Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
eresting
than their colleagues' successes, but Albert Einstein was one. Few "blunders" ha
ve had a
longer and more eventful life than the cosmological constant, sometimes describe
d as the
most famous fudge factor in the history of science, that Einstein added to his t
heory of
general relativity in 1917. Its role was to provide a repulsive force in order t
o keep the
universe from theoretically collapsing under its own weight. Einstein abandoned
the
cosmological constant when the universe turned out to be expanding, but in succe
eding
years, the cosmological constant, like Rasputin, has stubbornly refused to die,
dragging
itself to the fore, whispering of deep enigmas and mysterious new forces in natu
re,
whenever cosmologists have run into trouble reconciling their observations of th
e
universe with their theories.
This year the cosmological constant has been propelled back into the news as an
explanation for the widely reported discovery, based on observations of distant
exploding
stars, that some kind of "funny energy" is apparently accelerating the expansion
of the
universe. "If the cosmological constant was good enough for Einstein," the cosmo
logist
Michael Turner of the University of Chicago remarked at a meeting in April, "it
should
be good enough for us."
Einstein has been dead for 43 years. How did he and his 80-year-old fudge factor
come to
be at the center of a revolution in modern cosmology?
The story begins in Vienna with a mystical concept that Einstein called Mach's p
rinciple.
Vienna was the intellectual redoubt of Ernst Mach (1838-1916), a physicist and
philosopher who bestrode European science like a Colossus. The scale by which
supersonic speeds are measured is named for him. His biggest legacy was philosop
hical;
he maintained that all knowledge came from the senses, and campaigned relentless
ly
against the introduction of what he considered metaphysical concepts in science,
atoms
for example.
1Another was the notion of absolute space, which formed the framework of Newton'
s
universe. Mach argued that we do not see "space," only the players in it. All ou
r
knowledge of motion, he pointed out, was only relative to the "fixed stars." In
his books
and papers, he wondered if inertia, the tendency of an object to remain at rest
or in
motion until acted upon by an outside force, was similarly relative and derived
somehow
from an interaction with everything else in the universe.
"What would become of the law of inertia if the whole of the heavens began to mo
ve and
stars swarmed in confusion?" he wrote in 1911. "Only in the case of a shattering
of the
universe do we learn that all bodies, each with its share, are of importance in
the law of
inertia."
Mach never ventured a guess as to how this mysterious interaction would work, bu
t
Einstein, who admired Mach's incorrigible skepticism, was enamored of what he
sometimes called Mach's principle and sometimes called the relativity of inertia
. He
hoped to incorporate the concept in his new theory of general relativity, which
he
completed in 1915. That theory describes how matter and energy distort or "curve
" the
geometry of space and time, producing the phenomenon called gravity.
In the language of general relativity, Mach's principle required that the spacetime
curvature should be determined solely by other matter or energy in the universe,
and not
any initial conditions or outside influences -- what physicists call boundary co
nditions.
Among other things, Einstein took this to mean that it should be impossible to s
olve his
equations for the case of a solitary object -- an atom or a star alone in the un
iverse -since there would be nothing to compare it to or interact with.
So Einstein was surprised a few months after announcing his new theory, when Kar
l
Schwarzschild, a German astrophysicist serving at the front in World War I, sent
him just
such a solution, which described the gravitational field around a solitary star.
"I would
not have believed that the strict treatment of the point mass problem was so sim
ple,"
Einstein said.
Perhaps spurred in part by Schwarzschild's results, Einstein turned his energies
in the fall
of 1916 to inventing a universe with boundaries that would prevent a star from e
scaping
its neighbors and drifting away into infinite un-Machian loneliness. He worked o
ut his
ideas in a correspondence with a Dutch astronomer, Willem de Sitter, which are t
o be
published this summer by the Princeton University Press in Volume 8 of "The Coll
ected
Papers of Albert Einstein." Like most of his colleagues at the time, Einstein co
nsidered
2the universe to consist of a cloud of stars, namely the Milky Way, surrounded b
y vast
space. One of his ideas envisioned "distant masses" ringing the outskirts of the
Milky
Way like a fence. These masses would somehow curl up space and close it off.
His sparring partner de Sitter scoffed at that, arguing these "supernatural" mas
ses would
not be part of the visible universe. As such, they were no more palatable than N
ewton's
old idea of absolute space, which was equally invisible and arbitrary.
In desperation and laid up with gall bladder trouble in February of 1917, Einste
in hit on
the idea of a universe without boundaries, in which space had been bent around t
o meet
itself, like the surface of a sphere, by the matter within. "I have committed an
other
suggestion with respect to gravitation which exposes me to the danger of being c
onfined
to the nut house," he confided to a friend.
This got rid of the need for boundaries -- the surface of a sphere has no bounda
ry. Such a
bubble universe would be defined solely by its matter and energy content, as Mac
hian
principles dictated. But there was a new problem; this universe was unstable, th
e bubble
had to be either expanding or contracting. The Milky Way appeared to be neither
expanding nor contracting; its stars did not seem to be going anywhere in partic
ular.
Here was where the cosmological constant came in. Einstein made a little mathema
tical
fix to his equations, adding "a cosmological term" that stabilized them and the
universe.
Physically, this new term, denoted by the Greek letter lambda, represented some
kind of
long range repulsive force, presumably that kept the cosmos from collapsing unde
r its
own weight.
Admittedly, Einstein acknowledged in his paper, the cosmological constant was "n
ot
justified by our actual knowledge of gravitation," but it did not contradict rel
ativity,
either. The happy result was a static universe of the type nearly everybody beli
eved they
lived in and in which geometry was strictly determined by matter. "This is the c
ore of the
requirement of the relativity of inertia," Einstein explained to de Sitter. "To
me, as long
as this requirement had not been fulfilled, the goal of general relativity was n
ot yet
completely achieved. This only came about with the lambda term."
The joke, of course, is that Einstein did not need a static universe to have a M
achian one.
Michel Janssen, a Boston University physicist and Einstein scholar, pointed out,
"Einstein needed the constant not because of his philosophical predilections but
because
of his prejudice that the universe is static."
3Moreover, in seeking to save the universe for Mach, Einstein had destroyed Mach
's
principle. "The cosmological term is radically anti-Machian, in the sense that i
t ascribes
intrinsic properties (energy and pressure-density) to pure space, in the absence
of matter,"
said Frank Wilczek, a theorist at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton.
In any event, Einstein's new universe soon fell apart. In another 10 years the a
stronomer
Edwin Hubble in California was showing that mysterious spiral nebulae were galax
ies far
far away and getting farther -- in short that the universe might be expanding.
De Sitter further confounded Einstein by coming up with his own solution to Eins
tein's
equations that described a universe that had no matter in it at all.
"It would be unsatisfactory, in my opinion," Einstein grumbled, "if a world with
out
matter were possible."
De Sitter's empty universe was also supposed to be static, but that too proved t
o be an
illusion. Calculations showed that when test particles were inserted into it, th
ey flew
away from each other. That was the last straw for Einstein. "If there is no quas
i-static
world," he said in 1922, "then away with the cosmological term."
In 1931, after a trip to the Mount Wilson observatory in Pasadena, Calif., to me
et Hubble,
Einstein turned his back on the cosmological constant for good, calling it "theo
retically
unsatisfactory anyway."
He never mentioned it again.
In the meantime, the equations for an expanding universe had been independently
discovered by Aleksandr Friedmann, a young Russian theorist, and by the Abbe Geo
rges
Lemaitre, a Belgian cleric and physicist. A year after his visit with Hubble, Ei
nstein
threw his weight, along with de Sitter, behind an expanding universe without a
cosmological constant.
But the cosmological constant lived on in the imagination of Lemaitre, who found
that by
judicious application of lambda he could construct universes that started out ex
panding
slowly and then sped up, universes that started out fast and then slowed down, o
r one that
even began expanding, paused, and then resumed again.
This last model beckoned briefly to some astronomers in the early 1950's, when
measurements of the cosmic expansion embarrassingly suggested that the universe
was
4only two billion years old -- younger Earth. A group of astronomers visited Ein
stein in
Princeton and suggested that resuscitating the cosmological constant could resol
ve the
age discrepancy. Einstein turned them down, saying that the introduction of the
cosmological constant had been the biggest blunder of his life. George Gamow, on
e of
the astronomers, reported the remark in his autobiography, "My World Line," and
it
became part of the Einstein legend.
Einstein died three years later. In the years after his death, quantum mechanics
, the
strange set of rules that describe nature on the subatomic level (and Einstein's
bete noire)
transformed the cosmological constant and showed just how prescient Einstein had
been
in inventing it. The famous (and mystical in its own right) uncertainty principl
e decreed
that there is no such thing as nothing, and even empty space can be thought of a
s foaming
with energy.
The effects of this vacuum energy on atoms had been detected in the laboratory,
as early
as 1948, but no one thought to investigate its influence on the universe as a wh
ole until
1967, when a new crisis, an apparent proliferation of too-many quasars when the
universe
was about one-third its present size, led to renewed muttering about the cosmolo
gical
constant. Jakob Zeldovich, a legendary Russian theorist who was a genius at marr
ying
microphysics to the universe, realized that this quantum vacuum energy would ent
er into
Einstein's equations exactly the same as the old cosmological constant.
The problem was that a naive straightforward calculation of these quantum fluctu
ations
suggested that the vacuum energy in the universe should be about 118 orders of
magnitude (10 followed by 117 zeros) denser than the matter. In which case the
cosmological constant would either have crumpled the universe into a black hole
in the
first instant of its existence or immediately blown the cosmos so far apart that
not even
atoms would ever have formed. The fact that the universe had been sedately and h
appily
expanding for 10 billion years or so, however, meant that any cosmological const
ant, if it
existed at all, was modest.
Even making the most optimistic assumptions, Dr. Zeldovich still could not make
the
predicted cosmological constant to come out to be less than a billion times the
observed
limit.
Ever since then, many particle theorists have simply assumed that for some as-ye
tunknown reason the cosmological constant is zero. In the era of superstrings and
ambitious theories of everything tracing history back to the first micro-micro s
econd of
unrecorded time, the cosmological constant has been a trapdoor in the basement o
f
5physics, suggesting that at some fundamental level something is being missed ab
out the
world. In an article in Reviews of Modern Physics in 1989, Steven Weinberg of th
e
University of Texas referred to the cosmological constant as "a veritable crisis
," whose
solution would have a wide impact on physics and astronomy.
Things got even more interesting in the 1970's with the advent of the current cr
op of
particle physics theories, which feature a shadowy entity known as the Higgs fie
ld, which
permeates space and gives elementary particles their properties. Physicists pres
ume that
the energy density of the Higgs field today is zero, but in the past, when the u
niverse was
hotter, the Higgs energy could have been enormous and dominated the dynamics of
the
universe. In fact, speculation that such an episode occurred a fraction of a sec
ond after
the Big Bang, inflating the wrinkles out of the primeval chaos -- what Dr. Turne
r calls
vacuum energy put to a good use -- has dominated cosmology in the last 15 years.
"We want to explain why the effective cosmological constant is small now, not wh
y it
was always small," Dr. Weinberg wrote in his review. In their efforts to provide
an
explanation, theorists have been driven recently to talk about multiple universe
s
connected by space-time tunnels called wormholes, among other things.
The flavor of the crisis was best expressed, some years ago at an astrophysics c
onference
by Dr. Wilczek. Summing up the discussions at the end of the meeting, he came at
last to
the cosmological constant. "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent
," he
said, quoting from Ludwig Wittgenstein's "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus."
Now it seems that the astronomers have broken that silence.
Copyright 2002 The New York Times Company
6Mysteries of the Universe
Q U A N T U M P H Y S I C S
Quantum Theory Tugged, and All of Physics Unraveled
By DENNIS OVERBYE
They tried to talk Max Planck out of becoming a physicist, on the grounds that h
ere was
nothing left to discover. The young Planck didn't mind. A conservative youth fro
m the
south of Germany, a descendant of church rectors and professors, he was happy to
add to
the perfection of what was already known.
Instead, he destroyed it, by discovering what was in effect a loose thread that
when
tugged would eventually unravel the entire fabric of what had passed for reality
.
As a new professor at the University of Berlin, Planck embarked in the fall of 1
900 on a
mundane sounding calculation of the spectral characteristics of the glow from a
heated
object. Physicists had good reason to think the answer would elucidate the relat
ionship
between light and matter as well as give German industry a leg up in the electri
c light
business. But the calculation had been plagued with difficulties.
Planck succeeded in finding the right formula, but at a cost, as he reported to
the German
Physical Society on Dec. 14. In what he called "an act of desperation," he had t
o assume
that atoms could only emit energy in discrete amounts that he later called quant
a (from
the Latin quantus for "how much" ) rather than in the continuous waves prescribe
d by
electromagnetic theory. Nature seemed to be acting like a fussy bank teller who
would
not make change, and would not accept it either.
That was the first shot in a revolution. Within a quarter of a century, the comm
on sense
laws of science had been overthrown. In their place was a bizarre set of rules k
nown as
quantum mechanics, in which causes were not guaranteed to be linked to effects;
a
subatomic particle like an electron could be in two places at once, everywhere o
r
nowhere until someone measured it; and light could be a wave or a particle.
and the unknown, who as been accorded some of the ultimate accolades in pop cult
ure -appearing as Einstein's poker buddy on "Star Trek: The Next Generation," and as
a guest
star on "The Simpsons."
While a graduate student, in 1963, he learned he had amyotrophic lateral scleros
is and
was given a few years to live. He has moved about in a wheelchair for more than
25 years
and now speaks only through a voice synthesizer. Dr. Hawking, for whom the word
"puckish" seems to have been invented, has often said his disability is an advan
tage
because it frees him to sit and think. Next month his colleagues will celebrate
his 60th
birthday with a weeklong all-star symposium in Cambridge.
In the new book's introduction, Dr. Hawking admits that "A Brief History of Time
" was
"not easy going" and laments that some readers got stuck and did not finish it.
He has
tried, he says, to make this one easier. Slightly longer than the earlier book,
"Nutshell," at
216 pages, is embellished with colorful illustrations that give it a coffee-tabl
e-book look.
So far the critics are in qualified agreement; one, Bryan Appleyard in the The N
ew
he Bivalvia, the second largest class within the
Solnhofen Limestone of Eichsta tt, Germany, and was
described by Cosimo Collini (17271806) in 1784.
Collini concluded that it was a possible sea creature
of unknown affinity, although he did note bat-like
features. In 1801, the great French anatomist Georges
Cuvier (17691832) recognized that the creature
was a reptile and that its elongated digits must have
supported flight membranes. Cuvier was thus the first
to recognize pterosaurs as flying reptiles and, in 1809,
he coined the name Ptero-Dactyle. This later became
the generic name Pterodactylus (Figures 1 and 4).
In the decades that followed, a succession of further
pterosaurs from the Solnhofen Limestone was announced, many in a spectacular state of preservation
and some with their wing membranes intact. The
first recognized British pterosaur, a specimen of the
deep-skulled Dimorphodon, was discovered by Mary
Anning (17991847) in 1827 in Lower Jurassic rocks
of Lyme Regis, Dorset. We now know that Gideon
Mantell (17901852), best known for the discovery
of Iguanodon, found pterosaur remains before this
in the Early Cretaceous Wealden strata of Sussex,
but had thought that these were from birds. North
America yielded its first pterosaur to the prolific
palaeontologist O. C. Marsh (18311899) in 1871
and, by 1876, Marsh had recognized it as a new,
distinctive genus he named Pteranodon (meaning
winged and toothless). With an estimated wingspan
of 6 m, Pteranodon was huge compared to most
earlier discoveries.
While these discoveries and others were being
made, varied opinions on the nature and life style of
pterosaurs were appearing, and they were variously
depicted as swimming creatures, as bats, marsupials,
or as kin of birds. By the early 1900s, it was generally
agreed that pterosaurs were bat-like flying reptiles and,
in 1901, Harry Seeley (18391909) published Dragons
of the Air, the first book devoted to pterosaurs.
South American Cretaceous pterosaurs have proved
to be among the most important in the world, but not
until 1971 was the first pterosaur from the now famous
Santana Formation of Brazil discovered. Since then a
significant number of new kinds from around the
a tiny stub.
Because some articulated fossils indicate that the
foot could assume a 90 angle relative to the tibia
(and there is little evidence for much motion at the
metatarsophalangeal joints), pterosaurs have generally been regarded as plantigrade (placing the whole
length of the foot on the ground when walking). In
1983, Kevin Padian argued that this was not the case
for Dimorphodon and that it may instead have been
digitigrade (walking only on the toes). This was later
inferred for all pterosaurs. An articulated Dimorphodon foot shows, however, that only limited motion
was possible at the metatarsophalangeal joint, thus
supporting a plantigrade posture. This is in agreement
with probable pterosaur tracks preserved as trace
fossils.
Soft Tissue, Integument, and
Pterosaur Life Appearance
Many aspects of pterosaur life appearance remain
unknown or controversial, although a number of exceptional fossils have provided some surprising
details. Pterosaur body hair was reported as early as
1831 and described for various Jurassic pterosaurs
between the 1920s and 1970s and today it is clear
that pterosaurs had bristle-like hairs covering their
necks and bodies (Figure 4). The active flapping flight
and body hair of pterosaurs suggest that they had an
elevated metabolism.
Other exceptional fossils show that some pterosaurs possessed a throat pouch, webbing between
the toes, and scales on the soles of the feet. Soft
Figure 4 An exceptionally well preserved skeleton of the Late
Jurassic pterodactyloid Pterodactylus from the German Solnhofen
Limestone. This specimen preserves parts of the flight mem
branes, a throat pouch, and hairs on the neck and back.512 FOSSIL VERTEBRATES/Fl
ying Reptiles
Figure 5 Variation in skull crest morphology in pterodactyloids. Soft tissue cre
sts are now known for a wide diversity of
pterodactyloids. Reproduced with permission from Dino Frey and Marie Celine Buch
y. Buffetaut E and Mazin J M (2003) Evolution
and Palaeobiology of Pterosaurs. Geological Society Special Publication 217 . Lo
ndon: The Geological Society of London.
tissue skull crests connected to the underlying bony
crests have proved to be widespread and appear
to have doubled the size of the bony crests (Figures 5
and 6). An unexpected discovery is a soft tissue crest
in Pterodactylus, a genus that lacks a bony crest
(Figure 1). The presence of a distinctive bone texture
on the pterosaur snout, jaw, and palate indicates that
pterosaurs were beaked.
Pterosaur wing membranes are known from wellpreserved specimens from the Solnhofen Limestone
and the Early Cretaceous Brazilian Crato and Santana formations. A membrane called the propatagium
extended from the shoulder to the pteroid and perhaps distally to encompass the first three fingers. The
main flight membrane, the brachiopatagium (also
called the cheiropatagium), extended from the tip of
the wing finger to the hind limb, extending
as far distally as the knee, shin, or ankle. Another
deciphering statements like the one at the beginning of this essay, or to deal w
ith straight
talk of the nature of science and the universe.
Here, for example, is Dr. Hawking about those troublesome extra dimensions requi
red by
string theory but apparently unavailable for parking cars. "I must say that pers
onally, I
have been reluctant to believe in extra dimensions," he writes on Page 54 of the
new
book. "But as I am a positivist, the question Do extra dimensions really exist?
has no
meaning. All one can ask is whether mathematical models with extra dimensions pr
ovide
a good description of the universe."
In other words, if the experiments come out right, it doesn t matter. This could
be
considered jarring if you cling to the notion that science is the search for a r
eality that is
deeper than the measurements on a laboratory table. But, quantum theory and rela
tivity
have taught us, science is about what can be observed and measured or it is abou
t nothing
at all. In science, as in democracy, there is no hidden secret knowledge, all th
at counts is
on the table, observable and falsifiable. All else is metaphysics.
When it comes to putting the goods on the table without condescending, Dr. Hawki
ng is a
genius. While many authors of science books plough through chapters full of
fundamentals before getting to the new stuff, Dr. Hawking, with perhaps a height
ened
appreciation of time, breezes speedily to the frontier without apologies.
For those who cannot keep up, Dr. Hawking has also provided a legacy. The succes
s of
his earlier book and that of Carl Sagan s "Cosmos" are widely credited with havi
ng given
a commercial lift to the science-book genre, helping pave the way for efforts li
ke "The
Elegant Universe," by Dr. Brian Greene, a Columbia University string theorist; "
The
Inflationary Universe," by Dr. Alan Guth, cosmologist at the Massachusetts Insti
tute of
Technology; and "The Quark and the Jaguar," by the Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Ma
nn.
To the extent that Dr. Hawking s earlier success has spawned imitators and widen
ed the
circle of readers and their sophistication, he has engineered a kind of positive
feedback,
and he has increased the odds that the readers will follow him and get to the en
d of the
book this time.
Copyright 2002 The New York Times Company
36Mysteries of the Universe
ENDLESS POSSIBILITIES
The End of Everything
By DENNIS OVERBYE
In the decades that astronomers have debated the fate of the expanding universe
-whether it will all end one day in a big crunch, or whether the galaxies will sa
il apart
forever -- aficionados of eternal expansion have always been braced by its seemi
ngly
endless possibilities for development and evolution. As the Yale cosmologist Dr.
Beatrice
Tinsley once wrote, "I think I am tied to the idea of expanding forever."
Life and intelligence could sustain themselves indefinitely in such a universe,
even as the
stars winked out and the galaxies were all swallowed by black holes, Dr. Freeman
Dyson,
a physicist at the Institute for Advanced Study, argued in a landmark paper in 1
979. "If
my view of the future is correct," he wrote, "it means that the world of physics
and
astronomy is also inexhaustible; no matter how far we go into the future, there
will
always be new things happening, new information coming in, new worlds to explore
, a
constantly expanding domain of life, consciousness, and memory."
Now, however, even Dr. Dyson admits that all bets are off. If recent astronomica
l
Transcription Control in
Eukaryotes
Transcription in eukaryotes differs from that in
prokaryotes in two main respects. In eukaryotes, one gene codes for a single polypeptide
(monocistronic transcription unit) and the initial transcript is processed into mature messenger mRNA. This involves intron splicing (see
p. 50) and substantial modification of the ends
of the primary transcript.
A. Prototype of a eukaryotic structural
gene
A structural gene is a gene that codes for a polypeptide gene product. It can be divided into sections involved in transcription (transcription
unit) and regulatory sequences. Regulatory
sequences are located both upstream (the 5!
direction) and downstream (the 3! direction) of
the gene. In addition, internal regulatory
sequences may occur in introns. Some regulatory sequences are located far from the gene.
Together with the promoter (see p. 206), they
are required to regulate transcription.
nosine is methylated in position 7, as are the
two initial ribose residues at the beginning of
the RNA chain. Except for the mRNAs transcribed by DNA viruses, eukaryotic mRNA usually contains a single protein-coding sequence
(monocistronic messenger).
D. Polyadenylation at the 3! end
Eukaryotic termination signals have been less
well recognized than the regulators of gene activity at the 5! end. Eukaryotic primary transcripts are split by a specific endonuclease
shortly after the sequence AAAUAA. Subsequently, about 100 250 adenine nucleotides
are attached to the 3! end of the transcript by
means of a poly(A)-polymerase (polyadenylation). The poly(A) end binds to a protein. All
mRNAs, except those that code for histone proteins, possess a poly(A) terminus.
stop
1
Control of
transcription
Primary transcript
4538
inactive
A. Levels of control of eukaryotic
gene expression
Transcription
Promoter with
transcription
factors and
RNA polymerase II
C. Long-range gene activation by an enhancer
Calcitonin gene
5
Exon 1
Exon 2
Exon 3
Primary RNA transcript
5
1
mRNA
5
2
3
C cells in thyroid
1
2
Exon 4 Exon 5
4 5
Exon 6 3
6 3
Transcription
RNA processing
3
4
3
5
Translation
Calcitonin
Hypothalamus
1
2
3
5
6
Translation
Different
gene products
D. Alternative RNA splicing
Passarge, Color Atlas of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usage subject to terms and conditions of license.
CGRP
(Calcitonin
gene-related
peptide)
3 218
Fundamentals
DNA-Binding Proteins
Regulatory DNA sequences interact with proteins to exert proper functional control. Regulatory proteins can recognize specific DNA
sequences because the surface of the proteins
fits precisely onto the DNA surface. Three basic
groups of regulatory DNA sequences can be distinguished: (1) sequences that establish the
exact beginning of translation; (2) DNA segments that regulate the end, or termination;
and (3) DNA sequences near the promoter that
have specific effects on gene activity (repressors, activators, enhancers, and others).
A. Binding of a regulatory protein to
DNA
Gene regulatory proteins can recognize DNA
sequence information without having to open
the hydrogen bonds within the helix. Each base
pair represents a distinctive pattern of hydrogen bond donors (example shown in red) and
hydrogen acceptors (example shown in green).
These proteins recognize the major groove of
DNA, where binding takes place. Here a single
contact of an asparagine (Asn) of a gene-regulatory protein with a DNA base adenine (A) is
shown. A typical area of surface-to-surface contact involves 10 20 such interactions. (Figure
redrawn from Alberts et al., 1998, p. 276).
B. An helix inserts into mjor
groove of opertor DNA
One prt of the protein, n helix (the
sequence-reding or recognition helix) is inserted into the mjor groove of DNA. Here the
sequence Q-Q-Q-S-T (glutmine Q, serine S,
threonine T) in the recognition sequence of the
bcteriophge 434 repressor bonds with
specific bses in mjor groove of opertor
DNA. (Figure redrwn from Lodish et l., 2000,
p. 351).
C. Zinc finger motif
Another group of proteins re clled zinc fingers
becuse they resemble fingers (see D). They re
involved in importnt functions during embryonic development nd differentition. The bsic
zinc finger motif consists of zinc tom connected to four mino cids of polypeptide
chin. Here, two histidine (H) nd two cysteine
(C) residues re shown in the schem on the
left. The three-dimensionl structure on the
right consists of n ntiprllel sheet (amino
acids 1 10), an helix (mino cids 12 24),
nd the zinc connection. Four mino cids, cysteines 3 nd 6 nd histidines 19 nd 23, re
bonded to the zinc tom nd hold the crboxy
(COOH) end of the helix to one end of the
sheet. (Figure redrawn from Alerts et al., 1994,
p. 411).
D. Zinc finger proteins ind to DNA
The interaction with DNA is strong and specific.
Each protein recognizes a specific DNA
R
K
V
H
Q
N
S
T
To sugar
H
Minor groove
A. Binding of a regulatory protein to DNA
HOOC
Q
H
N
O
Q
H Acceptor
H
HN
O
23
3
C
Zn
Q
K
1
Y
B. An ! helix inserts into a major
groove of operator DNA
25
NH 2
HOOC
His
23
C
L
6 C
H 19
R
E
S
L R
A S
His 19
F 10
S
K
V
Zn
E
12
12
D. A zinc finger protein inds to DNA
Cys
443
Cys
440
Zn
1.
Cys
457
2.
Cys
3
1
H 2 N
Zn
C. Zinc finger motif
Cys
460
Cys
6
Zn
3.
E. Binding to a response element
Passarge, Color Atlas of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usage suject to terms and conditions of license.
10220
Fundamentals
Other Transcription Activators
Transcription activators are dimeric proteins
with distinct functional domains: a DNA-inding domain and an activation domain. The DNAinding domain interacts with specific regulatory DNA sequences. The activation domain interacts with other proteins that stimulate transcription. Transcription activators participate in
the assemly of the initiation complex, for example, y stimulating the inding of transcription factor IID (TFIID, see p. 212) to the promoter. Other activators may interact with
general transcription factors. They provide a
second level of transcriptional control.
A. Leucine zipper dimer
Most DNA-inding regulatory proteins recognize specific sites as dimers. One part of the
molecule serves as the recognition molecule,
the other stailizes the structure. A particularly
striking example is given y proteins with a
leucine zipper motif. The name is derived from
the asic structure. Two helices re joined like
zipper by periodiclly repeted leucine residues locted t the interfce of the two helices.
The two helices seprte, form Y-shped
structure, nd extend into the mjor groove of
the DNA (1). Leucine zipper proteins my be homodimers with identicl subunits (2, 3) or heterodimers with different lbeit similr subunits
(4). The bility to form unlike dimers (heterodimeriztion) gretly expnds the spectrum of
specificites. The use of combintions of different proteins to control cellulr functions is
clled combintoril control. (Figure redrwn
from Alberts et l., 1994).
A DNA-binding motif relted to the leucine zipper is the helixloophelix (HLH) motif (not
shown). The HLH motif consists of one short
leitmotif is the specific binding of n extrcellulr signling molecule (lignd) to specific receptor of the trget cell to trigger specific
functionl response. The vst vriety of
molecules involved in the mny different types
of cells cn be clssified into fmilies of relted
structure nd function (see Lodish et l., 2000;
Alberts et l., 1994). Two res re selected
here: the min intrcellulr functions controlling growth nd the receptor tyrosine kinses.
A. Min intrcellulr functions
controlling growth
Growth fctors re lrge group of different extrcellulr molecules tht bind with high specificity to cell surfce receptors (1). Their binding
to the receptor (2) ctivtes intrcellulr signl
trnsduction proteins (3). This initites cscde of events resulting in ctivtion of other
proteins (often by phosphoryltion) tht ct s
second messengers (4). Hormones of different
types re heterogeneous clss of signling
molecules (5). They enter the cell either by diffusion through the plsm membrne or by
binding to cell surfce receptor (6). Some hormones require n intrnucler receptor (7).
Eventully the signl cscde results in ctivtion or inctivtion of trnscription fctors (8).
Before trnscription nd trnsltion ensue, n
elborte system of DNA dmge recognition
nd repir systems (9) mke sure tht cell prolifertion is sfe (cell cycle control, 10). In the
event tht fults in DNA structure hve not been
repired prior to repliction, n importnt
pthwy scrifices the cell by poptosis (cell
deth, 11). (Figure dpted from Lodish et l.,
2000.)
B. Receptor tyrosine kinse fmily
Like the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs,
see p. 268) nd their effectors, the receptor tyrosine kinses (RTKs) re mjor clss of cell
surfce receptors. Their lignds re soluble or
membrne-bound growth fctor proteins. RTK
signling pthwys involve wide vriety of
other functions. Muttions in RTKs my send
prolifertive signl even in the bsence of
growth fctor, resulting in errors in embryonic
development nd differenttion (congenitl
mlformtion) or cncer. Of the more thn
twenty different RTK fmilies, five exmples re
selected here: the epiderml growth fctor receptor (EGFR); insulin receptor (IR); fibroblst
growth fctor receptor (FGFR) types 1, 2, nd 3;
pltelet-derived growth fctor (PDGFR); nd
RET (rerrnged during trnsformtion).
These receptors shre structurl fetures, lthough they differ in function. All hve single
trnsmembrne domin nd n intrcellulr tyrosine kinse domin of slightly vried size. The
extrcellulr domins consist of evolutionrily
conserved motifs: cystein-rich regions, im-
munoglobulin (Ig)-like domins, fibronectin repets in the tyrosine kinse with Ig nd the EGF.
RTK muttions cuse group of importnt
humn diseses nd mlformtion syndromes.
The phenotypes of the muttions differ ccording to the prticulr type of RTK involved nd
the type of muttion.
References
Alberts, B., et l.: Moleculr Biology of the Cell.
3 rd ed. Grlnd Publishing Co., New York,
1994.
Cohen, M.M.: Fibroblst growth fctor receptor
muttions, pp. 77 94, In: M.M. Cohen Jr.,
R.E. McLen, eds., Crniosynostosis, Dignosis, Evlution, nd Mngement. 2 nd ed.
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000.
Lodish, H., et l.: Moleculr Cell Biology (with n
nimted CD-ROM). 4 th ed. W.H. Freemn &
Co., New York, 2000.
Muenke, M., et l.: Fibroblst growth fctor receptorrelted skeletl disorders: crniosynostosis nd dwrfism syndromes, pp.
1029 1038, In: J.L. Jmeson, ed., Principles
of Moleculr Medicine. Humn Press, Totow, New Jersey, 1998.
Mnke, M., Schell, U.: Fibroblst-growth-fctor
receptor muttions in humn skeletl disorders. Trends Genet. 11 : 308 313, 1995.
Roberton, S. C., Tynn, J.A., Donoghue, D.J.: RTK
muttions nd humn syndromes: when
good receptors turn bd. Trends Genet.
16 : 265 271, 2000.
Pssrge, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usge subject to terms nd conditions of license.Intrcellu
lr Signl Trnsduction Systems
Pssrge, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usge subject to terms nd conditions of license.
265266
Genetics nd Medicine
Types of Cell Surfce Receptors
Specific receptors on cell surfces (nd in the
nucleus or cytosol) convey cell-to-cell signls
into the cells nd the functionl nswers. The
bsic structures of their genes re similr becuse they hve been derived from reltively
smll group of ncestrl genes. They wy they
bind to the lignd (the signl-relesing
molecule) nd the functionl nswer of the cell
re specific. When lignd binds to receptor,
series of rections is initited tht lters the
function of the cell. Receptors with direct nd
indirect lignd effects cn be distinguished. Epinephrine, norepinephrine, nd h
istmine
ct directly nd very rpidly. Peptide hormones
such s insulin or drenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) initilly occur s precursor polypeptides, which re split by specific proteses to
form ctive molecules. Some peptide hormones
re coded for by common gene; differentil
RNA splicing of the trnscript of this gene pro-
time is sid to hve the greter virtus. Bodies of the sme kind re
those tht, volume for volume, re equl in virtus. Tht which hs
the greter virtus is sid to be solidius (more dense).
The virtus of hodies of the sme kind is proportionl to their dimensions ; tht is, the bodies fll with velocities which re proportionl to
their volume. If two hevy bodies re joined together, tIle velocity
with which the combintion will fll will be the sum of the velocities
of the seprte bodies.
Duhem hs found, in XIVth Century mnuscript,2 four propositions on questions in sttics which complete De ponderoso et levi. This
mnuscript contins theory of the romn blnce, nd shows tht the
fct tht the blnce is hevy homogenous cylindel' does not lter the
reltion of the weights to ech other.
Finlly, in XIIIth Century mnuscript, Duhem hs unerthed
text clled Liber Euclidis de ponderibus secundunt terminorum circonferentim 3 which connects the lw of levers ,vith ristotelin dynmics
nd lso contins theory of the ronln blnce.
1
2
3
Journl sitique, Vol. 18, 1851, p. 217.
Bibliotheque Ntionle, Pris, ltin collection, 1\ls. 10,260.
Ibid., Ms. 16,649.ALEXANDRIAN SOURCES AND ARABIC MANUSCRIPTS
37
BOOK OF CHARISTION.
Chrstonis is the ltin version of n rbic text due to
ibn Kurrh (836-901). The originl greek version
:reln:ms unknown, nd the question of whether krston (in Arbic II,rsJ~ftn) refers merely to the romn blnce or to the nme of the greek
f!e.)m,etf~r Christion ( contemporry of Philon of Byzntium in the
B. C.) hs been the subject of much scholrly debte.
shll
Duhem 1 in summrising the theory of the romn
blnce which is found in Liber Chrstonis.
2e(J~me~ter Thitbit
b
d
u
9
e
Fig. 8
A hevy homogeneous cylindricl bem ,b whose rms g nd bg
~:re.
unequl my he mintined in horizontl position by mens of
If bd is the mount
~y which the longer rm exceeds the shorter rm nd u is the centre of
/6, the weight e ,viII be to bd s gu is to g. If p is the totl weight of
It the bem
iw'eight e hung from the end of the shorter rm g.
db
e -- p - -,....
--2g
If this weight were known it could be represented exctly by
hung from the shorter rm, nd the krston rrnged in this
wfl.ycould be treted s weightless hem.
~. We must lso mention, s one of the sources of sttics, the tretise
Cnonio,2 ltin trnsltion of greek text ,vhich dds nothing
essentil to Li ber Chrstonis.
~eAl'C .. pn
1
2
O. S., Vol. I, p. 90.
Bibliotheque Ntionle, Pris, ltin collection, Ms. 7378 A.CHAPTER THREE
THE Xlllth CENTURY
THE SCHOOL OF JORDANUS
1.
]ORDANUS OF NEMORE AND" GRAVITAS SECUNDUM SITUM. "
The Middle Ages hd ccess to the Problems of Mechnics nd to the
works of Aristotle. They hd lso inherited the frgments ttributed
to Euclid-with the exception of the Book on the Blnce-s well s
the Liber ClJ,rstonis from rbic lerning. They hd no knowledge
of Archimedes, Hero of Alexndri nd Pppus.
In spite of the reserches of the scholrs, the personlity of J ordnu8
remins mysterious. At lest three XllIth Century mnuscripts on
sttics; hve been ttributed to him, lthough these re clerly in the
style qf different uthors. Neither Jordnus's ntionlity nor the period id which he lived is known with ny certinty. Dunou believes
him t9 hve lived in Germny bout 1050, Chsles ssocites him with
the ~IIIth Century while Curtze plces him bout 1220 under the nme
of Jbrdnus Sxo. Michud hs identified him with Rimond Jordn,
provost of the church of Uzes in 1381 which is clerly too lte. With
Montucl, we shll here dopt the intermedite vie,v tht ssocites
Jordnus of Nemore with the XIIlth Century.
Like Duhem, we shll follow the Element J ordni super demonstrtionem ponderis. 1 This work comprised seven xioms or definitions
foll().wed by nine propositions. The essentil originlity of Jordnus ly
in the systemtic use, in his study of the motion of hevy bodies, of the
effective pth in verticl direction s mesure of the effect of weight,
which w-s usully plced t the end of lever nd described circle in
consequence. Thus his sttics stems, implicitly, from the principle of
virtul work. The word work, tken in the modern sense., is to be con1 Bibliotheque Ntionle, Pris, Ms. 10,252, dted 14.64.
There lso exists n in
complete mnuscript of the sme work, dting from the XIlIth Century, in the Bib
lio
theque Mzrine, Ms. 3642.39
THE XI11th CENTITRY
trsted with the word velocity nd with the concept of virtul velocities
l\rhich my he trced in the rguments of Problems of Mechnics. Of
course lordnus never used the word" work" itself.. He considered
the heviness of prticle reltive to its sitution (grvits secundum
situm) without mking cler the reltion tht exists between this quntity nd the heviness in the strict sense.
Jordnus formulted his principle in picturesque Ltin which merits
quottion.
" Omnis ponderosi motm esse d lnedium, virtutemque ipsius potentim d inferior tendendi et motui contrrio resistendi.
" Grvius esse in descendendo qundo ejusdem motus d medium rectior.
" Secundum situm grvius, qundo in eodem situ minus obliquus est
descensus.
" Obliquiorem utem descensum in edem quntitte minus cpere de
directo. "
Or" The motion of ll hevy things is towrds the centre,! its strength
heing the power ,vhich it hs of tending do,vnwrds nd of resisting
contrry motion.
,,4 A moving body is the hevier in its descent s its motion towrds
the centre is the more direct.
'" A body is the hevier becuse of its sitution s, in tht sitution,
descent is the less oblique.
,~ A more oblique descent is one tht, for the sme pth, tkes less
of the direct. "
Thus certin weight plced t b,
t the end of the lever cb, hs smller
grVity secundum situm thn the sme
~~~ght hs when it is t , t the end
of the horizontl rdius c. Indeed, on
....- - - -.. c
the circumference of the circle with
centre c nd rdius c == cb, if the
- - --~z'
:b,ody flls from b to It long the rc
I
bii the effective pth in verticl
I
direction is b' h'. On the other hnd
if. ,the body strts from nd flls
Fig. 9
long n ~ rc liZ., ","hich is equl to
the rc bh, the effective verticl pth
is cz' nd is greter thn b' h'. Thus the descent bh, equl to the
descent liZ., is more oblique thn tht nd tkes less of the direct.
,
1
ITnderstood s the common centre of ll hevy things in . ' . \'ristotle's sense
.40
THE ORIGINS
This ide led J ordnus to proof of the rule of the equilibrium of the
stright lever whose originlity cnnot be contested.
d
b
" Let cb he the hern, nd b the weights tht it crries, nd suppose
tht the reltion of b to is the sme s tht of c to cb. I mintin
tht this rule will not chnge its plce. Indeed, if the rm supporting b
flls nd the hem tkes up the position dee, the weight b will descend
by he ~nd will rise by fd. If weight equl to the weight b is plced
t 1, t distnce such tht cl == eb, this will rise in the motion by
gm === he. But it is cler tht dfis to mg s the weight I is to the weight .
Consequently, wht is sufficient to bring to d will be sufficient to bring
I to m. But we hve shown tht bnd 1 counterblnce ech other exct~y, so tht the supposed motion is impossible. This will lso he true
jof the inverse motion. "
Duhem writes in this connection 1 _
'" Underlying this demonstrtion of Jordnus the following principle
is clerly evident-tht which cn lift weight to certin height cn
lso lift weight which is k times s
8
c
gret to height which is k times less.
This principle is then the sme s tht
which Descrtes took s bsis for his
complete theory of sttics nd which,
thnks to John Bernoulli, becme the
principle of virtul work. "
Jordnus ws less fortunte "\\Then he
turned his ttention to the ngulr lever.
He considered lever c! crrying equl
f
c
I
It is impossible tht the weight should dominte the weight f.
!For if two rcs ;;}", fl, re considered on the two circles drwn through
nd f nd corresponding to equl ngles -;;J" nd fii; the descent
of long rh necessittes tht the equl weight t f should rise through
distnce In which is greter thn rh. This is impossible.
In the sme \vy it cn be seen tht f will not dominte . For
if the rcs j; nd ~ correspond to equl
c
nglesft; nd;;;;;;' the descent ofjlong
tx mkes it necessry tht the equl
I
weight plced t should rise by pm,
~------~ J
\vhich is greter thn tx. This is imposI
sible. Therefore there is equilibrium in
I
the position considered, in which ' if'.
J
The nonymous uthor generlised
b l - b
this result to n ngulr blnce
I
Fig. 13
crrying unequl weights t nd b,43
THE XIIIth CENTURY
nd obtined the result tht in equilibrium it is necessry tht the
distnces ' nd bb' from nd b to the verticl drwn through the
point of support, c, re in inverse rtio to the weights nd b..
We see tht this uthor knew nd used the notion of moment..
Elsewhere he wrote on this subject., '" If lod is lifted nd the
length of its 81lpport is known, it cn be determined how much
this lod weighs in ll positions. The weight of the lod crried t
e by the support be will he to the weight crried t f by fb s el is
to fr or s pb is to xb. .A. ,veight plced t e, t the end of the
lever be, will weigh s if it were t
u on the lever bj: "
Thus the ide of grvits secundum
situm, which Jordnu8 hd used qulittively, becme precise.
Our nonymous uthor lso concerned himself with the stbility of
the hlnce, nd rectified certin
errors which were contined in the
relevnt prts of Problems of Mechnics.
C .....
p - -.. b
More thn this, he resolved the
Fig. 14
problem of the equilibrium of hevy
h~dy on n inclined plne, problem
wbich hd eluded the wisdom of the greek nd lexndrin geometers..
, In order tht this my be done, it is first observed tht the grvits
stcull,dum situm of weight on n inclined plne is independent of
its position on the plne. The uthor then ttempts comprison of
DE BAZ
A EVIDE
EN EI EC ONOMICE
E
1.1
1. Obiective e
L sfritul c cestei unit i de nvr re studenii vor fi cpb bili s:
define esc no iun
ne de cont bilitte;
n ele g necesi itte orgn nizrii con ntbilit ii l nivelul fiecrei
unit i ptrimoni le;
n ele g rolul pe cre l re cont bilitte n n cdrul ctivit ii
desf urte de un
nit ile ptri imonile;
n ele g modul de
d orgnizr re contbil lit ii l nive el microeco onomic.
1.2. Definir re, necesit tte i rolu
ul contbili it ii
C
Contbilitt
te exist t din cele e mi vech hi timpuri. C.G. Dum
mitrescu, n Istori
contbil lit ii, rt c grecii u
mprumu utt tehnic eviden ei co ontbile de l egipteni, ir de l
ei u pr relut-o rom
mnii. Dr se pre c eviden ele contbile sunt
s
mult mi
m vechi n n istori
omeniri ii. Contbil litte n p rtid dubl s- nscu ut c urm re prcti cii c
ontbil lilor din
Vene i i Genov . n nul 1 494, Luc Pciolo des scrie contb
bilitte n prtid
p
dub bl ntr-o
lucrre de mtem tic i geom
metrie. Dup
p pri i cestei luc crri, plicr re contbi ilit ii n
prtid dubl s- r spndit i n
lte ri le Europei.
A
Astzi,
con
ntbilitii i i revin srci ini din ce n n ce mi gr rele. E cu
ut s-i dep pesc
limitele , fiind pus n situi de descrie e orgnizi ii din ce n ce
c mi comp
plexe cre operez
o
ntr-un m
mediu econ nomic i soc cil n contin
nu micre e i trnsfor rmre.
Princip
plele spec cte
c ins strument de descriere, de
d modelre e ntreprin nderilor;
sub cr re trebuie
c ins strument de prelucrre informii ilor;
studit contbilit tte c pr rctic su u joc soci il, nscri s ntr-o r ree de
(dup N.
N Feleg) )
restric cii regleme entre mi mult
m su m i puin stric cte.
10Contbilitte pote fi considert drept o rt, o tehnic su o tiin, dr indiferent
de
cum m privi-o, contbilitte este un joc socil ce re drept finlitte reprezen
tre unei
reliti cre este entitte.
Contbilitte studiz cele lturi le reproduciei socile cre se pot exprim n
etlon bnesc. E urmrete existen i dinmic ptrimoniului genilor economici,
procesele economice, pe cre ceti le orgnizez, stbilind i nregistrnd rezulttele
finncire finle.
1.3. Orgnizre evidenei contbile l nivel microeconomic
Conform Legii Contbilitii nr. 82/1991, ntreprinderile u obligi s orgnizeze i
s conduc contbilitte proprie, n limb romn i n moned nionl. Orgnizre
contbilitii reprezint deci, nu numi o necesitte, cum m rtt nterior, dr i o
obligie impus prin reglementrile legle n vigore.
De ltfel, entitte c sistem complex economico-socil i dministrtiv-orgnizt
oric,
ndeplinete o serie de funcii, n cdrul cror un rol esenil l re funci finncircontbil.
Pentru ndeplinire cestei funcii i n celi timp pentru respectre legii, n cdrul
entit ii se orgnizez i funcionez un comprtiment specilizt, finncir-contbil. n
cdrul cestui comprtiment lucrez persone cu studii de specilitte (medii i su
periore),
vnd tribuii distincte n domeniul evidenei contbile opertive i generle.
Comprtimentul finncir-contbil se subordonez contbilului ef, cre re studii
superiore
n finne-contbilitte.
Aici se consemnez zilnic i lunr, tote operiunile economico-finncire ce u loc
n entitte, respectiv: cumprri, vnzri, consumuri, slrii, ncsri, pli etc., conduc
finl l determinre rezulttului ctivitii i l ntocmire situiilor finncire nu
le de
sintez i rportre contbil.
Lun clendristic port denumire de period de gestiune, ir nul clendristic,
de exerciiu finncir.
n bz dtelor furnizte de eviden contbil, se pot efectu nlize economicofinncire privind corelre resurselor locte cu rezulttele obinute, se pot c
lcul diveri
indictori i se pote determin evolui diverselor fenomene n timp, cu fctorii poz
itivi i
negtivi cre le-u genert.
11n cdrul entit ii, contbilitte se orgnizez pe dou circuite prlele: contbilit
te
finncir i contbilitte de gestiune.
este reglementt prin norme unitre;
ofer o viziune globl supr ctivitii;
re un obiectiv finncir reflectre imginii fidele
ptrimoniului;
Contbilitte finncir
generez fluxuri de informii i documente externe;
plic reguli normtive;
ofer dte utiliztorilor externi (furnizori, clieni, bnci,
investitori, orgne de control etc.);
se refer l periode ncheite (lun, n).
se ls l ltitudine fiecrei entit i;
ofer o viziune detlit supr ctivitii;
re un obiectiv economic constnd n suprveghere i
controlul ctivitii prin intermediul costurilor;
Contbilitte generez fluxuri de informii interne;
te.
Contbilitte se ocup cu reflectre n expresie vloric ptrimoniului, e
nregistrez circuitul elementelor ptrimonile n condiii concrete de timp i spiu,
clculez mrime cestor elemente i reflect micre ptrimoniului prin operiuni de
intrri i ieiri 1 .
1
Ghe. Tlghir, Ghe. Negoescu Contbilitte pe nelesul tuturor. Editur All, Bucur
eti, 1998.
17Contbilitte studiz modul de gestionre ptrimoniului, fundmentez
deciziile referitore l finnre i utilizre elementelor ptrimonile, controle
z relizre
deciziilor i stbilete rspunderi privind integritte i dezvoltre ptrimoniului.
De semene, contbilitte studiz echilibrul globl l ptrimoniului, prin
respectre ecuiei ptrimonile:
BUNURI ECONOMICE = DREPTURI + OBLIGA II
cu derivtele sle:
Drepturi = Bunuri economice Obligii
i
Obligii = Bunuri economice Drepturi
n consecin, entitte reprezint o unitte ptrimonil, l crei ptrimoniu pote fi
privit sub dublu spect: l mijlocelor economice (bunurile/vere) i l surselor
de
procurre cestor mijloce (cpitlul) proprii i strine.
Mijlocele economice definesc ctivul ptrimonil, ir sursele definesc psivul
ptrimonil.
n derulre operiunilor economico-finncire, pr i o serie de procese
economice, sub form veniturilor i cheltuielilor, cre jut l nregistrre creterii
su
diminurii ptrimoniului.
n cest context, ecui ptrimonil de mi sus, devine:
AVERE = CAPITAL
182.3. Metod contbilit ii
Dtorit complexit ii obiectului de studiu, metod contbilit ii reunete mi multe
procedee tehnice de lucru.
Un nsmblu de procedee flte ntr-o strns corel ie i
Metod intercondi ionre c un tot unitr, n vedere stbilirii normelor i
contbilit ii principiilor cu crcter specil pe cre se fundmentez contbilitte
i cu jutorul cror cercetez stre i micre elementelor
ptrimonile le unit ilor ptrimonile.
O trstur crcteristic metodei contbilit ii este cee folosirii unor procedee
cre s permit nregistrre numeric, cifric, existen ei i micrii ptrimoniului unit
economice i socile n expresie vloric. Generliznd, se pote spune c metod
contbilit ii reprezint totlitte procedeelor interdependente, pe cre le folosete
cest n
scopul cunoterii situ iei ptrimoniului i rezulttelor ob inute.
1. procedee comune tuturor tiin elor;
Procedee utilizte 2. procedee specifice metodei contbilit ii;
de contbilitte 3. procedee le metodei contbilit ii, comune i ltor discipline
economice.
Procedee comune Observ i este fz ini il cercetrii obiectului de studiu l
tuturor tiin elor oricrei tiin e i este utilizt pentru cunotere oper iilor economic
cre se pot exprim vloric i pe cre le reflect cifric, numeric, cu
jutorul procedeelor sle specifice.
R ionmentul se plic de metod contbilit ii, pentru c pe bz
de judec i logice, pornind de l fenomenele i procesele economice
cre intr n obiectul su de studiu, s jung l concluzii noi (ex.:
ctivul este egl cu psivul, pentru c ntre mijlocele economice i
sursele de finn re cestor exist o eglitte perfect).
Compr i se folosete de metod contbilit ii prin lturre
dou su mi multe fenomene i procese economice cre se pot exprim
19vloric, cu scopul de stbili semnrile i deosebirile dintre ele, c
stfel s se trg o serie de concluzii. Se folosete frecvent pentru se
compr veniturile i cheltuielile pe bz cror se stbilesc rezulttele
finle.
Clsificre c iune de mpr ire, distribuire, reprtizre sistemtic
pe clse su ntr-o numit ordine obiectelor n func ie de semnrile
i deosebirile dintre ele. Asemnrile le propie i le ncdrez n
ceei cls, ir deosebirile le diferen iz i le distribuie n clse
diferite.
Anliz procedeu tiin ific de cercetre unui ntreg, unui fenomen
cre se bzez pe exminre fiecrui element component n prte.
Sintez c procedeu tiin ific de cercetre fenomenelor se bzez
pe trecere de l prticulr l generl, de l simplu l compus pentru
se junge l generlizre.
Procedee specifice Biln ul st l bz dublei reprezentri ptrimoniului n
metodei contbilitte. El furnizez inform ii generle privitore l situ i
contbilit ii economic i finncir unei entit i, dr reflect i l rel iile ei
economice cu lte entit i, fiind complett de o serie de situ ii nex
prin cre se explic i se detliz numite lturi le ctivit ii
economico-finncire le societ ii.
Contul se deschide n contbilitte curent pentru reflectre
fiecrui element din ptrimoniu. Contbilitte dispune de un sistem
de conturi n cre reflectre oper iilor economice rezultte din
micre elementelor ptrimonile re l bz dubl nregistrre.
Bln de verificre sigur n contbilitte dublei reprezentri i
dublei nregistrri, grn i exctit ii nregistrrilor efectute n
conturi. Dtele bln ei de verificre stu l bz ntocmirii biln ului.
Bln de verificre ndeplinete tt o func ie de control, ct i o
func ie economic, constituind punte de legtur ntre cont i biln .
20Procedeele metodei Document i orice oper ie economic i finncir referitore l
contbilit ii comune existen i micre elementelor ptrimonile trebuie s fie
i ltor discipline consemnt n documente cre fc dovd nfptuirii lor.
economice Evlure procedeul prin cre dtele contbilit ii sunt reprezentte
printr-o singur unitte de msur, crend posibilitte centrlizrii
lor cu jutorul bln elor de verificre i generlizre cu jutorul
biln ului. Evlure const n trnsformre unit ilor nturle n
unit i monetre cu jutorul pre urilor.
Clcul i este strns legt de evlure c procedeu l metodei
contbilit ii. Acest procedeu i gsete plicre ce mi lrg n
domeniul clcul iei costurilor de produc ie.
Inventriere se folosete pentru se cunote situ i rel
ptrimoniului reflectt n contbilitte, i trebuie s se verifice
existen fptic tuturor elementelor sle, n scopul descoperirii
neconcordn elor dintre dtele nregistrte n conturi i relitte de
pe teren.
2.4. Principiile contbilit ii
Pentru se oferi o imgine fidel ptrimoniului, situ iei finncire i rezult
telor
ob inute de ctre entitte, trebuie respectte cu bun credin regulile privind evlure
ptrimoniului i celellte norme i principii contbile.
Principiul
nu sunt dmise suprevlure elementelor de ctiv i
pruden ei veniturilor, respectiv subevlure elementelor de psiv i
cheltuielilor, innd cont de deprecierile, riscurile i pierderile
posibile generte de desfurre ctivit ii unit ii;
pruden presupune nticipre efectelor unor c iuni i n specil
trnsferului de propriette cu efecte posibile supr exerci iului
su celor prcurse dej, ntruct supr lor nu se mi pote
interveni din punct de vedere contbil;
l ncheiere fiecrui exerci iu finncir se contbilizez
0
100
200
300
400
500
Milliseconds
1. Incresed durtion of crdic ction potentil
LQT3 (3q21-24)
SCN5A=N
II
III
LQT1 (11p15.5)
"
IV
Cell membrne
C
581
N
1
!KPQ
P
N
1
KvLQT1=IKs
C
2016
2. Voltge-ctivted K-chnnel delyed
in phse 3
"
LQT2 (7q35-36)
P
P
HERG=IKr
P
P
4. N-chnnel fils to inctivte completely
during phse 0
B. Different moleculr types of long-QT syndrome
N
1
C
1159
3. Voltge-gted K-chnnel delyed
in phse 3
Pssrge, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usge subject to terms nd conditions of license.276
Genetics nd Medicine
Chloride Chnnel Defects:
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (mucoviscidosis) is highly vrible multisystemic disorder due to muttions of
the cystic fibrosis trnsmembrne conduction
regultor gene (CFTR). Cystic fibrosis (CF) is one
of the most frequent utosoml recessive
hereditry diseses in popultions of Europen
origin (bout 1 in 2500 newborns). The high
frequency of heterozygotes (1 : 25) is thought to
result from their selective dvntge due to reduced libility to epidemic dirrhe (choler).
istemul
excretor. Funci de excreie, l insecte, este ndeplinit de tuburile lui Mlpighi, co
rpul
dipos i lte orgne.
T u b u r i l e l u i M l p i g h i, principlul orgn de excreie, sunt de orig
ine
ectodermic. Ele se prezint sub form unor tuburi lungi i subiri, nchise l cpetele
libere i deschise l bz lor de fixre, npoi vlvulei pilorice, prope de limi
t
intestinului mediu cu cel posterior (v. fig. 22). Numrul tuburilor lui Mlpighi v
riz
mult dup grupele de insecte. Astfel, coccidele u 2 tuburi, thysnopterele, homop
terele,
dipterele i lepidopterele 4, coleopterele 4 - 6, orthopterele 90 - 120 etc.
Din punct
de vedere histologic tuburile lui Mlpighi sunt formte dintr-un singur strt de
celule,
mri, epitelile, nvelite de membrn bzl. Tuburile u o muscultur proprie, cre
le
sigur micrile n cvitte corpului. Din punct de vedere fiziologic, tuburile lui
Mlpighi ndeplinesc rolul de rinichi, extrgnd din snge cidul uric i diferitele sruri.
Aceste produse de excreie jung prin cnlele tuburilor n intestinul posterior, de
unde
sunt eliminte prin orificiul nl odt cu excrementele. L unele insecte, tuburi
le lui
Mlpighi ndeplinesc i lte funcii c : orgne secretore de mtse, cre servesc l
confecionrte coconilor (unele specii de Plnipenni, unele coleoptere etc.) su
orgne secretore unor fermeni. L fungivoride (Dipter) prte dorsl tuburil
or
lui Mlpighi este modifict n orgne luminose.
C o r p u l d i p o s su c o r p u l g r s este rspndit n cvitte celomic
sub form dou strturi : unul sub tegument - s t r t u l p r i e t l i unu
l n jurul
tubului digestiv - s t r t u l p e r i v i s c e r l. Corpul grs este lctui
t dintr-o
glomerre de celule sferice su poliedrice, cu nucleul mic. Culore corpului g
rs este
vribil : lb, verzuie, glben, portoclie.
Corpul grs ndeplinete mi multe funcii, dintre cre cele mi importnte sunt
urmtorele : c orgn excretor i c cumultor de substne de rezerv. Astfel, corpul
grs nmgzinez, c un rinichi de cumulre, diferite sruri vtmtore
orgnismului sub form de cristle, cre pot rmne n interiorul lui tot vi insectei
su sunt eliminte prin intermediul tuburilor lui Mlpighi. C substne de rezerv
se
cumulez n corpul grs grsimile, proteinele i mi les glicogenul.
C e l u l e l e p e r i c r d i l e su n e f r o c i t e l e se prezint sub
form
unor mse celulre, situte n propiere vsului snguin, pe fibrele su ntre fibr
ele
difrgmei dorsle. Ele extrg din snge diferite corpuri strine (unele substne
proteice, clorofil etc.).
G l n d e l e l b i l e se ntlnesc l unele grupe de insecte inferiore
(collembole - poduride etc.), l cre tuburile lui Mlpighi lipsesc. Excretele l
or sunt
eliminte printr-un cnl cre se deschide l bz buzei superiore.
324.8. SISTEMUL SECRETOR
Sistemul secretor l insectelor este lctuit din dou tipuri de glnde: exocrine i
endocrine. Secreiile glndelor exocrine jung l diferite orgne prin intermediul
unor
cnle specile. Glndele endocrine sunt lipsite de cnle, ir secreiile lor sun
t
trnsportte cu jutorul sngelui n tote regiunile corpului.
Glndele exocrine sunt forte diferite c origine i funcie. Ele sunt reprtizte
n diferite regiuni le corpului insectelor (n tegument, tubul digestiv, orgnele g
enitle
etc.). Unele dintre glndele exocrine sunt prezentte n continure.
G l n d e l e c e r i e r e, cre secret cer, se ntlnesc l unele grupe de
homoptere (coccide, leurodide, fide).
G l n d e l e l c c i p r e se gsesc l unele specii de coccide (Lccifer
lcc). Ele secret lcuri specile, cre reprezint un mestec de rini i cer.
G l n d e l e r e p u l s i v e secret substne cu mirosuri puternice i
respingtore, cre u rol de prre. Ele sunt situte pe torce i bdomen (l
Eurygster), l rticuliile piciorelor (l Meloe, Coccinell) etc.
G l n d e l e p r o d u c t o r e d e f e r o m o n i, frecvente l numeros
e
specii de insecte, sunt formiuni glndulre, de o mre vriette, situte n difer
ite
regiuni le corpului (pe ripi, pe bdomen, n bdomen etc.). Secreiile cestor gl
nde,
substne chimice prin intermediul cror indivizii celeei specii comunic ntre ei,
sunt cunoscute sub denumire de f e r o m o n i. Ei sunt n mod tipic odoriferi i
cionez direct supr sistemului nervos l individului receptor.
n funcie de semnifici mesjului, feromonii sunt mprii n dou mri grupe:
feromoni de dezvoltre (metbolici) i feromoni de ciune (de declnre).
F e r o m o n i i d e d e z v o l t r e, cre induc l indivizii receptori une
le
modificri metbolice su de dezvoltre.
F e r o m o n i d e c i u n e, cre ntrenez schimbri de comportment.
Cele mi importnte tipuri sunt redte mi jos.
F e r o m o n i d e b l i z j, cu cre este mrct intinerriul de deplsre
spre
surs de hrn etc. (l insectele socile, l crii de scor i de lemn).
F e r o m o n i d e o v i p o z i i e, cu cre sunt mrcte locurile propice
(nri) su "interzise" (mutele fructelor) pentru depunere oulor.
F e r o m o n i d e l r m , cre determin fug (dispersre) indivizilor
populiei n momentul tcului unui prdtor (l fide).
F e r o m o n i d e g r e g r e, cre sigur concentrre populiei n
vedere migriei su populrii unui biotip (lcuste, crii de lemn i scor) i
coeziune fmiliei (l insectele socile).
F e r o m o n i s e x u l i cre mediz reliile dintre cele dou sexe ninte,
n timpul i dup mperechere. Sunt cunoscute trei grupe de feromoni sexuli.
Atrctni sexuli, produi de unul din sexe pentru trgere sexului opus n
vedere mperecherii. Se cunosc, pn n prezent, trctni sexuli l numerose specii
de insecte din ordinele : Lepidopter, Coleopter, Hymenopter etc. n mjoritte
czurilor, feromonii sunt produi de femel i u ciune trctiv supr msculului,
dr sunt czuri cnd feromonul este produs de mscul i exercit trcie supr femelei
.
L unele specii, reduse c numr, feromonii sunt produi i de mscul i de femel.
Atrctnii sexuli u o mre nsemntte prctic, utilizndu-se ndeosebi n
prognoz i combtere unor specii de insecte duntore.
Afrodisici, produi de ctre msculii tri, cu scopul de excit femelele i de
le determin s ccepte mperechere.
33Repeleni sexuli, produi n prtul genitl l msculului i introdui odt cu
sperm n cel l femelei. Se mrchez stfel femelele fecundte i i determin pe
ceilli msculi s le evite.
L insecte se ntlnesc i lte tipuri de glnde, dintre cre menionm: g l n- d e
u r t i c n t e (l lrvele unor specii de lepidoptere: Pythiocmp, Lymntri
etc.), cu
rol de prre: g l n d e s e r i c i p r e, din cror secreie se formez firul
de
formez
creierul l insecte, sunt ezi n cpsul ceflic, desupr esofgului. Ei sunt
constituii din 3 perechi de gnglioni: protocerebrum, deutocerebrum i tritocerebru
m.
Protocerebrum, corespunztor primului segment ceflic (cronul), reprezint
prte ce mi dezvoltt creierului i trimite nervi l orgnele vizule (ochii c
ompui
i ocelii).
Deutocerebrum, corespunztor segmentului ntenl, inervez ntenele, ir
tritocerebrum, corespunztor segmentului lbrl, trimite nervi l buz superior i
regiune frontl.
Prin inelul periesofgin creierul este legt de gnglionii subesofgieni.
G n g l i o n i i s u b e s o f g i e n i sunt situi sub esofg i s-u formt
din
contopire trei perechi de gnglioni, cre corespund segmentelor : mndibulr,
mxilr i lbil. Ei inervez mndibulele, mxilele i buz inferior.
Fig. 28 - Sistemul nervos l insecte :
- vzut ventrl; b - vzut dorsl (gnglionii ceflici i torcici);
Ant - ntene; Ao - ort; Cll - corpor llt; Ccr - corpor crdic;
Ccen - corp centrl; Com - comisur; Con - conectiv; Confr - conectiv
frontl; Cped - corp peduncult; Deut - deutocerebrum; Ghip - gnglioni
hipocerebrli; Gn - gnglioni; Gs - gnglioni subesofgieni; Gven - gnglioni
ventrli; Nnt - nervi ntenli; Nr - nervii ripilor; Npc - nervii piciorelor
;
Nr - nervul recurent; Nsim - nervii sistemului simptic; Oc - ochi; Ocl - oceli;
Oes - esofg; Pcer - punte cerebrl; Prot - protocerebrum; Trit - tritocerebrum
(dup W e b e r).
35L n u l n e r v o s v e n t r l este lctuit, n generl, din 3 perechi de
gnglioni torcici i 8 perechi de gnglioni bdominli. Acest numr de gnglioni i
lnului nervos ventrl se ntlnete de obicei n stdiul embrionr i l unele insecte
inferiore. L mre mjoritte insectelor numrul gnglionilor este mi mic dt
orit
contopirii cestor ntre ei. Astfel, gnglionii torcici fuzionez dese, uneori i
cu
prim pereche de gnglioni bdominli, formnd o singur ms gnglionr. De
semene, ultimele 2 - 3 perechi de gnglioni bdominli se pot contopi ntre ei. n
rport cu grdul de fuzionre gnglionilor l insecte se constt deosebiri evid
ente n
privin numrului gnglionilor nervoi, tt de l specie l specie ct i l ceei
specie, n funcie de sex su stdiul de dezvoltre. Astfel, l lrvele de lbine ex
ist 3
perechi de gnglioni torcici i 8 perechi de gnglioni bdominli, pe cnd l duli
numrul lor se reduce l 2 perechi de gnglioni torcici i 5 perechi bdominli. L
unele insecte se pot contopi toi gnglionii lnului nervos ventrl cu gnglionii
subesofgieni ntr-o singur ms (l unele homoptere, coleoptere, l lrvele unor
diptere etc.). De l gnglionii lnului nervos ventrl plec nervi l orgnele din
regiunile n cre se gsesc. Astfel, gnglionii torcici inervez muscultur
segmentelor respective, piciorele i ripile, ir gnglionii bdominli muscultu
r
bdomenului etc.
S i s t e m u l n e r v o s s i m p t i c su v i s c e r l este lctuit din
urmtorele pri : sistemul nervos stomtogstric, nervul ventrl nepereche i sistemul
simptic cudl.
S i s t e m u l s t o m t o g s t r i c este n legtur direct cu tritocerebrum i
inervez regiune nterior tubului digestiv (intestinul nterior i cel mijlociu)
.
N e r v u l v e n t r l n e p e r e c h e, mi dezvoltt n bdomen, se ntinde su
b
form unor fscicule subiri de- lungul lnului gnglionr ventrl, printre conect
ivele
1. Obiective e
2.1
L sfritul c cestei unit i de nvr re studenii vor fi cpb bili s:
identi fice obiectu ul de studiu l contbili it ii;
identi fice proced deele ce pr r in metode i contbilit ii;
identi fice i s n n eleg rolu ul principiil or contbili it ii;
identi fice func ii ile contbil lit ii i ne ecesitte p
plicrii ce estor n
contb bilitte fin ncir i n n contbilit te de gest tiune.
2 Obiect tul contbil lit ii
2.2.
C orice di sciplin tii in ific, con ntbilitte reprezint simultn
C
s
o teorie
t
i me etod. n
clitte s de teor rie tiin ific c, contbil itte repre ezint un sis stem de pr
i incipii i cu unotin e
cre ex xplic i inf formez, ir
i c meto
od su teh hnic, un n nsmblu co oerent de procedee,
p
instrume ente prin c re se observ v i nregis strez resu ursele econo omice le so
ociet ii, sep prte c
utilit i ptrimonil le.
p ii cu
Concep
1. Concep p i dmin nistrtiv consider c obiectu ul contbil lit ii l
privire l constit tuie reflect re i con ntrolul, n expresie vloric,
v
fptelor
delimit re dmini istrtive, n n vedere sp prijinirii m ngementu ului, pen
tru ob ine
i defin
nire cu un minim de eforturi (ch heltuieli) un n mxim de e efecte eco onomice
ului
obiectu (rezult tte-venituri i).
contbi ilit ii
2. Concep p i juridic c consider r c obiec ctul contb bilit ii l formez
f
ptrim
moniul unui i subiect de
d drept ( gent econo
omic), prin n prism
rel iil or juridice e, dic drepturil lor i obl lig iilor p pecunire
(mter rile) le unei
u
perso ne fizice su juridic ce, n core el ie cu
obiecte ele, dic cu
u bunurile i
vlorile co orespunzto ore.
3. Concep p i
econ omic
su u
finnci
r
consid
der
c
obiectul
contb bilit ii l co
onstituie cir rcuitul cpit tlului, priv vit tt sub spectul
destin iei lui, c t i sub for rm modulu ui de dobn ndire, respe ectiv sub
form de cpitl propriu
p
i c pitl strin. .
16 Obiectul contbilit ii este reprezentt de reflectre n expresie bnesc
bunurilor mobile i imobile, inclusiv solul, bog iile nturle,
zcmintele i lte bunuri cu poten il economic, disponibilit ile bneti,
Concluzie
titlurile de vlore, drepturile i oblig iile gen ilor economici, precum
i micrile i modificrile intervenite n urm oper iunilor ptrimonile
efectute, cheltuielile, veniturile i rezulttele ob inute de ceti.
Obiectivul fundmentl l contbilit ii l reprezint furnizre de
inform ii utile lurii deciziilor menite s sigure o imgine fidel
ptrimoniului, situ iei finncire i rezulttelor ob inute.
Din cest defini ie rezult c ptrimoniul presupune existen dou condi ii de
bz: un titulr de ptrimoniu (subiect de drept) pe de o prte, ir pe de lt prt
e bunurile i
vlorile economice, privite c obiecte de drepturi i oblig ii, precum i titulrul d
e ptrimoniu.
Structur de nsmblu ptrimoniului este urmtore:
PATRIMONIU
BUNURI ECONOMICE
PATRIMONIU PROPRIU
(DREPTURI)
PATRIMONIU STRIN
(OBLIGA II)
Bunurile economice se concretizez n bunuri mterile (terenuri, cldiri, utilje,
mijloce de trnsport, stocuri de mterii prime etc.) i nemterile (proiecte, pr
ogrme
informtice etc.) formnd vere entit ii.
Reliile de drepturi se refer l fptul c entitte i procur o prte din vere din
surse proprii, ir bunurile procurte i prin de drept.
Reliile de obligii se refer l fptul c entitte i procur o prte din vere din
surse mprumutte, fiind obligt s restituie terilor contrvlore bunurilor procur
te.
Contbilitte se ocup cu reflectre n expresie vloric ptrimoniului, e
nregistrez circuitul elementelor ptrimonile n condiii concrete de timp i spiu,
clculez mrime cestor elemente i reflect micre ptrimoniului prin operiuni de
intrri i ieiri 1 .
1
Ghe. Tlghir, Ghe. Negoescu Contbilitte pe nelesul tuturor. Editur All, Bucur
eti, 1998.
17Contbilitte studiz modul de gestionre ptrimoniului, fundmentez
deciziile referitore l finnre i utilizre elementelor ptrimonile, controle
z relizre
deciziilor i stbilete rspunderi privind integritte i dezvoltre ptrimoniului.
De semene, contbilitte studiz echilibrul globl l ptrimoniului, prin
respectre ecuiei ptrimonile:
BUNURI ECONOMICE = DREPTURI + OBLIGA II
cu derivtele sle:
Drepturi = Bunuri economice Obligii
i
Obligii = Bunuri economice Drepturi
n consecin, entitte reprezint o unitte ptrimonil, l crei ptrimoniu pote fi
privit sub dublu spect: l mijlocelor economice (bunurile/vere) i l surselor
de
procurre cestor mijloce (cpitlul) proprii i strine.
nd
Utt =
where s
285
Thf Wve Eqution - Derivtion nd Uniqueness
~ [)]
(I)
(To/D).~uxx + (To/D)'~ [~]
(J)
ux '
= (1 + u;)t . Thus, (I) implies tht G(s) == g(s)/s is independent of x. Now
(I' )
for ll Xl nd x2 in [O,L] (Why?). For ny fixed time t, we my choose xl to be
point such
tht
UX(xl,t)
is
O. (Here we ssume tht the ends of the string re fixed nd pply Rolle's
theorem.) Thus S(XI,t) = 1, nd since G(I) = g(I)/1 = 1, (I') yields 1 = G(S(x2,
t)) for ny
x2 nd ny t during the vibrtion. In other words, g(s) = s for ny stretch s wh
ich is
encountered during trnsverse vibrtion. Thus, the PDE (J) reduces to the wve
eqution
In mny derivtions, the PDE (J) is linerized (cf. Section 1.2) by the outright
tht u x 2 is negligible, so tht one cn (ll too conveniently!) set s = 1 in t
he PDE
ssumption
.
Remrk.
(J), which then becomes the liner wve eqution (**). However, the ssumption t
ht u; is
smll presupposes some knowledge bout the solution of the typiclly nonliner P
DE (J) (cf.
Exmple 11 of Section 1.2, for the pitflls of lineriztion). Rther thn intro
ducing this
questionble ssumption, we hve shown tht it is unnecessry to do so, by demon
strting tht
g(s) = s follows from the ssumption of trnsverse vibrtions nd Newton's lw.
The property
g(s) = s mens tht the string behves s spring or rubber bnd which is str
etched, but not
by too much, so tht Hooke's lw holds (cf. Exmple 6 of Section 1.1). However,
not ll strings
stisfy g( s) = s, except in very short intervl bout s = 1. For exmple, the
tension in piece
of twine cn increse enormously even for smll stretches, wheres for string
of tffy the tension
my even eventully decrese upon stretching. In essence, we hve shown tht suc
h strings do not
dmit purely trnsverse vibrtions u(x,t) for which the stretching fctor, (1
outside the rnge of liner elsticity for some (x,t).
+ ux (x,t)2) t,
lies
0
Solving the stndrd initil vlue problem for string with fixed ends
As with the het eqution, we first find ll of the product solutions of Utt
method of seprtion of vribles. Substituting u(x,t)
X(x)T"(t)
= 2X"(x)T(t)
or
= X(x)T(t)
into Utt
= 2uxx ' using the
= 2uxx ' we get
~ = ~ = c = ,A2
2 T(t)
X(x)
,Chpter 5
286
The Wve Eqution
where A is some nonnegtive constnt. The ODE X" = A2X for X(x) is exctly the s
me s
for the het eqution in Section 3.1, but the solutions of the ODE Til = A 22T f
or T(t) re
different, becuse of the second time derivtive. The possible product solutions
fll into the
following three cses, where cl ' c 2' d l nd d 2 re rbitrry constnts:
Cse 1 (c
= _A2 < 0):
(1)
Cse 2 (c = A2 > 0):
u(x,t) = (dle At
+ d 2 e -At H cle AX + c 2 e -AX).
(2)
Cse3 (c = A2 = 0):
(3)
We will now formulte one of the simplest stndrd initil/.boundry-vlue probl
ems for
the wve eqution. Recll tht in solving Newton's eqution mx '(t) = Flt), it i
s necessry to
specify x( to) nd x I (to) in order to obtin unique solution for the positio
n x( t) of prticle.
For the wve eqution (whose derivtion ws bsed on Newton's eqution), it is
lso necessry to
specify not only the initil profile u(x,O) of the string, but lso the initil
velocity ut(x,O).
Otherwise, we will not obtin unique solution u(x,t). First we ssume tht the
ends of the
string re fixed (Le., u(O,t) = 0, ulL,t) = 0), lthough in Section 5.3, we cons
ider the cses
where one or both of the ends re llowed to slide verticlly. We expect tht un
der resonble
circumstnces the following stndrd problem will hve unique solution:
2
= uxx '
~ x ~ L,
u(O,t) = 0, u(L,t) = 0,
D.E.
B.C. U tt
I.C. {
u(x,O)
= f(x),
ut(x,O) = g(x),
--00
< t <
+00 ,
(4)
(initil position)
(initil velocity).
We require tht u(x,t) hve C2 extension to n open domin tht contins the s
trip
~ x ~ L, --00 < t < 00. As with the het eqution, the only product solutions wh
ich stisfy the
nd A = n7r/L, n = 1, 2, 3, .... By tking liner
B.C., re of the form (1), where c 2 =
combintions of such solutions of the D.E. nd B.C., we obtin solution of the
form
Section 5.1
287
The Wve Eqution - Derivtion nd Uniqueness
(5)
Note tht
(6)
Substituting t =
in (5) nd (6) yields
(7)
In summry, we hve shown the following result.
Proposition 1. A solution of the problem
D.E.
B.C.
~ x ~
u(O,t)
= 0,
u(L,t)
L,
-w
< t < +00 ,
= 0,
(8)
N
u(x,O) = f(x) = lnN=lBnSin(n11X/L),
I.c.
1
ut(x,O) = g(x) = t=l A nsin(n11X/L)
is
(9)
Remrk. Here we hve expressed u(x,t) in terms of the Fourier sine coefficients
Bn nd An of
f(x) nd g(x) respectively. Note tht An in (5) is (L/n7r)An .
0
Of course, one cn pose problems where f(x) nd g(x) re not finite sine series
s bove.
But if f(x) nd g(x) re continuous nd piecewise
on rO,L), with f(O) = f(L) =
nd
g(O) = g(L) = 0, then we know tht f(x) nd g(x) my be unitormly pproximted t
o within ny
smll positive error by prtil sums of their Fourier sine series (d. Theorem 1,
Section 4.3). Thus,
such f(x) nd g(x) cn be replced by finite sine series within experimentl err
or. Lter we will
show tht two solutions must be close, if the initil profiles nd velocity dist
ributions of the two
solutions re close (d. the Corollry to Theorem 5 in Section 5.2).
c1
Chpter 5
288
The Wve Eqution
Exmple 1. Solve the initil/boundry-vlue problem
2
= U xx '
~ x ~ L,
u(O,t) = 0, u(L,t) = 0,
D.E.
B.C. U tt
I.C. [
u(x,O) = f(x) =
-00
< t < +00,
2sin(~),
ut(x,O) = g(x) = sin() 3sin(~)
Solution. We simply pply Proposition 1 with B3 = 2,
.
Al = 1, A5 = -3, nd with ll of the
other An nd Bn equl to zero. Then
Note tht to get the solution quickly, one cn simply insert fctor of cos{mr
t/L) in the terms
involving sin t n1lX{L) in f(x) nd insert fctor of (L/mr)sin(n7rt/L) in th
e terms involving
sin(n1lX/L) in g(x, nd then dd the results to get u(x,t). 0
Hrmonics
The individul terms of the series (5), nmely (for n = 1,2,3, ... )
un ( x,t ) =
(n7rt)
[A nsm
-r- + Bncos (n7rt)]
-r- sm . (n1lX)
L
re clled the hrmonics or overtones of the string with fixed ends t x =
These constitute complete fmily of product solutions of the D.E.
U tt
(10)
nd x = 1.
= 2u xx with B.C.
u(O,t) = u{L,t) = 0, s n runs through the vlues 1,2, .... If An nd Bn re not
both zero,
we cn rewrite un(x,t) s follows. Let Rn:: (A; + B;)'t.
= An/Rn nd sin{ On) = Bn/Rn ,since (An/Rn)2 + (Bn/Rn)2 =
un(x,t) =
Then there is On' such tht cos{On)
1. Thus,
Rn[cos(On)sin{~) + sin(On)cos(~)]sin(T) = Rnsin(~ + 0n)sin(T) .
We see tht un(x,t) oscilltes between Rnsin{n1lX/L) s t vries. Rn is clled th
e mplitude
of un(x,t) nd On is the phse of un(x,t) (cf. Figure 3, where Rn= 1, L = 6 ).Se
ction 5.1
The Wve Eqution - Derivtion nd Uniqueness
u
u
u
289
Figure 3
The time tht it tkes hrmonic to complete one oscilltion is clled its peri
J:
= 2
[22vxvxt + 2v t v tt ] dx = 22
2f L 0 ox
o (vxvt ) dx
J:
[VXVxt + vtvxxl dx
= 2 2 [vx(x,t)vt(x,t)]
IL
0
= 0,
since (by the B.C. v(O,t) = nd v(L,t) = 0) vt(O,t) =~ v(O,t) = 0, nd similrly
vt(L,t) = 0.
Since H' (t) = 0, we know tht H(t) is constnt, but this constnt is 0, since H
(O) =
ccording to the initil conditions for v (note tht vx(x,O) = ~ v(x,O) = 0). 0
Remrk. The function H(t) (cf. (12)) in the bove proof is ctully proportionl
to the totl
energy of the string given by v(x,t). Indeed, the kinetic energy of the segment
of the string from
x to x + ill is pproximtely !(DLlx)[ut (x,t)]2, where D is the mss per unit l
ength. The
work done (energy expended or potentil energy) in stretching the segment from L
lx to
(Llx2+Llu2)t ~ [1 + ux (x,t)2]tLlx = sLlx , is the following integrl of the for
ce (tension) with
respect to the increse r in the length of the segment during the stretching pro
cess.
f
(S-I)LlX
I
Llx+r
r 2
(s-I)Llx
To ----x-::- dr = To(r + O"X"":":")
uX
~uX
which is tD times H(t) in (12), using v for u. For n unforced string, we expect
E(t) to be
constnt. Thus, it is not surprising tht H/(t) =
in the preceding proof. Of course, the
physicl intuition is no substitute for the explicit computtion of H' (t) bove
Remrk. Note tht the energy of the n-th hrmonic is proportionl to n2 for gi
ven mplitude,
nd it is proportionl to the tension nd the squre of the mplitude. However,
unlike the
frequency /In = tnLvT;JIT, the energy is independent of the liner density D. 0
Exmple 3. (The motion of the plucked string) Find the forml solution of the pr
oblem for the
motion of the plucked string:
D.E.
U tt
2
= uxx '
o ~ x ~ L,
B.C. u(O,t) = 0, u(L,t) = 0,
I.C.
u(x,O)
= f(x),
ut(x,O)
= 0,
where f(x) is the function with grph shown in Figure 4.
-00
< t < 00,
(14)Chpter 5
292
The Wve Eqution
U
U
o ------------------------------------------------:
:
!
!
!
! !
o
x
L
(uo > 0, 0 < Xo < L)
Figure 4
(Le., the string is "plucked" t some fixed Xo in (O,L), lifted to the displcem
ent
relesed with zero initil velocity, Le., ut(x,O)
= 0).
Uo nd
Solution. We hve
o ~ x ~ x o'
Xo
~
x
~
L.
The forml solution of problem (14) is obtined by computing the Fourier sine co
efficients Bn of
f(x) (cf. Proposition 1) nd using formul (9) with N
=
00.
(The notion of forml solution ws
introduced in Section 4.3.) Note tht f is continuous nd piecewise C 1. Integr
tion by prts is
vlid for such functions. Thus,
The endpoint evlution is zero, since f(O) = f(L) = 0 , nd from the fct tht
o ~
Xo
we obtin
Bn =
=
f ;11"[
to ~
o
0
cos(nr) dx
[u . (nn)
r 2 [ n L]2
11"
~ sm -,:;-0 2
+
u
The forml solution is
Xo 0
T
< x
~
L,
cos(nr) dX]
. (nn)]
~r sm
_
2L uo_ 1 sln(n nO)
-2
,-,:;-.
11" Xo (L-xo) n
r ~r
< Xo
x
2Lu o [1
= ~ Xo
1 ] . (nn
+ L-Xo
sm -,:;-0)Section 5.1
The Wve Eqution - Derivtion nd Uniqueness
293
(15)
Let uN(x,t) denote the sum of the first N terms of(15).
Then uN(x,t) is COO solution of the
D.E. with the given B.C .. Moreover, uN(x,O) is the N-th prtil sum SN(x) of FS
S f(x), nd
thus we know tht for N sufficiently lrge uN(x,O) will pproximte f(x) to with
in ny
pressigned error (cf. Theorem 1 of Section 4.3). Hence, for prcticl purposes,
the problem of the
plucked string is solved. While it is possible to prove tht the sum (15) conver
ges (i.e., u(x,t) is
defined for ll (x,t)), u(x,t) is not C2 nd hence is not strict solution of t
he D.E .. Using the
techniques of Section 5.3, one cn show tht for most times t, the grph of u(x,
t) in (15) consists
of three line segments whose slopes do not mtch t the two interior corners whe
re pirs of them
join. Indeed, the two corners move in opposite directions (nd with horizontl s
peed ) round
the prllelogrm formed by the originl profile nd its reflection through the
point tL on the
x-xis (cf. Figure 5 below). Observe tht u(x,t + 2L/) = u(x,t). In prticulr,
the string
returns to the ori,ginl plucked position t t = 2L/ nd repets its motion. Th
e vlues L/n,
2L/n, 3Ljn, ... , (n-l)L/n, where sin(n11X/L) vnishes re clled the nodes of t
he hrmonic
cos(n1rt/L)sin(n11X/L). Formul (15) shows tht the hrmonics, with Xo s nod
e, drop out of
the sum, becuse of the fctor sin(n11Xo/L).
0
u
.......... ~ ....... ..
.
', . . . ".! ~
j.-t --k-t -..i
0 ", .
........
"
.........
.... " ......
.........
Figure 5
xChpter 5
294
The Wve Eqution
Summry 5.1
1. Derivtion of the wve eqution: Under the ssumption tht string of liner
density D,
stretched with tension To between two points, is executing only trnsverse vibr
tions, we
demonstrte (vi Newton's eqution F = rn) tht the mplitude u(x,t) of the vib
rtion must
obey the wve eqution U tt = 2uxx ,where 2 :: TolD. In the course of the deri
vtion, we
prove tht string which undergoes trnsverse vibrtions must be linerly elst
ic (Le., the tension
t ny point is of the form sT o ' where s:: (1 + u~)t is the locl stretching f
ctor).
Consequently, it is not necessry to ssume tht u~ is negligible in order to c
hieve liner wve
eqution for u(x,t), for trnsversely vibrting strings.
2. The stndrd problem for fixed ends (Proposition 1): A solution of the proble
m
D.E.
B.C.
~ x ~ L,
u(O,t)
= 0,
u(L,t)
-00
< t < +00 ,
= 0,
(81)
N
u(x,O) = f(x) = lnN=1 Bnsin(T)'
I.C.
[
ut(x,O) = g(x) =
~n=1 Ansin(T)
(82)
is
3. Hrmonics: The product solutions of the D.E. nd B.C. of (81) re clled hrm
onics nd they
re of the form (where n = 1,2,3, ... )
where Rn = (A;
+ B;)t is the mplitude of the hrmonic, nd
define the phse On'
An/Rn = cos On' Bn/Rn = sin OnSection 5.1
295
The Wve Eqution - Derivtion nd Uniqueness
4. Energy: The energy t time t of ny solution u(x,t) of (SI) is given by
IJL [ To[ux(x,t)] 2 + D[ut(x,t)] 2] dx,
E(t) ="2
(S4)
0
which ws shown to be constnt in the proof of the uniqueness theorem (Theorem 1
). The energy
of the hrmonic un(x,t) in (S3) ws computed to be
2
it To R~ n2 in Exmple 2.
5. Uniqueness: Theorem 1 implies tht (S2) is the unique solution of the problem
(SI). More
generlly, even if the B.C. in (SI) re replced by u(O,t) = A(t) nd u(x,t} = B
(t) nd if f(x)
nd g(x} re not necessrily finite Fourier sine series, Theorem 1 sttes tht t
here is t most one
(possibly no solutions) C2 solution of the resulting problem. The proof proceeds
by showing tht
the energy of the difference of two solutions is time-independent nd initilly
zero.
6. The plucked string:
The forml solution for the problem of the plucked string is found in
Exmple 3. By truncting the forml solution, one cn produce COO solutions of t
he D.E. nd B.C.
which meet the I.C. to within ny pressigned experimentl error. However, it c
n be shown tht
the full sum of the forml solution converges to function (which is not even C
1) with corners
which move in opposite directions round prllelogrm, s in Figure 5.
Exercises 5.1
1. Solve the problem
D.E.
U tt
2
= uxx '
o S x S L,
~
< t < 00,
B.C. u(O,t) = 0, u(L,t) = 0,
I.C. u(x,O)
= f(x),
ut(x,O)
= g(x).
in the following cses:
() f(x) = 3sin(![) (c) f(x) = 0,
g(x)
sin(!p), g(x)
= ~sin(~),
= sin(![)cos 2 (![),
(d) f(x)
(b) f(x)
= [sin(![)]3,
= [sin(![)]3,
g(x)
g(x)
= 0,
= sin(![)cos2(![).
Hint. For (b) nd (c), use trigonometric identities. For (d), use the superposit
ion principle.
2. Suppose u(x,t) solves U tt = 2uxx ' ( f 0).
() Let , (3, Xo nd to be constnts, with f
v(x,t)
= u( x+x o,(3t+t o), stisfies
v tt
o.
= ((3/0')2 v xx .
Show tht the function v(x,t), given byChpter 5
296
The Wve Eqution
(b) For ny constnt w, let x = cosh(w)x + sinh(w)t nd t = -1 .sinh(w)x + cosh
(w)t.
Reclling tht cosh 2(w) - sinh2(w) = 1, show tht x = cosh(w)x - ,sinh(w)t
t = _-I. sinh( w)x + cosh( w)t (Le., (x,t) -+ (x,t) is n invertible chnge of
vribles.)
(c) Define u(x,t)
= u(x,t).
Show tht Utt - 2u xx
Ux = uxxx + uttx =
Remrk. The trnsformtions (x,t)
uxcosh(w)
= U tt + u t -1sinh(w), nd compute
-+
nd
2u xx ' mnt. By the chin rule,
Uxx nd Utt similrly.
(x,t), known s Lorentz trnsformtions, mix spce nd
time. Prt (c) shows tht the wve eqution Utt - 2uxx = 0 retins its form un
der Lorentz
trnsformtions. In this wy, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) ws led to his fmous
unifiction of
spce nd time (Le., reltivity). In most physics books, cosh(w) is written s (
1_v2/2 )-t, nd
sinh(w) is then
nd
:I:
i'(1-v 2/ 2 )-t (Why?), where vi is the reltive velocity of two observers,
= C:: the speed of light
Rj
2.99
x
108 m.s-1 .
3. In the derivtion of the wve eqution (Section 5.1) we did not consider the
effect of grvity
which exerts n dditionl force of -2hDg j
Xo
+ h, where
on the segment of string between
Xo - hnd
g = 32 ft/sec 2 is the ccelertion due to grvity.
() Deduce tht u(x,t) obeys Utt
= 2uxx g , if the effect of grvity is considered.
(b) Find solution of Utt = 2u xx - g which stisfies the B.C. u(O,t) = 0 nd
u(L,t) = 0 nd
which is time-independent [Le., u(x,t) = U(x)]. Wht does this solution represen
t?
4. In Section 5.3, we show tht the B.C. ux(O,t) = 0 mens tht the end x = 0 of
the string is
free to slide verticlly (nd similrly, for the end x = L). Show tht the proof
of Theorem 1
yields uniqueness in the cses when one or both ends re free to slide.
5. Let v(x,t) nd w(x,t) be two C2 solutions of the problem
D.E. Utt
= 2 uxx'
0 ~ x ~ L,
-00
< t < 00,
B.C. u(O,t) = 0, u(L,t) = O.
() Use the technique in the proof of Theorem 1 to show tht
~
mnt. vxtwx
f:
[2vx (x,t)wx (x,t)
+ vt(x,t)wt(x,t)]
+ vxw xt + vxxw t + vtwxx = (vtwx + vxwt)x.
dx
= O.Section 5.1
The Wve Eqution - Derivtion nd Uniqueness
(b) Let B(v,w) =
J:
297
[!Tovxwx + !Dvtw t ] dx.
In prt (), we proved tht B(v,w) is constnt, independent of t. Note tht th
e energy Eu of
u(x,t) is B(u,u). Estblish the result
B(v+w,v+w) = B(v,v) + B(w,w) + 2B(v,w).
(Le., Ev+w :f: Ev + E w' unless B(v,w) = 0).
Hint. Rther thn writing out B(v+w,v+w) in terms of n integrl, note tht B cl
erly hs the
properties B(u t ,u 2) = B(U2'U t) nd B(u t +u 2,u) = B(ut,u) + B(u 2 ,u), whic
h re ll tht is
needed to get (*).
(c) Show tht for ny two hrmonics, sy un(x,t) (formul (10)) nd um(x,t) wher
e m
f=
n, we
hve B(um,u n) = 0. Conclude from (b) tht the energy of um + un is the sum of t
he energies of
un nd u m . Is this still true if n = m? Why not ?
(d) Show tht the energy of
2:Jn~ Ansin(~)
u(x,t) =
t
2
N
Eu = 7r 4 o 2n=t
N
Hint. Eu
= B(u,u) = B(2n=tUn
N
n2[B~ +
+
BnCOS(~)]
is
(LA n/n7r)2].
N
, 2n=tUn)
sin(T)
N
= 2n=t B(un,un) +
2 2B(um,un)
= t=tB(un,un).
m<n~N
6. Consider the problem
D.E.
= U xx '
B.C. u(O,t) = 0,
I.C. u(x,O) = x( 7r U tt
~ x ~
u(7r,t)
7r,
-00
< t < 00,
= 0,
x), ut(x,O)
= 0.
() Find solution of the D.E. nd B.C. tht stisfies the I.C. to within n er
ror of .00l.
(b) By computing Utt nd Uxx t (x,t) = (0,0), show tht there is no C 2 solutio
n of the problem.
7. Consider string which vibrtes in the xy-plne, but not necessrily trnsve
rsely. When the
string is t rest the points on the string hve coordintes of the form (x,O) (0
~ x ~ L). Suppose
tht t time t, the point which ws in the rest position (x,O), hs xy--<:oordin
tes (r(x,t),u(x,t))
[e.g., for trnsverse vibrtions r(x,t) = x nd for longitudinl vibrtions u(x,
t) = 0].
() Show tht the locl stretching fctor s t the point corresponding to x is
(r~ + u~)! .298
Chpter 5
The Wve Eqution
(b) Suppose tht the tension t the point corresponding to x is still of the for
m g( s)T o. Show
tht by virtue of Newton's eqution ( F = rn) r(x,t) nd u(x,t) stisfy the sys
tem
r tt
where s
= (r~ + u~)t,
[ To ~ ux] ,
with B.C. r(O,t) = u(O,t) = u(L,t) = nd r(L,t) = 1.
= b~
[To )r x]
nd
u tt
= b~
(c) When will these equtions decouple, in the sense tht they cn be solved sep
rtely?
(d) The equtions re still vlid if D nd To re llowed to be positive c1 func
tions of x, but
then To(x) cnnot be brought outside of the prentheses. Assuming tht g(s) = s,
find the
unique time-independent (stedy-stte) solution (R(x),U(x)) of the system with t
he given B.C.,
f [To(x)]-l dx <
stndrd configurtion (x,O), x
ssuming tht
L
~
00.
~
When is R(x):: x?
(Le., when the string is in the
L, under wht circumstnces is the string relly t rest ?)
8. For string tht vibrtes trnsverslly in medium, sy ir, one must tke
ir resistnce into
ccount. Assuming tht the force due to the ir resistnce is proportionl (but
oppositely
directed) to the velocity ut(x,t) j, show tht u(x,t) obeys the eqution Utt =
2uxx - kU t ' for
some rel k> 0.
9. Use seprtion of vribles to find ll product solutions of the problem (wit
h k > 0)
D.E. Utt
= 2 Uxx - ku t ,
B.C. u(O,t)
= 0,
u(L,t)
x
~
= 0,
for the string with ir resistnce nd fixed ends.
~
L,
-00
< t < 00,Section 5.2
299
D'Alemberl's Solution for Wve Problems
5.2 D'Alembert's Solution for Wve Problems
We hve seen tht one cn represent the solution of the problem (where N < 00)
2
= uxx '
0 ~ x ~ L, -w < t < 00,
B.C. u(O,t) = 0 u(L,t) = 0 ,
D.E.
I.C.
U tt
u(x,O)
= f(x) =
N
2n=lBnsin(r), ut(x,O)
N
(1)
= g(x) = 2n=lAnsin(r)
by the series
(2)
If f(x) nd g(x) re not finite Fourier sine series, but re continuous nd piec
ewise C 1 nd
vnish t x = 0 nd x = L, we my pproximte f(x) nd g(x) to within ny (posit
ive)
experimentl error by trunctions of their Fourier sine series (cf. Theorem 1 of
Section 4.3). Thus,
problem (1) hs been solved for ll prcticl purposes, for such f(x) nd g(x),
s nerly s
nyone cn sy. However, in order tht the theory hve predictive vlue, we need
to know tht
smll chnges in f(x) nd g(x) induce smll chnges in the solution. Otherwise,
two different
pproximtions, both within experimentl error, my led to significntly differ
ent solutions.
This property of "continuity of solutions with respect to vritions in the I.C.
" ws estblished
for the het eqution by the use of the Mximum Principle (cf. Theorem 2 of Sect
ion 3.2).
However, direct trnsltion of the Mximum Principle to the cse of the wve p
roblem (1) is
flse, s the following exmple shows.
Exmple 1. In problem (1) tke f(x) = 0 nd g(x) = sin(1lX/L). Show tht the mx
imum of the
solution u(x,t) does not occur when t = 0, x = 0 or x = L.
Solution. The solution is u(x,t) = ;sin(7rt/L)sin(1lX/L). Note tht u(x,t) vn
ishes t the
ends nd lso initilly (Le., u(O,t) = 0, u(L,t) = 0, u(x,O) = 0). However, u(x,
t) 0 s direct
trnsltion of the Mximum Principle for the het eqution would imply. Indeed,
the mximum
of u(x,t) occurs t x = tL, t = tL/ (s well s t = (2n + t)L/, n = 0, 1, ... )
. 0
The reson for the filure of the direct trnsltion of the Mximum Principle is
tht it does
not tke into ccount both of the I.C. in (1). Eventully (cf. Theorem 5), we pr
ove tht the
solution u(x,t) of (1) obeys the following type of mximum principle:
mx lu(x,t)1
O~x~L
-w<t<oo
~ mx If(x) I +~ mx Ig(x)l.
O~x~L
O~x~L
(3)300
Chpter 5
The Wve Eqution
Note tht this involves both f(x) nd g(x), nd the bsolute vlues cnnot be re
moved. Using
(3), we will estblish (cf. Corollry of Theorem 5) the desired result tht sml
l chnges in the I.C.
produce smll chnges in solutions. This ws done for the het eqution in Theor
em 3 of Section
3.2. The key to obtining (3) is D'Alembert's formul for the solution of the w
ve eqution on
n infinite string (-00 < x < (0) with I.C. u(x,O) = f(x) nd ut(x,O) = g(x) , n
mely,
1
1 JX+~
u(x,t) = 2[f(x-t) + f(x+t)] + 2
g(r) dr .
(4)
x-t
This formul is of gret interest in itself, nd it voids the problem of conver
gence of infinite series
in the Fourier series pproch. Our first gol is to derive D'Alembert's formul
(4).
Derivtion of D'Alembert's formul
We cn write the wve eqution in the form
[:2 - 2 ~]U(X,t) = 0,
(5)
where the expression in prentheses is differentil opertor which opertes on
the function u to
yield U tt - 2 u xx . This opertor cn be fctored into two first-order oper
tors:
[fi2
t 2 2
rP ]
&2 u =
[ t - ox
] [ t + ox
] u .
(6)
We cn use this fctoriztion to find the generl solution of the wve eqution.
u(x,t) is ny C 2 solution of (5). Note tht
Suppose tht
In other words, the function y(x,t) == ut + u x solves the PDE Yt - yx = 0. Si
nce the
chrcteristic lines (cf. Section 2.1) of this PDE re of the form x+t = const.
, we know tht the
solution y must be of the form y(x,t) = h(x+t) for some
u t + ux
c1
= y(x,t) = h(x+t)
function h. Thus,
.
The chrcteristic lines for this first-order PDE for u re x-t
the right-hnd side h(x+t), we mke the chnge of vribles
= const..
In view of the form ofSection 5.2
301
D'Alembert's Solution for Wve Problems
w = x - t
nd
z = x + t .
Letting v(w,z) = u(x,t), we obtin
ut + u x
Thus, v(w,z)
=
I
= vww t
+ vzz t + (vwwx + vzz x )
i h(z) dz + G(w)
=
= 2vz = h(z)
.
F(z) + G(w), or
(7)
u(x,t) = F(x+t) + G(x-t) .
Hence, we hve shown tht n rbitrry solution of the wve eqution cn be writ
ten in the form
(7), where F nd G re rbitrry C2 functions. Converselx, one cn esily check
tht ny
function of the form (7) is solution of the wve eqution (Le., t 7) is the ge
nerl solution). If we
grph the function F(x+t) s function of x t fixed time t, we obtin the g
rph of F(x)
trnslted to the left by distnce of "t", s the reder my verify. Thus, F(
x+t) describes
wve with initil profile F(x) moving to the left with speed . Similrly, G(x
-t) yields
wve trveling to the right with speed . We hve shown tht the generl solutio
n of
U tt = 2 u xx is superposition of two wves trveling in opposite directions
with speed .
Exmple 2. We know tht cos(At)sin(Ax) is (product) solution of U tt = 2u x
x ' Hence, it
must be possible to rewrite cos(At)sin(Ax) in the form F(x+t) + G(x-t). Do it
.
Solution. Using the identity cos(,8)sin( )
cos(At)sin(Ax) =
= HSin( +,B)
+ sin( -,B)], with
= Ax
nd ,8 = At,
~ [sin(A(x+t)) + sin(A(x-t)] .
This exhibits the "stnding wve" product solution, s superposition of wves
trveling to the
right nd left with speed . 0
Theorem 1 (D'Alembert's Formul). Let f(x) be C2 nd let g(x) be C 1
the unique solution of the problem
D.E.
U tt
2
= uxx '
I.C. u(x,O)
= f(x),
-00
ut(x,O)
< X < 00,
-00
(-00
< x < 00). Then
< t < 00,
= g(x),
(8)
is given by
u(x,t)
= 2 1 [f(x+t) + f(x-t)]
1 Ix+t
+ -2
g(r) dr .
x-t
(9)Chpter 5
302
The Wve Eqution
Proof. We know tht if solution of (8) exists, then it must be of the form u(x
,t) = F(x+t)
+ G(x-t), where F nd G re C2 functions. The I.C. will be stisfied precisely
when
f(x) = u(x,O) = F(x + O) + G(x - O) = F(x) + G(x), (10)
g(x) = ut(x,O) = F' (x) - G' (x). (11)
Integrting the second eqution, we obtin the following pir of equtions for t
he unknown
functions F(x) nd G(x) :
F(x) + G(x)
= f(x)
nd
F(x) - G(x)
=
if:
g(r) dr + C,
where C is n rbitrry constnt. Adding nd subtrcting yields
F(x) = Hf(x) +
nd
G(x)
= Hf(x) U:
U:
(12)
g(r)dr + C],
g(r)dr c] = Hf(x) + U: g(r)dr - c].
(13)
These equtions re identities in the sense tht they hold for ll vlues of x,
s in sin2(x)
= 1 - cos 2(x). Becuse of this, we my substitute x + t for x in (12) nd x t for x in
(13), nd obtin vlid results [e.g., sin 2(x+t) = 1 - cos 2(x+t)], nmely,
1fxtt g(r)dr + C ] ,
F(x+t) = 2" 1 [ f(x+t) +
G(x-t) = -21 [f(x-t) +
lfO
g(r)dr - C].
x-t
(15)
Adding these expressions, we obtin (9). However, the bove rgument ws bsed o
n the
ssumption tht solution of the problem (8) exists. We hve just shown tht if
solution
exists, then it must be given by the D'Alembert's formul (9). We must finlly s
how tht u(x,t),
given by (9), ctully solves problem (8). Note tht F(x) nd G(x) defined by (1
2) nd (13)
re C2, since f(x) is C2 nd g(x) is C1 ((g(r) dr is C2, since its derivtive g(
x) is cl).
The right-hnd side of (9) is F(x+t) + G(x-t) for the C2 functions F nd G, n
d hence we
know tht u(x,t) defined by (9) solves the D.E.. The initil conditions of (8)
re met, since F(x)
nd G(x) given by (12) nd (13) stisfy (10) nd (11), by construction. 0
Remrk. There re no boundry conditions in problem (8), becuse the string hs
no ends. For
finite string, sy
$ x $ L, the functions f(x) nd g(x) would only be defined on [O,L], nd
f(xt) would be undefined for t lrge, mking the solution (9) undefined. We over
come this
problem lter by extending (in vrious wys tht depend on the B.C.) f(x) nd g(
x) toentrtion of the second messenger nd ends the
rection. (Digrms fter Lodish et l., 2000.) Mny cell surfce receptors ct
indirectly. When
they bind to lignd they induce series of intrcellulr ctivtion steps. This rection system consists of receptor protein, protein (G
protein) bound to gunosine residue, nd n
enzyme to be ctivted. Lignd binding lters
the receptor protein nd ctivtes the G protein
(2). This moves to the effector, e.g., n enzyme
complex (3), nd ctivtes it (4). In this wy,
second messenger is formed tht triggers
further rections in the cell, e.g., cyclic denosine monophosphte (cAMP) by mens of the
enzyme denylte cyclse (see p. 268).
References
Lodish, H. et l.: Moleculr Cell Biology. 4 th ed.
Scientific Americn Books, New York, 2000.
Wtson, J.D., et l.: Recombinnt DNA. 2 nd ed.
Scientific Americn Books, New York, 1992.
B. Hormones with immedite effects
on cells
Importnt exmples of hormones tht function
s lignds re mino cid derivtes, rchidonic
cid derivtives, nd mny peptide hormones.
Pssrge, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usge subject to terms nd conditions of license.Types of C
ell Surfce Receptors
Pssrge, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usge subject to terms nd conditions of license.
267268
Genetics nd Medicine
G Protein-coupled Receptors
The indirect trnsmission of signls into the cell
is medited by trnsmembrne proteins, which
trverse the cell membrne. A first messenger,
e.g., hormone like epinephrine, triggers n intrcellulr rection by binding to specific receptor. This leds to ctivtion of second messenger, which in turn initites series of rections tht result in chnge of cell function.
Mny of the genes for the different proteins involved in the indirect trnsmission of signls
re known.
A. Stimultory G protein (G s ) nd
hormonereceptor complex
There re mny endogenous messengers (hormones) with their own specific receptors. First
the hormone binds to the receptor (formtion
of hormonereceptor complex). The intrcellulr trnsmission of signls is minly crried out by specil gunine-nucleotide-binding
proteins, or G proteins. By binding to gunosine
triphosphte (GTP, nucleotide composed of
gunine, sugr, nd three phosphte groups),
triphosphte (ATP) by mens of denylte cyclse. Intrcellulr cyclic AMP trnsmits the ctivtion initited by the hormonereceptor
complex without molecule hvin pssed
throuh the plsm membrne. cAMP is rePssre, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rihts reserved. Use subject to terms nd conditions of license.269
G Protein-coupled Receptors
Hormone
H
Receptor
Lipid bilyer
H
Receptor
Receptor
"
G protein
inctive
"
G protein ctive (G s )
GTP
Bindin to G protein
!
#
!
#
Hormone-receptor complex
H
Receptor
"
!
Inctivtion
of G ! (GTPse)
Effect
on
effector
protein
!
#
Activtion of G !
GDP
A. Stimultory G protein (Gs) nd hormone-receptor complex
1 Norepinephrine
Phosphodiesterse
Adenylte cyclse
(mino cid derivtive)
Adenine
2 Glucon
Adenine
Adenine
(polypeptide)
P
3 Cortisol
(steroid)
4 Prostlndin A 2
P
P
Ribose
Adenosine
triphosphte (ATP)
References
Saatini, D.D., Adesnik, M.B.: The iogenesis of
memranes and organelles. pp. 459 553,
In: Scriver, C.R., et al., eds., The Metaolic
and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease.
7 th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.
Stryer, L.: Biochemistry, 4 th ed. Freeman Pul.,
San Francisco, 1995.
Watson, J.D. et al.: Recominant DNA, 2 nd ed.,
Scientific American Books, New York, 1992.
B. Seven-helix structure of
transmemrane signal transmitters
Indirect transmission of signals is more
frequent than the direct transport of ions or ligand-gated impulse transmission. Here, the
transmemrane protein is involved only in the
first step of signal transmission. Further steps
Passarge, Color Atlas of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usage suject to terms and conditions of license.Transmemr
ane Signal Transmitters
Passarge, Color Atlas of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rights reserved. Usage suject to terms and conditions of license.
271272
Genetics and Medicine
Receptors of Neurotransmitters
Impulses are relayed etween nerve cells or etween nerve and muscle cells y various transmitter molecules (neurotransmitters). Their effects are further relayed y receptors in the cell
memrane. Receptors can e differentiated according to their structure, which in turn determines their specificity.
A. Acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter
Cholinergic synapses convey the nerve impulse
from one nerve cell to another or from a nerve
cell to a muscle cell (motor endplate). Acetylcholine leads to postsynaptic depolarization
through the release of potassium ions (K + ) and
the uptake of sodium ions (Na + ). This process is
regulated y an acetylcholine receptor.
B. Acetylcholine receptors
The acetylcholine receptors are of two genetically and functionally different types. Pharmacologically they can e differentiated according to the effects of nicotine and muscarine.
The nicotine-sensitive acetylcholine receptor is
an ion channel for potassium and sodium. It
consists of five suunits: two , one , one ,
nd one (1). Acetylcholine bins as a ligan to
the two subunits. Ech subunit consists of
four trnsmembrne domins (2). Ech subunit
is encoded by its own ene (3). These enes
hve similr structures nd nucleotide bse
sequences. The lind-ted ion chnnel is n
exmple of direct trnsport without n intermedite crrier. A muttion in the second trnsmembrne reion hs been shown to chne
the ion selectivity from ctions to nions (Glzi,
1992.)
The muscrine-sensitive type of cetylcholine
receptor is protein tht contins seven trnsmembrne subunits (4). Since ech exists in the
form of n helix, it is referred to s sevenhelix trnsmembrne protein (p. 270). The
mino end (NH 2 ) lies extrcellulrly; the crboxy end (COOH), intrcellulrly. The trnsmembrne domins re connected by intrcellulr nd extrcellulr polypeptide loops (4).
Different domins of the whole protein re distinuished (5) ccordin to loction nd the
reltive proportion of hydrophilic nd hydrophobic mino cids. The mino end nd the crboxy end ech form domin just like the intrcellulr (c), nd extrcellulr portions (df).
The trnsmembrne domins locted within
the plsm membrne (1 7) consist for the
most prt of hydrophobic mino cids. The
structure of the ene product corresponds to
the enerl structure of the ene (6). The different domins re coded for by individul exons.
The DNA nucleotide sequences within functionlly similr domins re similr.
The seven-helix trnsmembrne motif occurs
in mny receptors. The enerl structures of the
enes nd of the ene products re very similr,
but they differ in their specificity of bindin to
other functionlly relevnt molecules (G proteins). They ply role not only s neurotrnsmitters but lso in the trnsmission of
liht, odors, nd tste. (Fiures bsed on Wtson et l., 1992.)
References
Glzi, G.L.: Muttions in the chnnel domin of
neuronl nicotinic receptor convert ion
selectivity from ctionic to nionic. Nture
359 :500 505, 1992.
Wtson, J.D., Gilmn, M., Witkowski, J., Zoller,
M.: Recombinnt DNA. 2 nd ed. W.H.
Freemn, Scientific Americn Books, New
York, 1992.
Pssre, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rihts reserved. Use subject to terms nd conditions of license.273
Receptors of Neurotrnsmitters
Presynptic
Acetylcholine
+
+
K+
+ + - ++ +
+ + +
- - - - - K + Hih
N + Low
N +
Polrized
Postsynptic
Depolrized
1 for
1 for
!-subunits
"-subunit
#-subunit
$-subunit
Exons
5'
A
Introns
1 2 d 3 b 4 e 5 c 6 f 7
The different domins re encoded
by individul exons
B. Acetylcholine receptor
Pssre, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rihts reserved. Use subject to terms nd conditions of license.
3'
B274
Genetics nd Medicine
Genetic Defects in Ion Chnnels
More thn 20 different disorders due to defective ion chnnel proteins resultin from ene
muttions re known. Such disorders include
cystic fibrosis (see p. 276), the lon-QT syndrome, specil type of defness, hereditry
hypertension (Liddle syndrome), fmilil persistnt hyperinsulinemic hypolycemi of infncy, some hereditry muscle diseses, nd
mlinnt hyperthermi (see p. 372), mon
other disorders.
A. Lon-QT syndrome, enetic
crdic rrhythmi
Conenitl lon-QT syndrome is chrcterized
by proloned QT intervl in the electrocrdiorm (more thn 460 ms, corrected for hert
rte), sudden ttcks of missed hert bets
(syncopes) or series of rpid hert bets (torsdes de pointes), nd n incresed risk for sudden deth from ventriculr fibrilltion in
children nd youn dults.
B. Different moleculr types of
lon-QT syndrome
Prolontion of the QT intervl in the electrocrdiorm results from n increse in the durtion of the crdic ction potentil (1). The
norml potentil lsts bout 300 ms (phses 1
nd 2). The restin membrne potentil (phse
3) is reched by proressive inctivtion of clcium currents nd incresin depletion of
potssium currents, which repolrize the cell.
In phse 0 the cell is quickly depolrized by ctivted sodium currents followin n excittory
stimulus.
LQT1 ccounts for bout hlf of the ptients
with lon-QT syndrome. The ene for LQT2 encodes 1195-mino-cid trnsmembrne protein responsible for the other mjor potssium
chnnel tht prticiptes in phse 3 repolriztion (HERG stnds for (humn-ether-r-o-orelted ene, Drosophil homoloue). LQT3,
sodium chnnel protein, consists of four subunits, ech continin six trnsmembrne
domins nd number of phosphte-bindin
sites. Homozyosity for LQT1 (KVLQT1 ene
All rihts reserved. Use subject to terms nd conditions of license.227
Genomic Imprintin
dies very
erly
2
Androenetic
1
norml
development
Extrembryonic
tissues
3
Diploid zyote
Fetus bsent
or stunted
Preimplnttion
filure in most
Norml
Fetus norml
Preimplnttion
dies
lter
4
Fetus norml
until 40 somite
ste
Preimplnttion norml,
extr-embryonic
tissues underdeveloped
Gynoenetic
A. The importnce of two different prentl enomes
Two pternl enomes
1. Hydtidiform mole
Two mternl enomes
2. Hydtidiform mole
3. Ovrin tertom
4. Triploidy 69, XXX
B. Humn embryonic development depends on presence of mternl nd pternl
enome
1.
P
Somtic cells
XX nd XY
Mle
P
2.
P Pternl
M
Inctive Active
Active Inctive
P
M Mternl
Femle
M
M
Imprint
ersed
Primordil
erm cells
P
M
3.
Imprint
reset
Gmetes
P
M
4.
Zyote
C. Genomic imprintin is estblished in erly embryonic development
Pssre, Color Atls of Genetics 2001 Thieme
All rihts reserved. Use subject to terms nd conditions of license.
Imprint
estblished228
Fundmentls
X-Chromosome Inctivtion
Durin erly embryonic development of mmmlin femles, one of the two X chromosomes
becomes inctivted. The inctivtion is induced by ene (XIST, X-inctivtion-specific
trnscript) on the proximl lon rm of the X
chromosome, trnscribed from the inctive X.
X inctivtion is mechnism to blnce Xchromosoml ene expression between femle
nd mle cells.
A. X chromtin
In 1949, Brr und Bertrm observed stinble
ppende in the nucleus of nerve cells of
femle (1 nd 3) but not of mle cts (2). The
uthors nmed this structure s sex chromtin. Similr structures were found drumsticks in peripherl blood leukocytes (4) nd
smll peripherl bodies in the nuclei of fibroblsts nd orl mucos cells (5) in humns. Ech
of these structures represents one of the two X
chromosomes nd re referred to s X chromtin. (Fiures 1 3 from Brr nd Bertrm,
1949).
B. Scheme of X inctivtion
Rndom inctivtion of most of the enes of one
of the two X chromosomes in femle cells
occurs erly in embryoenesis, t bout dy 21
in humns. In iven cell, it involves the X chromosome of either mternl or pternl oriin.
The inctivtion pttern is normlly irreversible
nd stbly trnsmitted to ll duhter cells. The
expected distribution is usully 1 : 1. In rre instnces this my be skewed towrd preferentil type of inctivtion. In extreme cses this
my result in clinicl mnifesttion in heterozyous femle if the mjority of cells contin
the muttion on the ctive X chromosome.
C. Mosic pttern of expression
Femle somtic tissues show mosiclike dis-
whole universe or rrive t theory of physics tht ws more thn pproximte.
37"There would be lot of thins bout the universe tht we simply couldn't pre
dict," sid
Dr. Thoms Bnks, physicist t the University of Cliforni t Snt Cruz.
And perhps most importnt, strved finlly of the enery even to complete tho
uht or
computtion, the domin of life nd intellience would not expnd, but constri
ct nd
eventully vnish like dwindlin echo into the silence of eternity. "I find th
e fte of
universe tht is ccelertin forever not very ppelin," sid Dr. Edwrd Witte
n,
theorist t the Institute for Advnced Study.
Tht is n understtement, in the view of Dr. Lwrence M. Kruss, n strophysic
ist t
Cse Western Reserve University in Clevelnd, who lon with his colleue Dr. G
lenn
D. Strkmn hs recently tried to limn the possibilities of the fr future. An
ccelertin
universe "would be the worst possible universe, both for the qulity nd quntit
y of life,"
Dr. Kruss sid, ddin: "All our knowlede, civiliztion nd culture re destin
ed to be
forotten. There's no lon-term future."
Einstein's Lst Luh
Until bout four yers o, n overwhelmin prepondernce of stronomers subscri
bed to
the view tht the cosmic expnsion ws probbly slowin down becuse of the coll
ective
rvity of the lxies nd everythin else in the universe, the wy hndful o
f stones
tossed in the ir rdully slow their scent. The only question ws whether the
universe
hd enouh rvittionl oomph to stop expndin nd brin itself bck toether
in "bi
crunch," or whether the lxies would sil ever more slowly outwrd forever.
It ws to mesure tht rte of slowin of this outwrd fliht, nd thus find the
lon-souht
nd elusive nswer to the cosmic question, tht two tems of stronomers strted
competin projects in the 1990's usin distnt explodin strs, supernovs, s c
osmic
becons.
In 1998 the two tems nnounced tht insted of the expected slowin, the lxi
es
ctully seem to hve speeded up over the lst five or six billion yers, s if
some "drk
enery" ws pushin them outwrd.
"It's definitely the strnest experimentl findin since I've been in physics,"
Dr. Witten
sid. "People find it difficult to ccept. I've stopped expectin tht the findi
n will be
proved wron, but it's n extremely uncomfortble result."
To stronomers this drk enery bers huntin resemblnce to n ide tht Alb
ert
Einstein hd bck in 1917 nd then bndoned, lter cllin it his biest blund
er. In tht
yer he inserted mthemticl fude fctor tht cme to be known s the cosmol
oicl
constnt into his equtions of enerl reltivity in order to stbilize the univ
erse inst
o
fmously dour sttement by Dr. Steven Weinber, who wrote in his book "The First
Three Minutes," "The more the universe seems comprehensible, the more it lso se
ems
pointless."
39Dr. Dyson wrote, "If Weinber is spekin for the 20th century, I prefer the 1
8th."
If the present trend of ccelertion continues this is the forecst:
In bout two billion yers Erth will become uninhbitble s rdully wrmin
Sun
produces runwy reenhouse effect. In five billion yers the Sun will swell u
p nd die,
burnin the Erth to crisp in the process. At bout the sme time the Milky W
y will
collide with its twin the Andromed lxy, now bout two million liht-yers w
y nd
closin fst, spewin strs, s nd plnets cross interlctic spce.
Any civiliztion tht mned to survive these events would fce future of inc
resin
inornce nd drkness s the ccelertin cosmic expnsion rushes most of the u
niverse
wy from us. "Our bility to know bout the universe will decrese with time,"
sid Dr.
Kruss. "The loner you wit, the less you see, the opposite of wht we lwys t
houht."
As he explins it, the disppernce of the universe is rdul process. The f
ster
lxy flies wy from us, the dimmer nd dimmer it will pper, s its liht is
"redshifted" to lower frequencies nd eneries, the wy police siren sounds lo
wer when
it is recedin. When it reches the speed of liht, the lxy will pper to "f
reeze," like
dncer cuht in midir in photorph, in ccordnce to Einstein's theory of r
eltivity,
nd we will never see it et older, sid Dr. Abrhm Loeb, n stronomer t Hrv
rd.
Rther it will simply seem dimmer. The frther wy n object is in the sky, he
sid, the
youner it will pper s it fdes out of siht. "There is finite mount of in
formtion we
cn collect from the universe," Dr. Loeb sid. About 150 billion yers from now
lmost
ll of the lxies in the universe will be recedin fst enouh to be invisible
from the
Milky Wy. The exceptions will be lxies tht re rvittionlly bound to the
cloud of
lxies, known s the Locl Group, to which the Milky Wy belons. Within this
cloud,
life would look much the sme t first. There would be lxies in the sky. "Whe
n you
look t the niht the strs will still be there," sid Dr. Kruss. "To the stro
nomer who
wnts to see beyond, the sky will be sdly empty. Lovers won't be disturbed -- s
cientists
will be."
But bout 100 trillion yers from now, when the interstellr s nd dust from w
hich new
strs condense is finlly used up, new strs will cese to be born. From tht ti
me on, the
sky will row drker nd drker. The lxies themselves, stronomers sy, will
collpse
in blck holes within bout 1030 yers.
But even blck hole is not forever, s Dr. Stephen Hwkin, the Cmbride Univ
ersity
physicist nd best-sellin uthor, showed in pth-brekin clcultions bck in
1973.
Applyin the principles of quntum mechnics to these dred-soundin objects, Dr
.
Hwkin discovered tht blck hole's surfce, its so-clled event horizon, wou
ld
fluctute nd exude enery in the form of rndom bursts of prticles nd rditi
on,
rowin hotter nd hotter until the blck hole eventully exploded nd vnished.
Blck holes the mss of the sun would tke 1064 yers to explode. For blck hole
s the
mss of lxy those fireworks would liht up spce-time 1098 yers from now.
40Ainst the Fll of Niht
Will there be nythin or nyone round to see these quntum fireworks?
Dr. Dyson rued in his 1979 pper tht life nd intellience could survive the
desert of
drkness nd cold in universe tht ws expndin infinitely but ever more slow
ly by
doptin ever slower nd cooler forms of existence. Intellience, could reside,
for
exmple, in the pttern of electriclly chred dust rins in n interstellr c
loud,
sitution described in the 1957 science fiction novel "The Blck Cloud," by the
British
stronomer Sir Fred Hoyle, who died in Auust.
As n ornism like the blck cloud cooled, he rued, it would think more slowl
y, but it
would lwys metbolize enery even more slowly, so its ppetite would lwys be
less
thn its output. In fct, Dr. Dyson concluded, by mkin the mount of enery ex
pended
per thouht smller nd smller the cloud could hve n infinite number of thou
hts
while consumin only finite mount of enery.
But there ws hitch. Even just thinkin requires enery nd enertes het, wh
ich is
why computers hve fns. Dr. Dyson suested tht cretures would hve to stop
thinkin nd hibernte periodiclly to rdite wy their het.
In n ccelertin universe, however, there is n dditionl source of het tht
cnnot be
otten rid of. The sme clcultions tht predict blck holes should explode ls
o predict
tht in n ccelertin universe spce should be filled with so-clled Hwkin r
dition.
In effect, the horizon -- the frthest distnce we cn see -- looks mthemticl
ly like the
surfce of blck hole. The mount of this rdition is expected to be incredib
ly smll -correspondin to frction of billionth of billionth of billionth of de
ree bove
bsolute zero, but tht is enouh to doom sentient life.
"The Hwkin rdition kills us becuse it ives minimum temperture below whi
ch
you cnnot cool nythin," sid Dr. Kruss. Once n ornism cools to tht tempe
rture,
he explined, it would dissipte enery t some fixed rte. "Since there is fi
nite totl
enery, this mens finite lifetime."
Infinity on Tril
Althouh Dr. Dyson rees with this loomy view of life in n ccelertin unive
rse, he
nd Dr. Kruss nd Dr. Strkmn re still ruin bout whether life is lso doo
med in
universe tht is not ccelertin, but just expndin nd ettin slower nd col
der.
Quntum theory, the Cse Western uthors point out, limits how finely the enery
for
new thouhts cn be shved. The theory decrees tht enery is emitted nd bsorb
ed in
tiny indivisible lumps clled "qunt." Any computtion must spend t lest this
much
enery out of limited supply. Ech new thouht is step down n enery ldder
with
41finite number of steps. "So you cn only hve finite number of thouhts," s
id Dr.
Kruss.
"If you wnt to stre t your nvel nd not think ny new thouhts, you won't di
ssipte
enery, " he explined. But tht would be borin wy to spend eternity. If lif
e is to
involve more thn the eternl reshufflin of the sme dt, he nd Dr. Strkmn
sy, it
cnnot be eternl.
Dr. Dyson, however, sys this rument pplies only to so-clled diitl life, i
n which
there is fixed number of quntum sttes. Cretures like the blck cloud, which
could
row lon with the universe, he sid, would hve n incresin number of quntu
m
sttes, nd so there would lwys be more runs of the ldder to step down. So t
he
bottom need never be reched nd life nd thouht could o on indefinitely.
But nobody knows whether such life form cn exist, sid Dr. Kruss.
Compred with the siht of the World Trde Center towers collpsin or the plih
t of
sick child, this future extinction my seem remote concern. Dr. Alln Snde,
n
stronomer t Crneie Observtories in Psden, Clif., who hs spent his life
investitin the expnsion nd fte of the universe, sid: "Life on this erth
is oin to
vnish in 4.5 billion yers. I wouldn't et hun up on the fct tht the lihts
re ll oin
out in 30 billion yers."
Dr. Dyson sid he ws still n optimist. It is too soon to strt pnickin, he c
ounseled in
n e-mil messe. The observtions could be wron.
"At present ll possibilities re open," he wrote. "The recent observtions re
importnt,
not becuse they nswer the bi questions bout the history of the universe, but
becuse
they ive us new tools with which to explore the history."
Even in n ccelertin universe, Dr. Dyson sid, humns or their descendnts mi
ht one
dy be ble to rerrne the lxies nd sve more of them from dispperin. A
nother
limmer of hope comes from the dedly nd chillin Hwkin rdition itself, si
d Dr.
Rphel Bousso, from the Institute of Theoreticl Physics t the University of C
liforni
t Snt Brbr. Since tht rdition is produced by unpredictble quntum fluc
tutions,
he pointed out, if you wit lon enouh nythin cn pper in it, even new un
iverse.
"Sooner or lter one of those quntum fluctutions will look like Bi Bn," h
e sid.
In tht cse there is the possibility of future, if not for us, t lest for s
omethin or
somebody. In the fullness of time, fter ll, physics teches tht the improbbl
e nd even
the seeminly impossible cn become the inevitble. Nture is not done with us y
et, nor,
s Dr. Dyson indictes, re we necessrily done with nture.
We ll die, nd it is up to us to decide who nd wht to love, but, s Dr. Weinb
er
pointed out in recent rticle in The New York Review of Books, there is cert
in
nobility in tht prospect.
42"Thouh wre tht there is nothin in the universe tht suests ny purpose
for
ure brins bout n increse of the thickness nd shortenin of the surfce, while, on the
other hnd, tension leds to splittin of the continentl blocks. The individul stes of perceived s
mountin formtion comprised continul processes
of splittin nd compression, whereby the oriinl
Silic crust (for which Weener ssumed thickness
of bout 3035 km) rdully decresed in surfce
re, split into seprte pieces, nd incresed in thickness. Alon with the movement of the continentl
blocks, hypothesized universl ocen (Pnthlss)
began to ivie into a shallow sea an a eep sea.
Volcanism, for Wegener, was mainly relate to the
continental fronts. Areas where tension prevaile,
such as the Atlantic Ocean, an also opening faults,
seeme to be relatively poor in volcanoes as compare
with areas such as the Pacific Ocean, where pressure
was increasing. The fronts of moving blocks mae
conitions more favorable to volcanism than i the
backs. Nevertheless, Wegener wonere whether the
mi-Atlantic rige might be consiere as a zone
where, with the continuing expansion of the Atlantic,
the floor was continuously breaking up, making room
for fresh, relatively flui an high-temperature Sima
from below! Moreover, increase volcanic activity in
some perios of Earth history might be ue to large
isplacements (as, for instance, uring the Tertiary).
Trench faults (Grabenbru che), i.e., rift valleys,
acquired new meaning as representing the beginnings
of new continental separations. Gravity measurements had shown that beneath such lines lay material
of greater density, compared to that on either side.
Therefore, these lines could be seen as incipient fissures within the continental blocks (into which the
denser Sima was rising according to the principle of
isostasy). The best examples of such separations were
provided by the East African trenches and their con-
Permian, i.e., until some 300 Ma ago, all the continents were supposely joine in one lan mass
extening from pole to pole. During the Triassic,
about 200 Ma ago, Pangaea began to break up an
the newly emerging continents starte moving into
their current positions. In the Jurassic, there were
few remaining connections except at the northern
an southern ens. Just as northern Europe an
North America remaine connecte until the oler
Tertiary perio, a connection of the southern continents seems to have persiste, running from the
southern coast of Australia over Antarctica to South
America. Later, the Antarctic block, like the
South American block in the Tertiary, move over
from South Africa towars the sie of the Pacific
Ocean. Only in the Quaternary perio, then, i the
Australian block become etache (Figure 4).
For geological an tectonic evience, Wegener
referre particularly to Suess magnum opus, publishe in three volumes uring 18851909, Das
Antlitz er Ere (The Face of the Earth). Consiering
the tectonic relations, Europe/Africa an both Americas seeme to represent the eges of an immense
expane fissure. In the north, for instance, the Greenlan massif was matche by Scaninavia, both consisting of gneiss, an the less mountainous North
America correspone to the likewise less mountainous Europe. The most striking example, however, was
the Carboniferous mountain range, calle the Armorican mountains (Suess transatlantic Altaies),
which mae the coalfiels of North America appear
to be the irect continuation of the European ones.
Wegeners theory of mountain formation was also
confirme by remarkable ifferences between the
Atlantic an the Pacific hemispheres, such as the
istinction between Pacific an Atlantic types of
coasts (marginal chains an ocean trenches in front
Figure 4 Wegeners reconstruction of the separation of the continents from the pri
meval Pangaea, from his 1926 paper Pala ogeo
graphische Darstellung der Theorie der Kontinentalverschiebungen , showing the r
elative positions of the continents during the Upper
Carboniferous (Jung Karbon), Eocene (Eozan), and Lower Quaternary (Alt Quartar)
(in two different projections). Cross hatching
represents deep seas, dotted regions represent shallow seas; rivers, recent coas
tlines, and outlines are shown only for orientation.FAMOUS GEOLOGISTS/Wegener 25
1
of the Pacific coasts, as contrasted to the wild, irregular ria Atlantic coastlines). There were also ifferences in the volcanic lavas of the two hemispheres, as
emphasize by the Vienna petrographer Frierich
Becke (18551931) an others. The Atlantic lavas
containe a greater proportion of soium, whereas
calcium an magnesium prevaile in the Pacific
lavas. Such ifferences were intelligible accoring to
the assumptions of continental movements. The
opening of the Atlantic was matche by the general
pressing of the continents against the region of the
Pacific Ocean: pressure an compression prevaile
at the coasts of the latter whereas tension an
splitting occurre at the latter.
Palaeoclimatology
Traces of glaciation uring the Permian (groun moraines lying on scratche berock) were to be foun
on the southern continents, e.g., in East Inia an
Australia. If the present-ay arrangement of the lan
masses ha prevaile at that time, this Permian ice
age woul have require an icecap of seemingly impossible size. An the north pole woul have been in
Mexico, where no trace of glaciation uring that
perio was recore. Following the iea of horizontal
isplacements, however, all regions subjecte to
glaciation came together concentric to the southern
margin of Africa. An one ha only to place the south
pole in this much reuce glaciate area to give the
Permian ice age a much more plausible form.
Wegener ha iscusse these palaeoclimatological
features since 1912. In 1924, he gave a etaile
escription of the climatological changes from the
Carboniferous through to recent times, following the
traces of glaciations, swamps, an eserts, i.e., moraines, coal, salt, an gypsum, throughout Earths
history (Figure 5). In reconstructing the respective
polar shifts, Wegener emphasize that they obviously
took place along with the great isplacements of the
continental blocks. In particular, there was temporal
coincience of the best confirme polar shift, in the
Tertiary, an the opening of the Atlantic (Figure 6).
Movement of the poles since the Pleistocene might also
be relate to the final separations of the continents in
the north an the south.
Motive Forces
Wegener was very cautious about the forces that might
have cause continental isplacements. First, it was
necessary to emonstrate the reality an the manner of
the isplacements before inulging in the hope of fining their cause. Nevertheless, he tentatively suggeste
two caniates: centrifugal forces cause by the rotation of Earth an tial-type waves within Earth, generate by the gravitational pull of the sun an the
moon. In the 1929 revision of Wegeners theory in
Figure 5 Wegener thought continental rift was the key to the climatic changes
uring Earths history. This map, publishe in the
1924 book by Koppen an Wegener, Die Klimate er geologischen Vorzeit , shows tr
aces of glaciation, swamps, an eserts for the
Carboniferous. E, Traces of glaciation; K, coal; S, salt; G, gypsum; W, esert s
anstone. Dotte regions inicate ari areas, ashe
lines inicate the positions (i.e., the pathways) of the poles, an the bol cur
ve line inicates the respective position of the equator.252 FAMOUS GEOLOGISTS/
Wegener
Figure 6 Map publishe in the 1924 book by Koppen an Wegener, Die Klimate er g
eologischen Vorzeit , showing polar shifts (ashe
lines) from the Carboniferous to recent, relate to the African table (left, sou
th pole; right, north pole). Bol lines outline the continental
blocks; hatche lines represent the Carboniferous (Karbon) perio. Perm, Permian
; Jura, Jurassic; Trias, Triassic; Kreie, Cret
aceous; Eozan, Eocene; Miozan, Miocene; Beginn es Quartar, beginning of the Qua
ternary.
Die Klimate, he also mentione convection currents
within the Sima; these ha been first iscusse as a
cause of mountain formation by the Vienna geologist
Kingston-upon-Thames, UK
2005, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
Fluid inclusions are small droplets of fluid that have
been trapped within crystals either during primary
growth from solution or at some later stage, usually
as a result of recrystallization along healed microfractures. They are ubiquitous in both naturally
occurring minerals and in laboratory-grown crystals.
To the chemist or materials scientist, these gross
defects cause endless obstacles in their quest to grow
near-perfect crystals. However, to the geologist, they
provide a unique fossil record of the various
fluids responsible for the formation and evolution of
rocks and minerals throughout the history of the
Earth.
Despite their small size (usually less than 20 mm),
their chemical composition and physical properties
can be readily determined, and the data may be used
to estimate the temperatures, pressures, and physicochemical nature of the fluid at the time of trapping.
This information has made an immense contribution
to the development of modern theories of ore genesis,
petrogenesis, diagenesis, and petroleum migration
and accumulation, and to our understanding of the
importance of the fluid phase in a wide range of
geological processes.254 FLUID INCLUSIONS
Occurrence and General
Characteristics
Formation and Genetic Classification of Fluid
Inclusions
Small changes in the chemical or physical properties
of fluids near to a growing crystal face can lead to
perturbations in the stability of crystal growth and the
development of gross defects, manifested as embayments, along crystal faces. These embayments will
seal over during a period of greater stability, trapping
a portion of fluids to form primary (P) flui inclusions. In many instances, the trappe flui will be
homogeneous at the time of trapping. In others,
where immiscible fluis are present or where mechanical entrapment of other coexisting crystalline phases
has occurre, trapping will be heterogeneous.
At some stage after primary growth, seconary (S)
flui inclusions can form from later fluis, particularly
as a result of recrystallization along microfractures.
The chemical an physical properties of these inclusions may be very ifferent from those of the earlier
mineral-forming fluis. However, if fracturing an
rehealing take place uring primary growth, the fluis
may be inistinguishable, an the terms pseuoseconary or primaryseconary (PS) appropriately
escribe such inclusions. A schematic representation
of this genetic classification of inclusions is shown in
Figure 1.
For most geological applications, it is necessary to
establish whether the inclusions are primary, seconary, or pseuoseconary, an also whether heterogeneous trapping has occurre. Heterogeneous trapping
may be recognize by the variable proportions of
"If everything we unerstan about the atom stoppe working," sai Leon Leerman
,
former irector of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, "the G.N.P. woul
go to
zero."
The revolution ha an inauspicious start. Planck first regare the quantum as a
bookkeeping evice with no physical meaning. In 1905, Albert Einstein, then a pa
tent
clerk in Switzerlan, took it more seriously. He pointe out that light itself b
ehave in
some respects as if it were compose of little energy bunles he calle lichtqua
nten. (A
few months later Einstein invente relativity.)
He spent the next ecae wonering how to reconcile these quanta with the trait
ional
electromagnetic wave theory of light. "On quantum theory I use up more brain gre
ase
than on relativity," he tol a frien.
The next great quantum step was taken by Bohr. In 1913, he set forth a moel of
the atom
as a miniature solar system in which the electrons were limite to specific orbi
ts aroun
the nucleus. The moel explaine why atoms i not just collapse -- the lowest o
rbit was
still some slight istance from the nucleus. It also explaine why ifferent ele
ments
emitte light at characteristic wavelengths -- the orbits were like rungs on a l
aer an
those wavelengths correspone to the energy release or absorbe by an electron
when
it jumpe between rungs.
But it i not explain why only some orbits were permitte, or where the electro
n was
when it jumpe between orbits. Einstein praise Bohr s theory as "musicality in
the
sphere of thought," but tol him later, "If all this is true, then it means the
en of
physics."
While Bohr s theory worke for hyrogen, the simplest atom, it bogge own when
theorists trie to calculate the spectrum of bigger atoms. "The whole system of
concepts
of physics must be reconstructe from the groun up," Max Born, a physicist at
Gottingen University, wrote in 1923. He terme the as-yet-unborn new physics "qu
antum
mechanics."
Boy s Mechanics
The new physics was born in a paroxysm of ebate an iscovery from 1925 to 1928
that
has been calle the secon scientific revolution. Wolfgang Pauli, one of its rin
gleaers,
calle it "boy s mechanics," because many of the physicists, incluing himself,
then 25,
8Werner Heisenberg, 24, Paul Dirac, 23, Enrico Fermi, 23, an Pascual Joran, 23
, were
so young when it began.
Bohr, who turne 40 in 1925, was their father-confessor an philosopher king. Hi
s new
institute for theoretical physics in Copenhagen became the center of European sc
ience.
The ecisive moment came in the fall of 1925 when Heisenberg, who ha just retur
ne to
Gottingen University after a year in Copenhagen, suggeste that physicists stop
trying to
visualize the insie of the atom an instea base physics exclusively on what ca
n be seen
an measure. In his "matrix mechanics," various properties of subatomic particl
es coul
be compute -- but, isturbingly, the answers epene on the orer of the calcu
lations.
In fact, accoring to the uncertainty principle, which Heisenberg enunciate two
years
later, it was impossible to know both the position an velocity of a particle at
once. The
act of measuring one necessarily isturbe the other.
Physicists uncomfortable with Heisenberg s abstract mathematics took up with a
frienlier version of quantum mechanics base on the familiar mathematics of wav
es. In
1923, the Frenchman Louis e Broglie ha aske in his octoral thesis, if light
coul be a
particle, then why couln t particles be waves?
BALTIMORE, April 5 -- A gasp went through the auitorium of the Space Telescope
Science Institute on Wenesay when Dr. Aam Riess, a young astronomer from the
institute, put the last mark on his so-calle Hubble iagram, a plot of the brig
htness an
spee of istant objects that astronomers use to ivine the history of the unive
rse.
The Darth Vaers of astronomy ha gathere here to take stock of their expaning
an
increasingly ark realm. Once upon a time astronomy was about what coul be seen
in
the sky, about jewel-like lights that move in eternally recurring patterns an
the soft
glow of galaxies an comets.
Now it is about what cannot be seen. In the last few ecaes astronomers have ha
to
confront the possibility that stars an galaxies -- not to mention the creatures
that inhabit
them -- are barely more than flecks of froth on a stormy sea of ark matter.
Now Dr. Riess was presenting his colleagues with evience, base on observations
of a
star that exploe 11 billion years ago, that the universe -- ark matter an al
l -- was
being blown apart uner the influence of a mysterious antigravitational force kn
own only
as "ark energy."
"We are oing astronomy of the invisible," amitte Dr. Mario Livio, a theorist
at the
Space Telescope institute, who ha organize the meeting, calle "The Dark Unive
rse:
Matter, Energy, an Gravity" last fall.
As it turne out, the meeting coincie with a NASA news conference announcing t
he
breakthrough iscovery by Dr. Riess an his colleagues an thus was ominate by
iscussions of new telescopes in space an new imensions in the universe as
astronomers grapple with the meaning of ark energy an how to take its measure
.
Now physicists, some of whom have been reluctant to take acceleration of the uni
verse
seriously, will have to explain what this ark energy is. "Those numbers are ala
rming,
an apparently true," sai Dr. Michael Dine, a theoretical physicist from the Un
iversity of
California at Santa Cruz. He escribe his colleagues as now working "franticall
y" to
fin an explanation.
19On one level, the universe, with all of its ark baggage, seems to make sense.
The total
amount of matter an energy seems to be just enough to guarantee that the largescale
geometry of space-time is "flat," or Eucliean, a result that cosmologists have
long
consiere to be the most esirable an aesthetic. On the other han, the etail
e
breakown of the constituents of the cosmos is, as Dr. Livio says, "ugly" -- 65
percent
ark matter, 30 percent ark matter of unknown nature an only 5 percent stars,
gas an
ust.
"We live in a preposterous universe," sai Dr. Michael Turner, an astrophysicist
at the
University of Chicago. "Dark energy. Who orere that?"
Of course, it was Einstein who originally orere ark energy when he inserte a
fuge
factor calle the cosmological constant into his gravitational equations escrib
ing the
universe. Lamba, as it is known, after the Greek letter, represente a sort of
cosmic
repulsion associate with space itself that kept the cosmos from collapsing of i
ts own
weight. Einstein abanone the cosmological constant when it was iscovere that
the
universe was expaning, an resiste efforts to bring it back, once referring to
it as his
biggest bluner.
But he couln t keep it out forever. In 1998 two competing teams of astronomers
trying to
measure how the expansion of the universe was slowing own because of cosmic gra
vity,
foun that the universe was actually speeing up, as if the galaxies were being
pushe
apart by a force -- ubbe, in the spirit of the times, "ark energy."
"This was a very strange result," recalle Dr. Riess, who was a member of one of
the
teams. "It was the opposite of what we thought we were oing." Was this Einstein
s ol
cosmological constant, something even weirer or a mistake?
The effect ha showe up as an unexpecte imness on the part of certain exploi
ng stars
known as supernovae that the astronomers were using as so-calle stanar canle
s,
objects whose istance coul be gauge from their apparent brightness. The astro
nomers
euce that these stars were farther away than they shoul have been in an even
ly
expaning universe, an that therefore the expansion was actually accelerating.
But ust or chemical changes over the eons in the stars coul also have imme t
he
supernovae. The cleanest test of ark energy an the acceleration hypothesis, Dr
. Riess
explaine, woul be to fin supernovae even farther out an back into the past,
halfway
or more back to the Big Bang itself. Because it is space itself that provies th
e repulsive
push, accoring to Einstein s equations, that push shoul start out small when t
he
universe is small an grow as the universe expans. Cosmic acceleration woul on
ly kick
in when lamba s push got big enough to ominate the gravity of orinary matter
an
energy in the universe, about five or six billion years ago. Before then the uni
verse woul
have been slowing own, like a Mark McGwire blast that has not yet reache the t
op of
its trajectory, an a supernova glimpse at that great istance woul appear rel
atively
brighter than it shoul. If ust or chemical evolution were responsible, such i
stant stars
shoul appear relatively even immer.
20By chance the Hubble Space Telescope ha observe a supernova in late 1997 an
early
1998 that prove to be 11 billion light-years away -- the most istant yet seen.
On Dr.
Riess s Hubble iagram it appeare twice as bright as it shoul.
"Extraorinary claims require extraorinary evience -- I hope the I.R.S. oesn
t say that
to you," Dr. Riess tol his auience, but, he conclue, "the cosmological const
ant looks
goo for this supernova."
Dr. Livio sai, "A year ago probably a large fraction of the people in this room
woul not
have believe it."
But there were more complicate explanations, forms of ark energy other than th
e
cosmological constant on physicists rawing boars, as well as the possibility
that
astronomers were still being foole. To explicate the nature of the ark energy,
astronomers nee to observe more supernovae as far back as 11 billion years ago,
to
cover the time when the universe began to accelerate.
"How fast i it go from eceleration to acceleration?" aske Dr. Riess. Answeri
ng such
questions coul help astronomers etermine how har the ark energy is pushing o
n the
universe compare with the preictions for the cosmological constant. A fast tur
naroun,
he sai, "begins to tell you there is a lot of oomph for a given amount of it.
"
"The cosmological constant is the benchmark oomph," he sai.
To fin those supernovae so far out cosmologists will have to go to space, sai
Dr. Saul
Perlmutter, a physicist at the University of California s Lawrence Berkeley Nati
onal
Laboratory an a veteran ark energy hunter.
On the groun, the supernova researchers have to employ a wie network of people
an
telescopes to etect the explosions, iagnose their type an then to watch them
fae. Dr.
Perlmutter escribe an orbiting telescope that woul perform all three function
s. The
six billion
years ago, just about the time that ark energy an the matter ensity woul hav
e been
equal. Our own sun, some 4.5 billion years ol, was on the tale en of that wave
, an now
here we are. "Observers are where the galaxies are," sai Dr. Vilenkin. "A typic
al
observer will see a small cosmological constant."
Many physicists are uncomfortable with this line of reasoning, an they are seek
ing the
answer in ifferent class of theories known as quintessence, after the Greek wor
for the
fifth element. Moern physics, note Dr. Paul Steinhart, a theorist at Princeto
n, is
replete with mysterious energy fiels that woul exhibit negative gravity. The t
rick, Dr.
Steinhart explaine, is fining a fiel that woul act like the ark energy wit
hout a lot of
fuging on the part of theorists.
"The observations are forcing us to o this," he sai. "Dark energy is an intere
sting
problem. Any solution is quite interesting."
One theory that capture the fancy of the astronomers in Baltimore was a moific
ation of
gravity recently propose by three string theorists at New York University: Dr.
Gia
Dvali, Dr. Gregory Gabaaze an Dr. Massimo Porrati. In string theory -- so nam
e
22because it escribes elementary particles as tiny vibrating strings -- the or
inary worl is
often envisione as a three-imensional islan (a membrane, or "brane" in string
jargon)
floating in a 10- or 11-imensional space. Orinary particles like electrons an
quarks
an forces like electromagnetism are confine to three imensions, to the brane,
but
gravity is not.
As a result, Dr. Dvali suggeste that gravity coul only travel so far through c
onventional
space before it leake off into the extra imensions, thereby weakening itself.
To an
observer in the traitional three imensions it looks as if the universe is acce
lerating. The
cosmological constant, in effect, he sai, is a kin of gravitational brane rai
n. "Gravity
fools itself," he sai. "It sees itself as a cosmological constant."
Dr. Dvali s theory was welcome by the astronomers as a sign that string theory
was
beginning to come own from its ivory tower of abstraction an make useful, test
able
preictions about the real worl. (In another string contribution, Dr. Steinhar
t introuce
a new theory of the early universe, in which the Big Bang is set off by a pair o
f branes
clashing together like cymbals.)
Afterwar Dr. Riess an Dr. Perlmutter presse Dr. Dvali on what they woul see
when
they looke out past the crossover point where gravity began falling out of the
worl;
woul the transition between a ecelerating universe an an accelerating one hap
pen
more abruptly than in the case of the cosmological constant? Dr. Dvali sai he h
an t
one any calculations, but he sai it was his "nave guess" that the crossover wou
l
happen more smoothly than in a lamba worl.
"I love to see this guy o some Hubble iagrams," Dr. Riess sai.
Even if Dr. Dvali coul be coaxe into proviing a preiction, however, success
in
ientifying the ark energy was not guarantee to the astronomers. Calling himse
lf a
spokesman for the "cranky point of view," Dr. Steinhart pointe out that the of
tproclaime era of "precision cosmology" was boun to have its limits. Other
cosmological parameters, particularly the cosmic ensity of matter in the univer
se, were
not likely to be known well enough for even SNAP to untangle the moels in which
the
quintessence varie over time. Worrie that the overselling of SNAP coul sap
astronomers will to come up with new ieas, he sai, "We shoul try to make as
few
pronouncements as possible."
Dr. Turner refuse to be swaye from his "irrational exuberance." Appealing to t
he
astronomers prie, he urge them to be ambitious. "We have a chance to o funa
mental
physics here," he sai. "Let s see if we can crack this nut. Maybe we ll fall on
our faces.
Maybe cranky Paul is right.
"I still have a lot of youthful juices in my boy."
Copyright 2002 The New York Times Company
23Mysteries of the Universe
IMAGINARY TIME
Before the Big Bang, There Was . . . What?
By DENNIS OVERBYE
What was Go oing before he create the worl? The philosopher an writer (an
later
saint) Augustine pose the question in his "Confessions" in the fourth century,
an then
came up with a strikingly moern answer: before Go create the worl there was
no
time an thus no "before." To paraphrase Gertrue Stein, there was no "then" the
n.
Until recently no one coul atten a lecture on astronomy an ask the moern ver
sion of
Augustine s question -- what happene before the Big Bang? -- without receiving
the
same frustrating answer, courtesy of Albert Einstein s general theory of relativ
ity, which
escribes how matter an energy ben space an time.
If we imagine the universe shrinking backwar, like a film in reverse, the ensi
ty of
matter an energy rises towar infinity as we approach the moment of origin. Smo
ke
pours from the computer, an space an time themselves issolve into a quantum "
foam."
"Our rulers an our clocks break," explaine Dr. Anrei Line, a cosmologist at
Stanfor
University. "To ask what is before this moment is a self-contraiction."
But lately, embolene by progress in new theories that seek to unite Einstein s
lorly
realm with the unruly quantum rules that govern subatomic physics -- so-calle q
uantum
gravity -- Dr. Line an his colleagues have begun to ege their speculations cl
oser an
closer to the ultimate moment an, in some cases, beyon it.
Some theorists suggest that the Big Bang was not so much a birth as a transition
, a
"quantum leap" from some formless era of imaginary time, or from nothing at all.
Still
others are exploring moels in which cosmic history begins with a collision with
a
Inspire by e Broglie s ieas, the Austrian Erwin Schroinger, then at the Univ
ersity of
Zurich an, at 38, himself oler than the wunerkin, sequestere himself in the
Swiss
resort of Arosa over the 1925 Christmas holiays with a mysterious woman frien
an
came back with an equation that woul become the yin to Heisenberg s yang.
In Schroinger s equation, the electron was not a point or a table, but a mathem
atical
entity calle a wave function, which extene throughout space. Accoring to Bor
n, this
wave represente the probability of fining the electron at some particular plac
e. When it
was measure, the particle was usually in the most likely place, but not guarant
ee to be,
even though the wave function itself coul be calculate exactly.