The Harmonic Oscillator

Kleppner & Kolenkow (CH 10)

A P French (CH - 3 & 4)

Topics to be covered
Periodic motions
Simple harmonic oscillator
Damped harmonic oscillator
Forced harmonic oscillator
The power absorbed by a driven oscillator
Oscillations involving massive springs

In every day life we come across various

things that move
The motion of physical systems can be
classified into 2 broad categories
1 Translational motion
2 Vibrational motion

Periodic motion

Vibratory / Oscillatory motion

SHM

Periodic motion
A movement that repeats with periodicity
Ex:

The pattern that repeats may be simple or

complicated

Vibratory / oscillatory motion

A body in periodic motion moves back and
forth over the same path
What is the difference between oscillatory
and vibratory motion?
In oscillation time taken to complete one cycle
is constant, in vibration it may not be
Oscillations occur in physical or biological
systems
Vibrations occur in mechanical systems

EX. the oscillations of a pendulum

the vibrations of a string of a guitar
Every oscillatory motion is periodic
but every periodic motion need not be
oscillatory
Uniform circular motion
is a periodic motion, but
it is not oscillatory

Simple Harmonic Motion / Sinusoidal Motion

Simple periodic motion
In many systems a small displacement (x)
from the equilibrium position sets up SHM
Restoring force = -kx
Where k is a constant
(stiffness or spring
constant)
SHM No friction force

Vertical spring mass system

In equilibrium net
force acting on the
mass, F = -k dl = Mg
Now M is displaced
from equilibrium
position by a
distance x

l
Fnet
dl
x

Total net force acting on M is

F net = -k (dl + x) Mg = -kx

Mg
Mg

The equation for the motion of SHM is:

F kx
mx kx
k
x
x 0 (1)
m

How to solve?

The solution for this equation is of the form:

x Ccoso t

Another possible solution is : x Bsinot

Therefore the most general solution will be
x Bsino t Ccoso t (2)

Equ. (2) can be written in convenient form as

x Acos(0 t ) (3)

Rotating vector representation

SHM can be represented as geometric
projection of uniform circular motion

x Acos
If we take counter clock wise direction as +ve
then = 0t +
x Acos(0 t ) (3)

The value of is determined from the value

of x at t=0

(2) x Bsinot Ccosot

or
(3) x Acos(0 t )

where

B Asin
C Acos

(3) x Acos(0 t )
2

x A0 cos(0 t )
2

x 0 x 0 (4)

Comparing eq. (1) & (4)

k
(5)
m

k
(1) x
x 0
m

Examples of SHM Eq. Of motion is

mx kx
Simple pendulum

mS mgsin

S gsin 0 (6)

For small angular displacements

sin and

s
m
mgsin

mg

mgcos S

(6) S S 0
l

g
l

S
l

Oscillations of floating bodies

Fb

When a body is in equilibrium,

the weight is balanced by the
buoyant force
Displace the body from its
equilibrium position by an
amount x
the extra buoyancy force is
given by:

0
mx gAx

x
mgm

Ag
m

Harmonic oscillations of an LC circuit

voltage across capacitor
q
v
C

K
source

voltage across inductor

di
d q
v L
L 2
dt
dt

Lq
1
C
q
q 0
LC

1
LC

Nomenclature
(3) x Acos(0 t )

x = instantaneous displacement of the

particle at time t
A = amplitude (maximum displacement)
o = angular frequency = 2/T
= phase factor or phase angle

How to calculate A and ?

A and are fixed by initial conditions
Let at t = 0, the position of the mass is x(0)
and its velocity is v(0)
x(0) A cos

v(0)

tan

x
(
0
)
0

v(0) A0 sin

v (0 )
A x(0)

0
2

Energy of an oscillator
The total energy (potential +kinetic) is a
constant for an undamped oscillator
1 2
1
E U K kx mv 2
2
2

The individual values of P.E and K.E will

vary with time
1
1
2
2
2
E kA cos 0 t m0 A 2sin 2 0 t
2
2
1 2
E kA
2

Recap
Teeter toy calculated the stability
condition and frequency of oscillations
Periodic motion
Vibratory / Oscillatory motion
Equ. of motion for different SHOs
How to guess a solution for second order
differential equ. having constant
coefficients

Today's topics
Time average values of KE & PE
Complex numbers
Damped harmonic oscillator
Equ. of motion
Lightly damped
Heavily damped
Critically damped
Energy
Quality factor

Time average values

What is time average?

f(t)
t1

What is area under the

curve between t 1 and t2 ?

What is the height of

the water level if all
the waves settle?

t2

f t dt
t1

t2

f t 2 t1

t1

f t dt

t2

or

t 2 t1

t2

f t dt

t1

Examples
1.0
1.0

0.8
0.6

Sin ()

Sin ()

0.5

0.0

-0.5

0.4
0.2
0.0

-1.0
0

(radian)

1
sin t
2

sin t 0
Mathematically

(radian)

sin t
2
2

1
0 sin (t )dt 2
2

What is the time average values of P.E. or

K.E. over one period?
x Acos(0 t )

1 2 1
PE kx kA 2cos 2 0 t
2
2
1
1
2
2
KE mv m0 A 2sin 2 0 t
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
K .E. kA cos t kA
2
4
1 2
1 2
2
P.E. kA sin t kA
2
4

K .E. P.E.

Time average value

When friction is present, this is no longer

true

Calculating 0 or T from E
Spring mass system
m

1 2
1
E U K kx mx 2
2
2

Since E is constant

k
m

dE
0
dt

k
x
x 0
m

T 2

m
k

Simple pendulum

l-y

For small

s m
y
m
l

1
2
E mv mgy
2

y s

s l y
2

s 2ly y

ds

dt
2

s
y
2l

 ds
v

dt
s2
y
2l

1
1 mg 2
2
E ms
s
2
2 l

Since E is constant

dE
0
dt

dE
0
dt

g
s s 0
l

T 2

g
l
l
g

Simple pendulum
E interms of

l cos

For small
l

s m
y
m
dE
0
dt

1
2
E mv mgy
2
ds
d
v
l
dt
dt

2
y l 1 cos l
2
2

1 2 d
1
2
E ml mgl
2
2
dt
g

0
l

g
l

Complex numbers
What is the use of complex numbers in
harmonic oscillator?
Sol. of a SHM

x Acos(0 t )

x A0 sin (0 t )
2

x A0 cos(0 t )

To simplify the calculations we use complex

numbers

Complex numbers are represented by

z = x + iy
x is the real part and y is the imaginary part
Graphical representation of complex numbers
Imaginary axis
z = x + iy = A (cos + i sin )
Real axis

y
A

A cos

A sin
x

z = x + iy = A (cos + i sin )

z = A ei
Geometrically
what is the
meaning?
xy - complex plane

y
A

vector of length A makes an angle with

the real axis

z A1 A2 e

i ( 2 1 )

Add vector of length A2

at angle (2- 1) to A1

i ( t 1 )

Turn it by an angle

(t+ 1)

2 1
2 1

A2

t 1

A2
A1
O

A1
X

x Acos(0 t )

How to represent in complex form ?

Consider the imaginary component
y A sin(0 t )

Z A cos (0 t ) i A sin(0 t )
Z A e i (0t ) Calculation

Real part represents

the equ. of SHM

becomes
simpler

Z A e i (0t )

Z A i0 e i (0t )

Real part x A0 sin (0t )

Z A 02 e i (0t )
2

Real part x A0 cos(0 t )

Damped Harmonic Oscillator

SHM No friction force
What is the effect of friction on the harmonic
oscillator?
Assume a special form of friction force
viscous force velocity f = - bv
b = coefficient of damping force
Condition: Viscous force arises when an
object moves through a fluid at speeds
which are not so large to cause turbulence

Shock absorber

Total force acting on m is F = Fspring + f

F kx bv

Equ. of motion is
m x
x

b
m

b x

kx
k
m

x x

2
0

x x x 0
2
0

How to solve ?
To convert into complex form use the
companion equation

y y y 0
2
0

2
0

In complex form z z z 0

2
0

z z z 0
The solution will be of the form,

z z0 e

Substituting the solution back into the

original equation gives us:
t

2
0

z0 e ( ) 0

2
0

z0 e ( ) 0

2
0
4

The most general solution will be:

z z Ae

1t

zBe

2t

Here zA and zB are constants and 1 and 2

are the two roots

1t

z z Ae z B e

2t

1, 2
Case (i)
2

2
o
4

0
2
4

Case (ii)
2

2
o
4

Case (iii)
2

2
o
4

Case (i)

2
o
4

2
o
4

Light Damping
or
Under Damping

is imaginary

2
i o
i1
2
4
2

The solution to the differential equation is:

z e

t/2

z e

i1t

z2e

i1t

Real part of x is

x e

t/2

Bcos1t

Csin1t

or

t
2

x Ae cos1t A(t)cos1t

The solution is oscillatory, but with a reduced

frequency and time varying (exponentially
decaying) amplitude

x Ae

t
2

cos1t A(t) cos1t

4
2
o

1
2

2
o
4

1 0

Recap
Time average
values of KE & PE
Time average value
Complex numbers
Damped harmonic
oscillator
m x kx b x
Equ. of motion
Lightly damped
2

2
o

x Ae cos 1t A(t)cos 1t

2

4
2
o

Today's topics
Heavily damped
Critically damped
Energy
Time constant
Quality factor

Damped harmonic oscillator equation of

motion
m x kx b x
Restoring
force

Viscous
force

x x x 0
2
0

2
0

z z z 0
The solution will be of the form,

z z0 e

2
0

z0 e ( ) 0
2

1, 2

0
2
4

The most general solution will be:

1t
2t
z z Ae z B e
Case (i)
2

2
o
4

Case (ii)
2

2
o
4

Case (iii)
2

2
o
4

Case (ii)

2
o
4

Heavy Damping
or
Over Damping

2
o
4

is real

2
2

Both roots are negative

2
o

4
1 2

Solution is

z z1e

1 t

z2e

2 t

Real part of the solution is

x Ae

1 t

Be

2 t

This represents non-oscillatory behavior

The actual displacement will depend upon
the initial conditions

2
o
4

1 0

Case (iii) o2
4

Critical Damping

Sol. is x Ce /2 t

The solution is incomplete

Why?

The sol. to a 2nd order differential equ.

should have two independent constants
which are to be fixed by the initial conditions

solution will be of the form x A Bt e ( / 2)t

Light

Heavy

Critical

Air

Thick
oil

Water

x Ae

t
2

cos1t

x Ae

1 t

Be

2 t

x A Bt e ( / 2)t

Energy of a Damped Harmonic Oscillator

From work energy theorem
E t E 0 W friction

Wfriction = work done by the friction force

from time 0 to t
f = -bv
opposes the motion

x(t)

Wf

fdx

x(0)

bv dt
0

Friction force dissipates energy

E(t) decreases with time
1 2 1 2
E (t) U (t) K (t) kx mx
2
2

For the lightly damped oscillator

x Aexp( t/2)cos(1t )
v 1 Ae

t
2

cos(1t )
sin(1t )
21

can be neglected
2

2
o
4

1 0
2

2
1

21

1
A m
2
K(t) mv
exp( t)sin 2 (1t )
2
2

U t

1
1
2
2 t
2

kx
kA e cos ( 1 t )
2
2

E t
1 2 t
2
A e m1 sin 2 (1t ) kcos 2 (1t )
2

For light damping 1 0

1 2 t
E t kA e
2

1 2
E0 kA
2

At t=0

E t E0 e
5
4
3

In general

2
1
0
0

time(s)

Time constant
The decay is characterized by a time ,
damping time, during which the energy
falls to e-1 of its initial value

E t E0 e

E0
E t
0.368E0
e

When

Quality factor
The damping can be specified by a
dimensionless parameter Q

E(t)

energy stored in the oscillator

Q
energy dissipated per radian

Rate of change of energy

dE
E0et E
dt

Energy dissipated in a time T is

dE
T ET
dt

T = 2 / 1 oscillates through 2 radians

Energy dissipated in 2
radians
E
Energy dissipated per radian is
1
dE
T ET
dt

E
1
0
Q

1
Q 1 0

Light damping Q>>1

Heavy damping Q is low
Undamped oscillator Q is infinite

Light

Recap

Air
x Ae

t
2

cos1t

Heavy

Critical

Thick
oil

Water

x Ae

1 t

Be

2 t

x A Bt e ( / 2)t

Recap
5

Energy Et E e

3
2

Time constant

1
0

energy falls to

e-1

of its

E t

time(s)

E0
0.368E0
e

initial value
Quality factor
Tells about the strength of the damping
energy stored in the oscillator
Q
energy dissipated per radian

E
1
0
Q

Todays topics
Problems on DHO
Forced Harmonic oscillator
Undamped FHO
Equ. Of motion
Solution
Resonance
+ve and ve aspects

Example 10.2
A musicians tuning fork rings at A above
middle C, 440 Hz. A sound level meter
indicates that the sound intensity decreases
by a factor of 5 in 4 s. What is the Q of the
tuning fork?
Solution
A440 or C523.3 Standard Pitch / Concert
Pitch - is a universal frequency or note that
all instruments are set to
This concert pitch enables musicians to play
instruments together in harmony

A tuning fork is normally used to set the pitch

1
Q

Middle C
Given - sound
intensity
decreases by
a factor of 5 in
4s

Note

f (Hz)

A3

220.00

(m)
157.

A#3/Bb3

233.08

148.

B3

246.94

140.

C4

261.63

132.

C#4/Db4

277.18

124.

D4

293.66

117.

D#4/Eb4

311.13

111.

E4

329.63

105.

F4

349.23

98.8

F#4/Gb4

369.99

93.2

G4

392.00

88.0

G#4/Ab4

415.30

83.1

A4

440.00

sound intensity is proportional to the energy

of oscillation

E t E0 e
(0)

E(0)e
4
5
e
4
E(0)e

ln5
1

0.4sec
4

1
2 ( 440 )
Q

700

0.4

Energy loss due to heating of metals

In an experiment, a paperweight suspended

from a hefty rubber band had a period of
1.2 s and the amplitude of oscillation
decreased by a factor of 2 after three
periods. What is the estimated Q of the
system?
Solution
A(t) Ae

t
2

Ae

(0)

1.8 ln2

3 .6

Ae

0.39s

1
2
Q

13

0.39 * 1.2

is same but lower Q for the rubber band

This is because of the higher frequency of
the tuning fork
It goes through many cycles in a given time
and loses less of its energy per cycle

Typical Q values of some of the damped harmonic

oscillators
Oscillator
Paper weight suspended on
a rubber band
Clock pendulum
LCR circuit
Plucked violin string
Microwave cavity oscillator
Quartz crystal

Typical Q value
10
75
200
1000
104
106

Forced Harmonic Oscillator

Undamped Forced Oscillator
Equ. of motion of a SHO
mx kx

Driving force

mx kx F0 cost

mx kx F0 cost
How to solve?
RHS of equ. has cos t
LHS of equ. must also have cos t
Try the solution

x A cost

Equ. of motion mx kx F0 cost

x A cost

solution

k A cos t Fo cos t

Fo
A
2
k m

Fo
1
A
m o2 2

F
1
0
The solution is x
cos

t
2
m 0 2
Incomplete solution

???

No arbitrary constants
Must able to specify x0 and v0

 Complete solution is

F0
1
x
cos
t

Bcos(
t

)
0
2
m 0 2

Steady state
solution

General solution of
undamped oscillator
2

x 0 x 0

Resonance

Fo
1
A
m o2 2

A 0
= 0 A is finite

0 A
Resonance

Fo
1
A
m o2 2

0.010

A 0; 0

0.000

0.005

-0.005

A 0; 0

-ve A ?

-0.010

A ; 0

The displacement is
opposite to the
direction of the force

20

40

60

80

100

 < 0

= 0

> 0

The phenomenon of resonance has both +ve

and ve aspects
+ve aspects
Small driving force gives large amplitude
Tuning radios to the desired frequency
Pickup coil

RF coil

MRI scanner

Super conducting magnet

Magnetic resonance
imaging

-ve aspects

To reduce response at resonance dissipative

friction force is needed - Forced Damped
Harmonic Oscillator