
c1utJubt''"-w,n
Intentionally Blank
_..,,
22-16
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement
on page 2 of this chapter
TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 15
Licence Category 81
Gas Turbine Engine
Appendix
Module 15 Appendix
-
Intentionally Blank
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
Module 15 Appendix
ColourDiagrams
The following diagrams from the main chapters of these notes have been reproduced here in
full colour due to the essential nature of the colour-code information.
INTAKE
COMPRESSION
COMBUSTION
EXHAUST
~'------------1,..---------~'
1~1--------~,--------~---------.,-......
C~Pf
on
CombU$hOO Chtambors.
Exhau'l.l
Atr lnloi
Hoc Sj)(;1r,n
Cold S4!Cllon
PROPELLING
NOZZLE
AIR
INTAKE
COMPRESSION
Deg C Fr /r,rt'.'
3000
3000
2500 25()0
2000 2000.
1500
1000
soo
isoo
1000
500
0
l=
150
PS
1(' 1
-5
TOTAL PRESSURE
i,:1,
./
V[LO
ITV
fl I,.
"
...
r
I
a1ur~
'
' i\
'-
--
1TEMPEHA- UHE.
TYPICAL SINGLE-SPOOL
EXHAUST
EXPANSION
I
AXIAL
I/
50
,5
COMBUSTION
"'
ENGINE
Figure 2.2: Pressure, temperature and velocity distributions through a turbo-jet engine
H.P. SHAFT
DRIVE FROM TURBINE
~--.---
;, .,
.,
-"~.,
..
L.R SHAFT
DRIVE FROM TURBINE
.:
..
COMBUSTION SYSTEM
MOUNTING FLANGE
TWIN SPOOL COMPRESSOR
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
~I
Jill.'
00
E.
.
0
I
I
'
t?
.. 1
......
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
..... .*':.'
.,
,,
#I
: ::
:,
er
..
'
I
Figure 6.14: Blade cooling passages
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
~9\
BY-PASS DUCT
...._
BY-PASS AIR MIXING
WITH EXHAUST
TURBINE REAR
GAS STAEAM
SUPPORT STRUT~S
'
,;;,,...
MIXER CHUTES
.,
J~____..-
SPLITTER
FAIRING
JET PIPE
By-pass
MOUNTING
B1r
FLANGE.
Exhaust gases
Figure 7.3:
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
'I
---
COMMON OR INTEGRATED
EXHAUST NOZZLE
Figure 7.4: External and internal exhaust mixing of a high bypass engine
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
RE\"Ef'SE THRUST
3LECT L,veR
rNCUMA nc tli'M
\
,.
tow -
~Low
f'h
1 ~
lrlROTTLE
lEVER
-~--~
ENGINE
06
:_J}
k~~-
TOU()f DOWN
~l
<>Pe,ating at s,,eau
Vattt
Ges we.wn
I
FULL SAAXING
R.wrso ttwvs1 Hlo ~
t higt power Mtting
10
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
---
-----
--------
---
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
11
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
CENTRIFUGAL
BREATHER
STRAINER
Feed oil
O Return oil
O Breather oil/air mist
II
TOAQUEMETER PUMP
Torqusmeter oil
AIR-COOLED
OIL COOLER
Figure 10.1:
12
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
r:~
>.'
///
'
(_!
1, .
'
\
I
"
Vent air
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
13
'"'
COLLECTOR TRAY
THROTTLE lJNff
I""
HOLLOW O G V
REAR BEARING
E)
Tank
Feed ail
prea~ure
Otl/A1r l'01Sf
H.P. fuol
L.P.fuel
OlL/AIR MIST
EJECTOR NOZZLE
14
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
H.P. fuet
II Servo
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
15
CI.OSEO POSITION
THROTTLE 'VALVE
,,
CONTROL .i'Al..\.'E
,'
FINAL ACCE1~A110N
ANNULUS
fl.Jfl
II
Pu111l.)
'PAESSUflES
Llt:1l~t!IY
D
O T l'lrOl 11.e serve
l,QW ()r~slJJ'g
fh1u,1le
cc..n11QI
16
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
FUEL TO BURNERS
D L.P.
l.P. SHAFT
GOVERNOR
fuel
Main fuel
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
17
GOVERNOR
(hydro-mechanical)
ROTATING
SPILL
VALVE
FUEL PUMP
II
L.P. fuel
fuel)
II
Servo pressure
Governor pressure
18
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
AIR'OUT
LOW PRESSURE
PUMP
Air
Oil
TEMPERA TUAE
TRANSMITTER
AUTOMATfC
FUEL
TEMPERATURE
FLOWMETER
CONTROL
L.P. RETURN
FROM
OIL OUT
CONTROL
OIL IN
SYSTEM
\
~===~
O
ROTOR
Figure 11.17:
II
Servo pressure
fuel)
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
~
FUEL INLEl
19
H.JI SHAFT
GOVERNOR
SEFIVO
SPILL VAL.VE
l p
hya1o(neu!)&rucal)
PRESSU~I:: OflOP
CONTF!Of..
DtAPHAAGM
OLP
luul
OThrottlt1
I h1011lc
C"ont1o'
pt8il81J10
S1trvo pre:uurc
c.i.Jifot
S1Kvo i:iroseuri;
Go.iern,;ir
fMOSf:;1.ITr
O A1t ,ntake
DH!-s~ra
fYl!l!sr.ure
20
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
DISTRIBUilON PRESSURES
D L.r
lue'
Throttht inl11C
Thro,uc ou;kn
Ptm!w11 fuel
O M~lnhicJ
~07.>00TIONING
SENStNG VAi.VE
ALTITUDE'
\\
SEMi4F~G Uti!T
~
~
Propottiarwil
flow
,'\ C.U.
Sirvo eonuol
Govl'mor
sarvo
VAL\'E
PROPORT l~ING
VALVE UNIT
.,,,.,,.
POWfR
LIMITER
A.CCELEFIATION
CONTltOL UNIT
'1JE!LCONTROL UNIT
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
21
SWIRL CHAMBER
O Fuel pressure
II Compressor delivery
,,,
PRIMARY ORIFICE
Primary fuel
O Main fuel
22
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
SPRING..__
INN!:A SWIRL
VANCS
/'
SPRAY
SWIRL
NOZZLE
CHAMl:3ER
Compressor
delivery
FufJI
Fue1/ Air
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
23
ecu
FIB
IIu
fRO,..$ERVO
fUELHEATER
f:ROMEHOINE
FUEL PUMP
NC SHUTOFF
SOlEHQIIO
------
~ESSUA~
VALVE
,__ _
_..._...__
------------
~----~------------....J,
TOFUEl
t<IOZZLI:$
11
24
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
D L.P.
cooling air
II
~~~!'.
~
y~
<7:
SINGLE PASS,
SINGLE PASS,
QUINTUPLE PASS,
(1960'sl
INTERNAL COOLING
WITH FILM COOLING
INTERNAL COOLING
WITH EXTENSIVE
FILM COOLING
INTERNAL COOLING
MULTI-FEED
(1970's)
MULTI-FEED
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
25
ABRADABLE. llNING
\:
HOTATING ANNULUS OF OIL
FLUID ANO ABRADABLE LINED lABYfl"INTH SE.Al
'
~~~==:::::::::::::::::::E::JCAROO~
lf\Jfl:RStlArT tfYOFIAUUC
..
SEAL
CARl'ION Sf.O.L
--~ ----------
S0,1lmg,m
Qoi1
O Fl~hng ai;;.embles
CEAAMIC COATING
BRVSH SEAL
26
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
1bb6i.JrO.
-/
Figure 12.12: Anti-ice of the nose cowl, spinner and inlet guide vanes
PEAK
STARTING T.G.T.
0.:
a:
x
<t'.
~
#.
SELF-SUSTAINING
SPEE......,D-+--~40
IDLE T.G.T.
STARTER
CIRCUIT
CANCELLED
20 l------l...."r-i---!--l--+-=;.;...;.;...;.=.:::=;:::::..--1
70
It!)
I-
<t'.
50
'#.
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
27
TERMINAL POST
STARTER JAW
COMMUTATOR.
END PLATE
CLUTCH
YOKE AND FIELD
COILS ASSEMBLY
Mlle
ARMATURE ASSEMBLY
28
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
26 VOLT D .C SUP"L Y
S1.0,RT
$TAR'l'tFIEL10HT
:
SE.LFCTO~ SWITCH
r_.....-
Ir------
...,._
_____ ,..
......
411!!1L.
____ ..,
,_
I
I
Sun
11n11H+
lnl,~on
r----
l'
.OVERSPEEO
RELAY
I I
CLJT-OFf-
IGNIT'CJN
rn-1 I: SWITCH
SWITCH
ISOLA'tlNG
REL.AY
IGNITION
Ri;\.AY
MAIN RELAY
H1GH ENERGY
IGNITION VNITS
Surt c.iroui1
~31lQM clreuit
Blowout ~lr,;1.1ir
STAATER MO'TOR
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
29
AUXILIARY
POWER UNIT (A.P.U.I
,
, ~GROUND
START SUPPLY
c:_~
EXHAUST
AIR
ENGINE AIR STARTER
ENGINE
DRIVE SHAFT
REDUCTION GEAR
TURBINE ROTOR
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
TREMBLER MECHANISM
H.T. CONNECTION
TO IGNITER PLUG
SAFETY
RESISTORS
DISCHARGE
GAP
DISCHARGE
:RESISTORS
RESERVOIR
CAPACITOR
,..._._RECTIFIER
....
PRIMARY
CAPACITOR
~.-~
L.T. CONNECTION
D.C. SUPPLY
L.T. CONNECTION
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
31
CAPACITOR
_..-,e..
H.T. CONNECTION
TO IGNITER PLUG
DISCHARGE
~-~N-~-~~-+
----
CHOKE
__ -------
GAP
TRANSISTOR
CAPACITOR
,..,....._ - - - -,
GENER~r---
--
.........
RECTIFIER
'
....,
<,
H.T. CONNECTION
TO IGNITER
PLUG
DIODE
~.--&
L.T, CONNECTION
rem CLMUTV
01'11.V
L.T. CONNECTION
D.C. SUPPLY
CAPACITOR
SAFETY RESISTORS
DISCHARGE
GAP
DISCIIARGC
RESISTORS
RESERVOIR
CAPACITOR
SPARK RATE
RE.SIS TOR
SUPPRESSOR
HT. CONNl:CTION
IO IC3NITl:R PLUG
DISCHARGE
RESISTORS
\OTE COIO\JR~
usro
32
SPARK RATE
RESISTOR
L.T. CONNECTION
L.T. CONNECTION
Figure 13.22:
SUPPRESSOR
AC
SUPPLY
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
33
HELICAL GEAR
\
...
II
II
Axial thrust
Engine
on pressure
PROPELLER SHAFT
TORQUEMETER PISTON
J_
COOLING FLOW
NOZZLE OPERATING
SLEEVE
REBURNT
GASES
AFTERBURNER
JET PIPE
VARIABLE
PROPELLING NOZZLE
34
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
MO VA~I F fVE.ll DS
. . -1
rv ..'0-P'OSITION
NOZZLE
INTERLOCKINC
FLAPS
Figure 15.5: Variable Area Nozzle, and Typical Reheat Jet Pipe with Catylitic lgnitor
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
35
CATALYTIC IGNlTER
HOUSING
FLAME STABILIZER
FUEL SUPPLY
NOZZLE
ACTUATING SLEEVE
36
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
NON-RETURN AND
EXHAUST
RESTRICTOR
O L.P.
water
H.P. water
O Cooing water
H.P. air
Oil
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
37
COfflt..lstfon
chlm~,
comprffsot
wrtfnt
~fug,l
eoma,msor
Ac:
nary
c..,
nt seciJon ol r,m
-~~~~~ti!!ic:=:~r\,~~~l
I.. l
l11.tt1chr'd lrom IM
bull gtar dtc,lct~d
in green
Al"g
a..
38
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
COMBUSTOR
AIR INLET
OUTPUT
SHAFT
LJ
D
P3AIR
AIRFLOW
(2 PLACES)
(4PLACE!S)
GP
TURBINES
COMBUSTION
Turbines
Nau.le
Module 15 Appendix
TTS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
39
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM R.P.M.
TEMPERATURE
DROPS TO
so-c
'
FORWARD THRUST
[-_,____._~
55ft.
t.,
(B6Fl
R.P.M.
VELOCITY
DROPS
TO 20 M.P.H.
'
REVERSE THRUST
no start or during
id Ii ng.
Figure 21.3: Fokker 100 Aircraft showing the engine running danger areas at idle and full power
and during reverse thrust
Copyright 2011
41
Figure 22.1 : Covers and blanks fitted to a jet engine and a turboprop engine
42
Module 15 Appendix
TIS Integrated Training System
Copyright 2011