Cristina Joy M.

Sanchez
BSIT-III
Discrete Math

September 15 ,2016

Types of Sequential Numbers

1.

Fibonacci

Leonardo Fibonacci discovered the sequence which converges on phi.

In the 12th century, Leonardo Fibonacci wrote in Liber Abaci of a simple numerical sequence
that is the foundation for an incredible mathematical relationship behind phi. This sequence was
known as early as the 6th century AD by Indian mathematicians, but it was Fibonacci who
introduced it to the west after his travels throughout the Mediterranean world and
North Africa.
Starting with 0 and 1, each new number in the sequence is simply the sum of the
two before it.
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, . . .
The ratio of each successive pair of numbers in the sequence approximates phi (1.618. . .) ,
as 5 divided by 3 is 1.666, and 8 divided by 5 is 1.60.
The table below shows how the ratios of the successive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence
quickly converge on Phi. After the 40th number in the sequence, the ratio is accurate to 15
decimal places.
1.618033988749895 . . .
Example:

The Fibonacci numbers are generated by setting F0=0, F1=1, and then using the recursive formula
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2
to get the rest. Thus the sequence begins: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ... This sequence
of Fibonacci numbers arises all over mathematics and also in nature.
However, if I wanted the 100th term of this sequence, it would take lots of intermediate
calculations with the recursive formula to get a result. Is there an easier way?
Yes, there is an exact formula for the n-th term! It is:
an = [ Phin - (phi)n ]/Sqrt[5].

where Phi=(1+Sqrt[5])/2 is the so-called golden mean, and phi=(1-Sqrt[5])/2 is an associated

golden number, also equal to (-1/Phi). This formula is attributed to Binet in 1843, though known
by Euler before him.

2.

Lucas Sequence

The French mathematician, Edouard Lucas (1842-1891), who gave the series of numbers 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
8, 13, .. the name the Fibonacci Numbers, found a similar series occurs often when he was investigating
Fibonacci number patterns:
3.

2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, ...

The Fibonacci rule of adding the latest two to get the next is kept, but here we start from 2 and 1 (in this
order) instead of 0 and 1 for the (ordinary) Fibonacci numbers.
The series, called the Lucas Numbers after him, is defined as follows: where we write its members as L ,
for Lucas:
n

L = L + L for n>1
L =2
L =1
n

n-1

n-2

and here are some more values of L together with the Fibonacci numbers for comparison:
n

n:

10

...

F:

13

21

34

55

...

L:

11

18

29

47

76

123

...

The Lucas numbers have lots of properties similar to those of Fibonacci numbers and, uniquely among
the series you examined in the You do the maths... section above, the Lucas numbers often occur in
various formulae for the Fibonacci Numbers. Also, if you look at many formulae for the Lucas
numbers, you will find the Fibonacci series is there too. The next section introduces you to some of these
equations. So of all the 'general Fibonacci' series, these two seem to be the most important.
For instance, here is the graph of the ratios of successive Lucas numbers:

3
= 05

4
=3

7
= 1333..

11
= 175

18
= 15714..

29
= 16363..

11

47
= 16111..

18

= 16206..

29

In fact, for every series formed by adding the latest two values to get the next, and no matter what two
positive values we start with we will always end up having terms whose ratio is Phi=16180339..
eventually!

2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123, 199, 322, 521, 843 ..More..

3. Square Number
In mathematics, a square number or perfect square is an integer that is the square of an integer;
[1]
in other words, it is the product of some integer with itself. For example, 9 is a square number,
since it can be written as 33.
The usual notation for the square of a number n is not the product nn, but the
equivalent exponentiation n2, usually pronounced as "n squared". The namesquare number comes
from the name of the shape; see below.
Square numbers are non-negative. Another way of saying that a (non-negative) integer is a square
number, is that its square root is again an integer. For example,9 = 3, so 9 is a square number.
A positive integer that has no perfect square divisors except 1 is called square-free.
For a non-negative integer n, the nth square number is n2, with 02 = 0 being the zeroth one. The
concept of square can be extended to some other number systems. If rational numbers are included,
then a square is the ratio of two square integers, and, conversely, the ratio of two square integers is
a square, e.g., .
Starting with 1, there are m square numbers up to and including m, where the
expression x represents the floor of the number x.

Examples:
These are the first 100 square numbers.

You can illustrate square numbers by the following drawings.

The number we get after multiplying an integer (not a fraction) by itself.

Example: 4 4 = 16, so 16 is a square number.
Here are the first few square numbers:
0 (=00)
1 (=11)
4 (=22)
9 (=33)
16 (=44)
25 (=55)
...

4. Pentagonal Number
A pentagonal number is the figurate number that extends the concept of triangular and square
numbers to the pentagon, but, unlike the first two, the patterns involved in the construction of
pentagonal numbers are not rotationally symmetrical. The nth pentagonal number pn is the
number of distinct dots in a pattern of dots consisting of the outlines of regular pentagons whose
sides contain 1 to n dots, overlaid so that they share one vertex.

The pentagonal numbers are number of a pentagon .It can be denoted as 1, 5, 12,22 .

Formula and diagramatic form of pentagonal number

Pentagonal number diagram:

It can be denoted as 1, 5, 12,22 ,34 in below

The formula to find the nth pentagonal number is

n( 3n 1)
_______________
2
Now we see about worked examples in pentagonal number.

Problems in pentagonal number

Example 1: Find the 4th pentagonal number

4 x (3.4 1)
By using the above formula we get:

____________
2

= 2 x 11 = 22
The 4th pentagonal number is 22
Example 2: Find the 18th pentagonal number
18 x (3.18 1)
By using the above formula we get:

____________
2

= 9 x 51 = 459
The 18th pentagonal number is 459
Example 3: Find the 20th pentagonal number
20 x (3.20 1)
By using the above formula we get: ____________
2
= 10 x 57 = 570
The 20th pentagonal number is 570
Example 4: Find the 16th pentagonal number
16 x (3.16 1)
By using the above formula we get:

____________
2

= 8 x 45 = 360
The 16th pentagonal number is 360

Example 5: Find the 14th pentagonal number

14 x (3.14 1)

By using the above formula we get: ____________

2
= 7 x 13 = 39

5. Oblongs Number
The oblong numbers were generalized by Nicomachus of Gerasa (now Jerash in Jordan) in his
number theoretic treatise Introduction to Arithmetic. He defined the rectangular numbers rn, k
as being numbers of the form n(n + k), where k > 1 and n > 1. Note that rn, 1 = n(n + 1) for all n
> 2, so rectangular numbers do indeed generalize oblong numbers. Nicomachus was one of the
most important mathematicians of the ancient world; he was strongly influenced by Aristotle and
is best known for his works Introduction to Arithmetic and The Manual of Harmonics in Greek.
In Introduction to Arithmetic, Nicomachus writes extensively on numbers, especially on the
significance of prime numbers and perfect numbers and argues that arithmetic is ontologically
prior to the other mathematical sciences (geometry, music, and astronomy), and is their cause.
The oblong numbers go as follows:
2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 56, 72, 90, 110, 132...
Here is a little property of oblong numbers. Divide each number in that sequence by two. You
get:
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66...
You end up with the triangular numbers. Why is this? Remember the formula used to find any
triangular number?
Tn = n(n + 1)/2
We said that a number is oblong if its array had one more row than it had columns. So, an oblong
number must be factorable into two numbers that are just one apart. We can denote these two
factors as n and n+1. This makes the oblong number equal to:
On = n(n + 1)
After dividing by two, we ended up with the triangular numbers.
I enjoy trying to find ways to combine these different families together. For instance, take the
first triangular number, first square number, and first oblong number. This would be 1, 1, and 2
respectively. We will add the first two together, and then subtract the last one.
1+1-2=0
Let's try that with some more:

T 1 + S1 - O1 =
T 2 + S2 - O2 =
T 3 + S3 - O3 =
T 4 + S4 - O4 =
T 5 + S5 - O5 =
T 6 + S6 - O6 =

1+1-2
3+4-6
6 + 9 - 12
10 + 16 - 20
15 + 25 - 30
21 + 36 - 42

=0
=1
=3
=6
= 10
= 15

Do you see the pattern? Each of the answers is a triangular number. In fact, it is one less than the
triangular number used in the example.
Why is this? When I saw it, I first thought that we could check by using algebra. Take the
explicit formula for each sequence:
Tn = n(n + 1)/2
2
Sn = n
On = n(n + 1)
Our goal is to end with Tn-1, so we will use n(n - 1)/2 to denote that.
[n(n + 1)/2] + [n2] - [n(n + 1)] = [n(n - 1)/2]
Let's simplify all of the brackets so we don't have parentheses to work with.
[n(n + 1)/2] + [n2] - [n(n + 1)] = [n(n - 1)/2]
[1/2n2 + 1/2n] + [n2] - [n2 + n] = [1/2n2 - 1/2n]
Now, we will combine like terms.
[1/2n2 + n2 - n2] + [1/2n - n] = 1/2n2 - 1/2n
1/2n2 - 1/2n = 1/2n2 - 1/2n
And there is our proof. Though oblong numbers are not the family of a regular polygon, it is still
an interesting sequence to look at.

6. Gnomons Number
A Gnomon is a rectangle with another rectangle cut out of one corner. The area of
each Gnomon is a Fibonacci number. (The Fibonacci numbers are

1,1,2,3,5,8 and so

on, with each new term being the sum of the previous two terms.)

G1 has area 3, G2 has area 5, G3 has area 8 and so on.

Draw the next three gnomons in the sequence.
Look at the length and width of the large rectangle from which each gnomon is
made.

Is there a pattern to the lengths and widths?

Can you generalise?
Now look at the length and width of the rectangle cut out of each gnomon. Can you
see any patterns here? Can you generalise and justify what you see?
I want to group the gnomons with area 3, 8 and 21 together, and the gnomons with
area 5, 13 and 34 together. Can you explain why I want to divide these into two
separate groups?
Can you give a convincing argument why all the gnomons fit into one of these two
groups?
The interactivity below may help you to think about this problem.

7. Cubic Numbers
In arithmetic and algebra, the cube of a number n is its third power: the result of the
number multiplied by itself twice:
n3 = n n n.
It is also the number multiplied by its square:
n3 = n n2.

This is also the volume formula for a geometric cube with sides of length n,
giving rise to the name. The inverseoperation of finding a number whose cube
is n is called extracting the cube root of n. It determines the side of the cube of a
given volume. It is also n raised to the one-third power.
Both cube and cube root are odd functions:
(n)3 = (n3).
The cube of a number or any other mathematical expression is denoted by
a superscript 3, for example 23 = 8 or(x + 1)3.
Sum of first n cubes[edit]
The sum of the first n cubes is the nth triangle number squared:
Visual proof that13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53 =(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5)2.
For example, the sum of the first 5 cubes is the square of the 5th triangular number,
A similar result can be given for the sum of the first y odd cubes,
but x, y must satisfy the negative Pell equation x2 2y2 = 1. For example,
for y = 5 and 29, then,
and so on. Also, every even perfect number, except the lowest, is the
sum of the first 2p1/ 2
odd cubes,

8. Tetrahedral Number
A tetrahedral number is a figurate number: a number that can be represented by a
regular geometric arrangement of equally spaced points. Tetrahedral numbers
correspond to placing discrete points in the configuration of a tetrahedron (triangular
base pyramid).
Tetrahedral numbers are the sum of consecutive triangular numbers. The formula is
1/6n(n+1)(n+2). The first few tetrahedral numbers are 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56, 84, 120, ...

The tetrahedral numbers are found in the fourth diagonal of Pascal's triangle:

Row
0

1 1

Row
1

1 2 1

Row
2

1 3 3 1

Row
3

1 4 6 4 1

Row
4

1 5 10 10 5 1

Row
5

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

Row
6

1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Row
7

1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1

Row
8