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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

King Saud University


College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

SUGAR PRODUCTION USING THE


CARBONATION PROCESS INCORPORATING
WATER RECYCLING AND TREATMENT UNIT

Submitted by
SULTAN AL AHMARI (428102729)
MUBARAK AL QAHTANI (428102448)
ALI AL GHAMDI (428102690)
ZIYAD AL SAKRAN (428102060)

Supervised by
Prof. MOURAD BOUMAZA
Dr. MOHAMED KAMEL HADJ-KALI

1433 1434 H (2012 2013 G)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to show our great thanks to our
supervisors in this project Prof. Mourad and Dr. Mohamed Kamel
for their help during all this semester to gain a good project. Also,
we want to thank the entire employees of the Chemical
Engineering Department for their efforts during the last 5 years and
we will not forget any moment with anyone. Finally, we want to
thank our parents and family members who supported us during
this semester.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The objective of this project is to carry out a design of plant that produces 300
ton/day of sugar from sugar beet.
The carbonation process using sugar-beet has several benefits and
advantages in comparison to the one using sugar cane. In addition to the
main product (white sugar), the sugar-beet factories produce molasses and
pulp which are used to prepare feed for cows and sheep.
The plant consists of 15 main units. Five units have been fully designed,
namely:
The Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) ,
The Rotary Drum Filter,
The Multiple Effect Evaporator,
The Natural Draft Cooling Tower
The Rotary Drum Dryer
The remaining units have been sized.
As the sugar process requires an large quantity of water, we have also
studied the water treatment and recycling part to minimize the water
consumption.
A hazard and operability (HAZOP) analysis both with the environmental and
safety have also been covered in this project.
The economical study has shown that this project requires a capital cost of
$98 million and about 3 years payback period to retain the total capital
investment.

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Introduction

............................................................. 3

1.1 Overview ........................................................................... 3


1.2 History of Beet-Sugar.. ........................................................................... 5
1.3 By Products of The Beet-Sugar Factory .............................................. 6
1.3.1 Pulp ........................................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Carbonation-Lime Residue ............................................................... 6
1.3.3 Molasses....................................................................................... 6
1.4 Sucrose Properties.. ............................................................................... 7
1.4.1 Sucrose Formation. ............................................................... 7
1.4.2 Sucrose Properties.. ......................................................................... 7
1.4.3 Sucrochemistry ............................................................................. 9
Chapter 2. Process Description ................................................. 12
2.1 Block Diagram ...................................................................................... 12
2.2 Flow sheet of Process.. ........................................................................ 13
2.3 Description of Flow sheet ..................................................................... 14
Chapter 3. Material Balance ...................................................... 15
3.1 The General Equation of Mass Balance. .............................................. 15
3.2 Mass Balance of Units .. ....................................................................... 16
Chapter 4. Energy Balance ....................................................... 21
4.1 Heat Capacities.. ........................................................................ 21
Chapter 5. Equipment Design

.................................................. 29

5.1 Reactor Design (Unit 4) . ............................................................ 29


5.2 Filter Design (Unit 7) ...................................................................... 32
5.3 Evaporator Design (Unit 8) ............................................................. 35
5.4 Dryer Design (Unit 13) . ..................................................................... 40
5.5 Cooling Tower Design (Unit 14). ........................................................ 42
Chapter 6. Sizing Equipment..................................................... 45
6.1 Sizing of Mixer (Unit -1). .................................................................... 45
6.2 Sizing of Diffuser (Unit -2). .................................................................. 46
III

6.3 Sizing of Heater (Unit-3). .................................................................... 47


6.4 Sizing of Lime Unit (Unit - 4). .............................................................. 48
6.5 Sizing of Clarifier (Unit - 5). ................................................................. 48
6.6 Sizing of Heater (Unit - 6). ................................................................... 49
6.7 Sizing of Sulfitation (Unit - 9). ............................................................. 50
6.8

Sizing of Crystallizer (Unit - 10). ........................................................ 50

6.9 Sizing of Cooler (Unit - 11). ................................................................. 50


6.10 Sizing of Centrifuge (Unit -12). .......................................................... 51
6.10 Sizing of Storage (Unit - 15). ............................................................. 51
Chapter 7. Water Recycling and Treatment ................................... 53
7.1

Overview. ........................................................................................... 53

7.2

Washing water recycling. .................................................................. 54

7.3

Diffusion Tower water recycling. ....................................................... 55

7.4

Evaporator Water Recycling To Diffusion Tower. ............................. 55

7.5

Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower. ................................. 56

7.6

Water treatment . ............................................................................... 57

Chapter 8. HAZOP and Environment ........................................... 58


8.1 HAZOP. ......................................................................................... 58
8.1.1 Reactor ................................................................................... 59
8.1.2 Cooling Tower ......................................................................... 60
8.1.3 Evaporator .............................................................................. 61
8.1.4 Dryer.. ..................................................................................... 62
8.2 Environmental.. ..................................................................................... 63
8.2.1 Pollution Control Strategies ............................................................ 63
8.2.2 Emissions to Air.. ............................................................................ 64
8.2.3 Safety.......................................................................................... 65
Chapter 9. Control Loop .......................................................... 67
9.1

Overview: ...................................................................................... 67

9.2

Diffusion Tower Control ................................................................. 68

9.3

Mixer Control ................................................................................. 68

9.4

Heater(1) Control ........................................................................... 69

9.5

Liming Control ............................................................................... 69

9.6

Clarifier Control ............................................................................. 70


IV

9.7

Heater(2) Control ........................................................................... 70

9.8

Filter Control .................................................................................. 70

9.9

Evaporator Control ........................................................................ 71

9.10

Sulfitation Control ........................................................................ 71

9.11

Crystallizer Control ...................................................................... 71

9.11

Cooler Control ............................................................................. 72

9.12

Centrifuge Control ....................................................................... 72

9.13

Dryer Control ............................................................................... 72

9.14

Cooling Tower Control ................................................................. 73

Chapter 10. Cost Analysis ........................................................ 75


10.1 Overview ......................................................................................... 75
10.2 Methods for estimating capital investment .......................................... 75
10.3 Equipment cost purchased in 2007..................................................... 75
10.4 Equipments In KSA at 2012 ................................................................ 76
10.5 Total Capital Investment (TCI).. ........................... ..81
10.6 Total Production Cost (TPC).. ........................................................ 83
10.7 Profitability Analysis ............................................................................ 86
10.8 Payback Period (PBP)86
Chapter 11. Conclusion ........................................................... 88
REFERENCES ....................................................................... 89
APPENDICES ........................................................................ 91

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Annual Consumption of Sugar in The World .......... 4
Table 1.2 Sucrose Properties .. .................................................................... 8
Table 3.1 The Materials of Process.. ............................................... 15
Table 5.1 Reactor Design . .................................................................. 32
Table 5.2 Filter Design ........................................................................... 34
Table 5.3 Evaporator Design .................................................................. 39
Table 5.4 Dryer Design . . ....................................................................... 42
Table 5.5 Cooling Tower Design ............................................................. 44
Table 6.1 Sizing of Mixer. .......................................................................... 45
Table 6.2 Sizing of Diffuser ........................................................................ 46
Table 6.3 Sizing of Heater. ......................................................................... 47
Table 6.4 Sizing of Lime Unit . .................................................................... 48
Table 6.5 Sizing of Clarifier ........................................................................ 48
Table 6.6 Sizing of Heater. ........................................................................ 49
Table 6.7 Sizing of Cooler .. ...................................................................... 51
Table 6.8 Sizing of Centrifuge. .................................................................. 51
Table 7.1 Mass Balance of Washing Water Recycling. ............................. 53
Table 7.2 Mass Balance of Diffusion Tower water recycling...................... 55
Table 7.3 Mass Balance Evaporator Water Recycling. ............................. 55
Table 8.1 HAZOP of Reactor . ............................................................. 59
Table 8.2 HAZOP of Cooling Tower ........................................................... 60
Table 8.3 HAZOP of Evaporator ................................................................. 61
Table 8.4 HAZOP of Dryer......................................................................... 62
Table 8.5 MSDS of Sugar Factory .. ........................................................... 65
Table 9.1 Control Overview. ...................................................................... 74
Table 10.1 Total Capital Investment ....................................................... 82
Table 10.2 Raw Material.. .................................................. 83
Table 10.3 Total Production Cost.. ............................................................. 84
Table 10.4 Calculations of Total Production Cost ....................................... 85
Table 10.5 Summary for Economics Calculation ...87

VI

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Beet and Cane Distribution in The World .............. 4
Figure 1.2 The Relationship Between Solubility and Temperature .. ............ 8
Figure 2.1 Block Diagram of Process............................................... 12
Figure 2.2 Flow Sheet of Process ....................................................... 13
Figure 5.1 Reactor Design ..................................................................... 29
Figure 5.2 Rotary Drum Filter ................................................................. 33
Figure 5.3 Multiple Effect Evaporator . . .................................................. 35
Figure 5.4 Rotary Drum Dryer .. .............................................................. 40
Figure 5.5 Natural Draft Cooling Tower. ..................................................... 42
Figure 7.1 Diagram of Water Recycling and Treatment ... .......................... 53
Figure 7.2 Diagram of Washing Water Recycling. ...................................... 54
Figure 7.3 Diagram of Diffusion Tower Water Recycling . .......................... 55
Figure 7.4 Diagram of Evaporator Water Recycling. .................................. 55
Figure 7.5 Diagram of Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower........ 56
Figure 9.1 Control Flow Sheet .. ................................................................. 67
Figure 9.2 Diffusion Tower Control . ........................................................... 68
Figure 9.3 Mixer Control ... ......................................................................... 68
Figure 9.4 Heater1 Control . ....................................................................... 69
Figure 9.5 Liming Control. .......................................................................... 69
Figure 9.6 Clarifier Control.......................................................................... 70
Figure 9.7 Heater2 Control. ........................................................................ 70
Figure 9.8 Filter Control. ............................................................................. 70
Figure 9.9 Evaporator Control. ................................................................... 71
Figure 9.10 Sulfitation Control. ................................................................... 71
Figure 9.11 Crysallizer Control. .................................................................. 71
Figure 9.12 Cooler Control. ........................................................................ 72
Figure 9.13 Cenrifuge Control. ................................................................... 72
Figure 9.14 Dryer Control. .......................................................................... 72
Figure 9.15 Cooling Tower Control. ............................................................ 73

VII

NOMENACLATURE

Purity

Temperature

DS

Dry substance

Mass Flow rate

CP

Heat Capacity

Density

Latent Heat

Enthalpy

Amount of heat

Overall heat transfer coefficient

Tlm

Log mean temperature difference

Volume

ha

Outlet Humidity of air

hb

Inlet humidity of air

Conversion of reaction

Xa

Initial moisture

Xb

Final moisture

Diameter

Length

Mass velocity of the dry air

Time

Concentration

Flow rate in reactor

Percentage of mole change

Submergence fraction

Cake resistance

Viscosity

Pressure drop

Compressibility coefficient
VIII

Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
"Beet and cane are almost similar in sugar content (beet typically contains
18% and cane about 15%), but are dissimilar in the amount of non sugars
(beet juice contains about 2.5% and cane juice about 5%) and fiber (beet
contains about 5% and cane about 10%). The composition differences require
different methods to produce sugar from beet or cane. The differences in
farming, composition, and processing of these crops are sufficient to justify
two separate industries:

Beet-sugar industry

Cane-sugar industry

During the last century, both industries have grown considerably. World sugar
production has increased from approximately 10 million tons in 1900 to about
160 million tons in 2012.
There are over 500 beet-sugar factories in the world. About 40% of the
worlds sugar production is from beet, and 60% is from cane. The climates of
most sugar-producing countries are suitable for growing either beet (in
moderately cold areas) or cane (in tropical areas). In only a few countries
(United States, Iran, Spain, Egypt, and Pakistan), the growing conditions are
suitable for both crops. Sugar from sugarbeet is produced in about 50
countries worldwide, in North America(United States and Canada), South
America (Chile), Asian, North Africa (Morocco and Egypt)countries, and most
of Europe.
Sugar technologists often use an old statement regarding a sugar factorys
goal: The sugar factory does not make sugar; it separates non sugars. But
this is only half a picture because todays beet-sugar factory cannot survive if
it doesnt aim for the following:
- To produce sugar with the highest efficiency.
- To produce molasses with the lowest possible purity.
- To be responsive to the natural environment with its wastes."[1]
3

Table 1.1 Annual Consumption of Sugar in The World [9]

Country
India
European Union
China
Brazil
United States
Other
Total

2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13


22,021
16,496
14,250
11,400
9,590
77,098
150,855

23,500
16,760
14,500
11,650
9,473
76,604
152,487

22,500
17,400
14,300
11,800
9,861
77,915
153,776

23,500
17,800
14,000
12,000
10,086
78,717
156,103

25,500
17,800
14,400
11,500
10,251
80,751
160,202

26,500
17,800
14,900
11,700
10,364
81,750
163,014

"Today, the annual consumption is running at about 160 million tons and is
expanding at a rate of about 2 million tons per year. The European Union,
Brazil and India are the top three producers and together account for some
40% of the annual production. However most sugar is consumed within the
country of production and only approximately 25% is traded internationally.
Sugar cane is cultivated in over 100 countries and the amount of sugar from
sugar cane is approximately 6 times higher than of beet sugar."[8]

Figure 1.1 Beet and Cane Distribution in The World [8]

"The word sugar comes from the Indian "sarkara". The chemical name of
sugar is "sucrose" in English and "saccharose" in some European languages.
Sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) is one of the families of sugars (saccharides). All
sugars belong to a larger group, known as carbohydrates (sugars, starches,
and dietary fibers). The term sugar substitutes refers to all natural and
4

synthetic (artificial) sugars other than sucrose. All sweet-taste sugars and
sugar substitutes are known to us as sweeteners.
Sucrose (sugar), glucose (dextrose), and fructose (levulose) are examples of
sweet-tasting sugars. The quantity of hydroxyl groups (OH) in molecules of
sugars contributes to their sweetness. However, not all sugars are sweet in
taste. In general, sugars with at least two hydroxyl groups (OH) in their
molecules are sweet. About 50 compounds have a sweet taste.
Sugar in its market-quality form is white and crystalline (granulated) with a
sweet taste. It is used in the kitchen, as an ingredient in sugar-added food
products (e.g., soft drinks and confectioneries), and in production of nonfood
products (e.g., detergents and ethanol). Sugar is considered as:

one of the worlds purest food products (99.95% sucrose; water is the main
remainder).

One of the most natural foods used by humans for centuries without proven
health risk.

One of the most purified organic compounds in the world and one of the
lowest priced food products."[1]

1.2 History of Beet-Sugar


"Sugarcane cultivation and the technique of sugar production began in India
probably around 2000 BC and moved to Persia (now Iran) around AD 600. In
Persia, the technique was improved; milk was used as the purifying agent;
and the filtered syrup was crystallized. Then, the Persians invented a coneshaped clay mold for the production of cone sugar (loafsugar).
In AD 800, sugarcane cultivation spread from Persia to Egypt, Syria, and as
far as Morocco and Spain. By the fourteenth century, Egypt was Europes
main supplier, via the port of Alexandria, of sugar made from sugarcane.
Sugar became popular in tea in Britain by the end of the seventeenth century.
In those days, sugar was available in large cone shapes that had to be broken
first into large pieces with a cast-iron pincer and then into regular cube size
with a little chopper.
Sugarbeet cultivation on a research scale began in 1747 when Andreas
Marggraf (a German chemist) discovered sugar in sugar-beet varieties. Later,
5

Franz Achard (Marggrafs student) in Germany and Esipov in Russia were


simultaneously engaged in the cultivation of sugar-beet varieties. They also
continued independently with research on the processing of sugar from sugarbeet in industrial scale. The first beet-sugar factory was built in Cunern (in
Germany) in 1802 by Achard and in Alyabevo (in Russia), shortly thereafter.
Beetsugar technology developed rapidly, resulting in more than 400 beetsugar factories in European countries by 1830.
During the industrial revolution between the late eighteenth and midnineteenth centuries, sugar technologists had always been the models for
other industries by developing new technologies and equipment."[1]

1.3 By Products of The Beet-Sugar Factory


"In 100 kg sugar-beet, about 75 kg is water and 25 kg is dry substance. About
15 kg of the dry substance contained in 100 kg beet ends up in the form of a
product (the amount of sugar produced is about one-seventh the weight of the
beets), and the remaining 10 kg is a combination of by-products.
The by-products of the beet-sugar factory are the following:
- Pulp
- Carbonation-lime residue (CLR)
- Molasses
1.3.1 Pulp
Pulp which are usually dried and processed as animal feed. The dried pulp is
often pelletized to increase bulk density to minimize shipping costs to distant
markets. The dried pulp is valuable cattle feed because it supplies
carbohydrates, proteins, and minerals.
1.3.2 Carbonation-Lime Residue
Sugar factories use lime, in the form of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2, known as
milk of lime] in the juice-purification station, to improve the quality of the beet
juice. After the lime has been used, the juice is mixed with carbon dioxide gas
(CO2), which precipitates lime again in the form of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). The calcium carbonate is then concentrated using cake filters

(rotary drum filters or filter presses) to produce carbonation-lime residue


(CLR).
The CLR stockpiled in the factory can take up space. Therefore, the sugar
industry has been trying to find different uses for this material. Carbonationlime residue consists of about 80% CaCO3 as dry substance. It is ideal for use
as an agricultural soil-enhancer and pH adjuster.
1.3.3 Molasses
Molasses is the runoff syrup from the final stage of crystallization, at which
stage further separation of the sugar is not possible with conventional
equipment. Beet molasses must not contain less than 48% sugar (namely
sucrose and invert sugar) and 79.5% dry substances when is offered to
consumers.
Molasses produced by beet-sugar factories usually contains about 50% sugar
and 80%dry substances. It is the most valuable by-product of the sugar
factory. Its market includes the yeast fermentation, pharmaceutical, and
animal feed industries."[1]

1.4 Sucrose Properties


1.4.1 Sucrose Formation
"Sucrose is formed in many fruits. Industrially, sugar beet and sugarcane are
the main sources of sucrose. Sucrose is formed by the photosynthetic
process .The primary product of photosynthesis is monosaccharides.
Then, two monosaccharides combine with the help of an enzyme (named
sucrase, not sucrose) to form sucrose:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Sunlight energy
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + Enzyme

C6H12O6 + 6 O2
C12H22O11 + H2O

The second equation is called a dehydration reaction (condensation reaction)


because one molecule of water is formed during reaction.
Sucrose is found in many fruits (about 7% in bananas, 5% in oranges, and to
a lesser extent in some vegetables). Sugar beet and sugarcane are the main
sources of sucrose. Sugar beet contains 15 to 20% and sugarcane 10 to 17%
sucrose."[1]

1.4.2 Sucrose Properties


Table 1.2 Sucrose Properties

Chemical Formula

C12H22O11

Density (Kg/m3)

1587.1

Melting point ( C)

185

SUCROSE SOLUBILITY

"Sucrose is highly soluble in water. The reason for its high solubility is that
sucrose contains eight free hydroxyl groups (OH) of which at least five can
attach to other molecules depending on the molecule reactivity.
When sucrose is dissolved in water, each sucrose molecule can form at least
five hydrogen bonds with water molecules. As the concentration of the
solution increases, no more free water molecules are left in the solution for
hydrogen bonding and the solution becomes saturated.
Solubility increases with increasing temperature."[1]

Figure 1.2 The Relationship Between Solubility with Temperature[1]

"Sucrose (a non polar substance) is soluble in polar solvents, such as water,


acetone (C3H6O), acetic acid (HCH3COO), and formic acid (HCOOH). But it is
not soluble in nonpolar solvents, such as chloroform (CHCl3), carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4), hexane (C6H14), heptane (C7H16), toluene (C7H8), oil."[1]

SUCROSE SPECIFIC HEAT

"The specific heat of pure and impure sucrose solutions decreases when their
concentration and temperature are increased. You can calculate the specific
heat of pure and impure sucrose solutions by using equation (1.1) :
CP = 4.187 DS (0.0297 4.6 105 P ) + 7.5 105 DS T (1.1)
DS: Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)
T: Temperature (C)
P: Purity (for pure solutions, P = 100)"[1]

SUCROSE SPECIFIC ENTHALPY:

"The specific enthalpy (in kJ/kg) of pure and impure sucrose solutions using
equation (1.2) :
H = T {4.187 DS ( 0.0297 4.6 105 P ) +3.75 105 DS T} (1.2)
DS: Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)
T: Temperature (C)
P: Purity (for pure solutions, P = 100)"[1]

1.4.3 Sucrochemistry:
"Sucrochemistry is the study of using sucrose as a raw material for production
of other products.
Many sucrose-based products are available on the market, such as the
following:

BIOETHANOL

Ethanol produced from plant sources produced from sucrose, molasses, or


sucrose containing raw materials (mainly sugarcane) is the most important
nonfood product of sucrose. Ethanol-based fuel is considered as the gasoline
9

of the future. Because of a recent steady increase of oil price, every country
tries to reduce its dependence on oil-based fuel. In the United States, a
program called 25/25 aims to get 25% of its energy from renewable resources
(e.g., ethanol, solar, and wind) by the year 2025. Ethanol produced from
sugarcane and corn plays an important role in this program.
Bioethanol is produced in countries such as Brazil, the United States (ethanol
is produced from corn), India, Pakistan, and some European countries. It is
mixed up to 85% with gasoline as a blend of fuel for most cars, or it is used
without mixing in specially designed cars. Bioethanol consumption counts for
2.5% of the world gasoline use In the world, Brazil leads sugar and ethanol
production, both of which come from sugarcane.
In Brazil, ethanol is produced from sugarcane juice, molasses, or mix of both
with an expected production of about 17.5 million m3 in 2005/2006 campaign.
As a result, Brazil became an energy-independent nation and its sugar
surplus was reduced. Ethanol produced in Brazil costs less than U.S. ethanol
produced from corn.
European countries have become interested in ethanol production from sugar
beet. France produces 125000 m3 ethanol a year from sugar beet, wheat, and
maize.

DEXTRAN

A polysaccharide used in pharmaceutical and photographic industry, and


some other polysaccharides. Dextran is produced through a fermentation
process. Sucrose is also used for the production of products such as acetic
acid (HCH3COO).

10

CARBOHYDRATES:

Carbohydrates (from carbon hydrates) are saccharides, starches, and dietary


fibers. Carbohydrates are a large class of substances with similar structures.

MONOSACCHARIDES:

Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates consisting of one unit, so


they cannot be further decomposed to a simpler sugar.
Example: Glucose (blood sugar), Fructose (fruit sugar).

DISACCHARIDES:

Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides.


Example: Sucrose (sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar).

OLIGOSACCHARIDES:

Oligosaccharides (from the Latin oligo meaning a few) consist of three to six
monosaccharides.
Example: Stachyose, Raffinose .

POLYSACCHARIDES:

Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) are long molecules that consist of


many repeating monosaccharides (hundreds to thousands) connected by
alpha 1 : 2 glycosidic bonds.
Example: Starch, Pectin, Cellulose, Dextran."[1]

11

Chapter 2. Process Description


"The agricultural department of the sugar factory is responsible for
coordinating with sugarbeet farmers the delivery, unloading, and storing of
sugarbeets, as well as care of sugarbeets during storage. At the point where
the factory starts to process sugarbeets, responsibility passes to the operation
department, which must recover as much sugar as possible from the
sugarbeets entered into the process.
Changing sugarbeet to sugar requires successive processes, called unit
operations. Unit operation is one of the subjects that differentiates chemical
engineering from chemistry at universities. Unit operation studies focus on the
chemical processes used in chemical and food factories. Sugar production is
a large-scale operation divided into smaller unit operations.
To process sugarbeet and produce sugar, unit operations are commonly used
in a beet sugar factory: Slicing, Diffusion, Purification, Sedimentation,
Filtration, Evaporation, Crystallization, Centrifugation, Drying."[1]

2.1 Block Diagram :

Figure 2.1 Block Diagram of Process [1]

12

2.2

Flow sheet of Process :

The process retainer for the project is shown in Figure. (2.2)

14

4
Diffusion
Tower

7
2
Mixer

Liming

3
8

14

13

11

Evaporator

10

Filter

Clarifier

12

15
17
Sulfitation

16

Crystallizer

18

19

Centrifuge

20

21
25

24

23

Storage

Dryer

22

26

Figure 2.2 Flow sheet of Process

13

In flow sheet, we have 15 main units of the process, (Mixer, Diffusion Tower,
Heater1, Reactor, Clarifier, Heater2, Filter, Evaporator, Tank, Crystallizer,
Cooler1, Centrifuge, Dryer, Cooler2 and Storage).

2.3

Description of Flow sheet

Figure (2.2) shows the sliced beet (cossettes) in stream 1 enters a mixer, and
the diffusion juice in stream 3 will be mixed with cossettes , after mixing
operation the thin juice (cossettes + diffusion juice) in stream 2 enters the
diffusion tower and the mass transfer operation will be between (thin juice in
stream 2 and the condensate water coming from evaporator in stream 14) ,
the pulp will exit as stream 4 , and the juice returns to the mixer and exits ,
then it is heated from 30 OC to 88 OC before entering the liming unit (stream 6)
. In liming unit there are two steps : The first is the addition Milk of Lime (MOL)
Ca(OH)2 to remove the impurities in juice after mixing operation. The second
is Carbonation Process (Adding CO2) to precipitate CaO from juice. Stream 8
(thin juice + precipitated CaO) enter clarifier to remove CaO precipitated in
Carbonation Process. Then the clarifying juice (Stream 10) is heated to 92OC
before entering the filter to remove non sugars (increasing purity of sucrose in
dry substance from 88% to 92%). The thin juice in previous units has (15%
dry substance and 85% water). In evaporation unit the concentration of dry
substance will be increased to 70% , water 30% in stream 15 with
temperature about 95OC before adding SO2 to decolorize it from impurities
with thick juice. Then, the thick juice in stream 16 enters the crystallizer to
form the crystals of sugar and the dry substance here will be 93% and 7%
water. Then the wet crystals will be cooled to 75OC before entering the
centrifuge unit (stream 19) which separate the crystals from molasses by
centrifuging force. The molasses here (stream 20) is available as a product for
selling and the wet crystals (stream 21) will enter the dryer and leave it with
100% sucrose and 0% water before cooling to 30OC (stream 24). The product
(white sugar) now is available in storage (silos) at 30OC with 100% sugar but
different shape (granulated sugar in stream 25 and powder of sugar in stream
26).

14

Chapter 3. Material Balance


3.1

The General Equation of Mass Balance :

The aim of this chapter is to carry out the mass balance calculation about the
giving flow sheet in Fig.(2.2).
The general equation of mass balance calculation will be considered as
follows: [2]
=

(3.1)

Accumulation in process equal zero .


Mass Input = mass flow rate streams enter system.
Mass Output = mass flow rate streams leave system.
In this project, we assume 300 ton/day as our product, and the factory works
180 days.
TABLE. (3.1) Materials used in the process and their abbreviation

Name

Species

Symbol

Water

H2O

Sugar

C12H22O12

Non Sugar

Mg,Ca,.

NS

- The amount of Beet entering to the process after washing and slicing
(Cossetts) is 3554 ton/day (by backward mass balance).
- Factory works 180 days.
- m1= 148083 kg/h (the amount of beet)
- m4= 29616 kg/h (the amount of pulp)
- m7= 5574 kg/h (the amount of lime added to the reactor)
- m20 = 19737 kg/h (the amount of molasses produced)

15

3.2

Mass Balance of Units :

Water

14
1

Beet

Overall mass

balance of
Diffusion

(C12H22O12)
Juice diff.

XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

Pulp
Xp= 0.2 on beet

=
Overall M.B. :
m1+ m14= m4 + m5 m1+ 3845.87= m4 + 6689.05
m4=0.2m1
m1+3845.87= 0.2m1 + 6689.05
0.8m1=6689.05-3845.87
m1=3554 ton/day = 148083.33 kg/h
m4= (0.2)(3554)=710.8 ton/day = 29616.67 kg/h
Component M.B. :
STREAM 5 :
m5DS = 0.15 (6689.05) = 1003.36 ton/day =41806.67 kg/h
m5S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m5NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m5w = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h
16

Mixer Unit 1 : The cossette mixed with diffusion juice .

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

226567.5

35184.6

4797.9

333005.34

52427.5

7149.17

236904.2

36791.67

5015

Diffuser Unit 2 : To extract sucrose from cossette by using water.


Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

226567.5

35184.6

4797.9

333005.34

52427.5

7149.17

14

160244.8

Heater Unit 3: In this unit the juice will be heated from 30 to 88 oC .

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

236904.2

36791.7

5015

236904.2

36791.7

5015

Liming Unit 4 : Liming is the step of purification where lime is added to the
juice .
Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

236904.2

36791.7

5015

241641.9

37525.4

5117.1

17

Clarifier Unit 5 : In this unit the lime will be separated from juice .

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

241641.8958

37525.4

5117.1

21321.375

9380.6167

1279.175

10

181233.95

28144.7833

3837.925

Heater Unit 6 : In this unit the juice will be heated from 88 to 90 oC .

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

10

181233.95

28144.7833

3837.925

11

181233.95

28144.7833

3837.925

Filter Unit 7 : In this unit the purity increased to 90 .

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

11

181233.95

28144.8

3837.925

12

7878.4

1390.3125

13

173355.7

28144.8

2447.375

Evaporator Unit 8 : In this unit the dry substance increased from 15 to 70.

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

13

173355.7

28144.8

2447.375

14

160244.8

15

13110.9

28144.8

2447.375

18

Sulfitation Unit 9 : In this unit added SO2 to remove color .

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

15

13110.9

28144.8

2447.375

16

13110.9

28144.8

2447.375

Crystallizer Unit 10 : In this unit the crystals of sugar will be formed .


Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

16

13110.9

28144.8

2447.375

17

10809.4

18

2301.6

28144.8

2447.375

Cooler Unit 11: In this unit the juice will be cooled from 100 to 75 oC .
Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

18

2301.5625

28144.8125

2447.375

19

2301.5625

28144.8125

2447.375

Centrifuge Unit 12: In this unit,the sugar crystals are separated from molasses
.
Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

19

2302.56

28144.33

2447.33

20

1184.25

9831.74

854.933

21

657.5

12500

19

Dryer Unit 13 : In this unit , the wet crystal entered the dryer and leave it as
dry crystal ( W= 0% , S = 100% )
Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

21

657.5

12500

22

657.5

23

12500

Cooler Unit 14 : In this unit the sugar will be cooled from 65 to 30 oC

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

23

12500

24

12500

Storage Unit 15 : To keep sugar at 25oC .

Stream

Water(kg/h)

Sugar(kg/h)

Non Sugar(kg/h)

24

12500

25

6250

26

6250

20

Chapter 4. Energy Balance


The aim of this chapter is to carry out the energy balance calculation around
units in the flow sheet given in Fig.(2.2).
The general equation of heat balance calculation will be considered as
follows:[2]
=

(4.1)

Accumulation in process equal zero


=

(4.2)

We assume 25 oC as a reference temperature for our calculations.

4-1

Heat Capacities :

CpiW = 75.4 * 10-3 kJ/kmol.oC and CpiLime= 89.5*10-3 kJ/kg.oC[2]


CpiDS From Appendix D.1 attached.

21

Mixer Unit 1

2
Beet
T= 25oC
H1

(C12H22O12)
T= 65oC
H3

Mixer

(C12H22O12)
T= 70oC
H4

5
(C12H22O12)
T= 35oC
H5

Water @ 25oC

Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kg .oC) = 75.4*10-3 kJ/kmol.oC

H1=m1cp T T = 25-25=0 H1=0


H2 = H2DS + H2W
H2DS = m2DS CpDS T
CPDS at 65oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.8775 kJ/kg.oC (From appendix D.1).
H2DS = (959.58 *103)( 3.8775)(65-25) = 148830858kJ/day = 6201285.75 kJ/h
H2W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [65-25]

= 9111034440 kJ/day = 379626435 kJ/h


H2 = 9259865298 kJ/day = 385827720.8 kJ/h
H3 = H3DS + H3W
H3DS = m3DS CpDS T
CPDS at 70oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.88 kJ/kg.oC (From appendix D.1).
H3DS = (1429.84*103)(3.88)(70-25) = 249650064 kJ/day = 10402086 kJ/h

22

H3W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [70-25]

= 1527308055 kJ/day = 63637835.63 kJ/h


H3 = 1776958119 kJ/day = 74039921.63 kJ/h
H5 = H5DS + H5W
H5DS = m5DS CpDS T
CPDS at 30oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.835 kJ/kg.oC (From appendices
attached)
H5DS = (1003.36*103)(3.835)(30-25) = 19239428 kJ/day = 801642.83 kJ/h
H5W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [30-25]

= 137933618.3 kJ/day = 5747234.1 kJ/h


H5 = 157173046.3 kJ/day = 6548876.93 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H5 + H2) (H1+H3)
Q = 7640080225 kJ/day = 318336676.1 kJ/h

23

Heater Unit 3
Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

30

3.835

6548876.93

88

3.905

72801444.38

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 66252567.46KJ/h


KJ/h))

Diffuser Unit 2

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

65

3.8775

385827720.8

70

3.88

74039921.63

70

3.88

2174126.11

14

90

43622136.58

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = -353235809.6 KJ/h


KJ/h))

Liming Unit 4

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

88

3.905

72801444.38

40

100989.46

88

3.905

74260150.38

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 1357716.54 KJ/h


KJ/h))

24

Clarifier Unit 5
Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

88

3.905

74260150.38

88

2.87

14621985.76

10

88

3.905

55695000.60

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = -3943164.0 KJ/h


KJ/h))

Heater Unit 6

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

10

88

3.905

55695000.60

11

92

3.908

59237619.49

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 3542618.875 KJ/h


KJ/h))

25

Filter Unit 7

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

11

92

3.908

59237619.49

12

92

3.908

2575166.572

13

92

3.908

56663384.47

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 931.5304 KJ/h


KJ/h))

Evaporator Unit 8

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

13

92

3.908

56663384.47

14

100

----

50343572.05

15

95

2.985

10236656.06

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 3916843.642 KJ/h


KJ/h))

26

Crystallizer Unit 10
Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

16

95

2.985

10236656.06

17

100

------

81494833.33

18

100

2.43

12809018.75

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 5967980.745 KJ/h


KJ/h))

Cooler Unit 11

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

18

100

2.43

12809018.75

19

75

2.39

8478162.50

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = -4330856.253 KJ/h


KJ/h))

27

Centrifuge Unit 12

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

19

75

2.39

555362

20

60

2.175

1412539.78

21

60

-----

949354.23

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 1806532.008 KJ/h


KJ/h))

Dryer Unit 13

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

21

60

----

949354.23

22

65

----

110167.78

23

65

----

927000

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = 87813.55 KJ/h


Cooling tower Unit 14

KJ/h))

Temperature(T)

Heat capacity of Dry (CP)

Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC)

(KJ/KgoC)

(KJ/h)

23

65

----

927000

24

30

----

106195.31

Streams

Amount of heat (Q) = -1082250 KJ/h


KJ/h))
28

Chapter 5. Equipment Design


5.1

Reactor Design (Unit 4) :

Carbonation is the step of purification where the carbonation gas is added to


the limed juice. The gassing time of the juice in this step is about 10
minutes.[1]
The carbonation has main function is to react with unreacted lime to
precipitate calcium carbonate.
C12H22O11.CaO + CO2 C12H22O11 + CaCO3

(5.1)

Assumptions :
- Operating at steady state and the reactor is isothermal .
- Negligible heat resistance between the pellets and gas.
- The pressure drop along the reactor is negligible.

B= C12H22O11.CaO

C12H22O11

XB=0.98
T=88oC
P=2 atm

Reactor

A=CO2
CaCO3

XA=0.02
Figure 5.1 Reactor Design

29

- A is limiting of reaction .
To calculate the volume of reactor, the equation (5.2) shown is :[3]

(5.2)
The percentage of CO2 in the carbonation gas entering the carbonation tank
(CO2)IN to CO2 in the gas leaving the tank (CO2)OUT , It can be calculated by
the following formula :[1]

X=

10000

(5.3)

CO2(IN) = 2 of lime juice .


CO2(out)= 0.4 of lime juice .
.

X=

10000 = 0.8

m8 = 6822.83 ton/day = 284284.6 kg/h


m(CO2)in= (284284.6)(0.02)=5685.69 kg/h
The rate of reaction is given by : [3]

(5.4)

Where:
=

= yAo

(5.5)

=1+1-1-1=0

(5.6)
30

= 0

0=

0=

( .
( .

(5.7)

= 1.35 10-3 Kmol/m3 = 1.35 mol/m3

CA = 1.35(1-0.8) = 0.27 mol/m3


=
=

=
(

= 0.98/0.02= 49

(5.8)

(5.9)

CB= CAo (49 0.8) = 1.35(48.2) = 65.07 mol/m3

Kinetic :[3]
=

(5.10)

E = activation energy = 50000 J/mol


R = gas constant = 8.314 J/mol.k
A = frequency factor = 3.29 105
T= absolute temperature = 361 K
k=3.29X105 e(-50000/(8.314)(361))
k=0.0192 S-1
Now, Applying equation (5.4) :
-rA= KCACB
-rA = (0.0192)(65.07)(0.27) = 0.34 mol/m3.s

31

FBo=

.
(

FBo= 129.22 kmol/h = (129.22)(1000/3600) = 35.89 mol/s


V= (35.8945)(0.8)/(0.34) = 84.46 m3
The volume is big , then will dived to two reactor (42.23 m3 per reactor).

Table 5.1 Reactor Design

5.2

Temperature (T)

88oC

Pressure (P)

2atm

Concentration of A (CA)

0.27 mol/m3

Concentration of B (CB)

65.07 mol/m3

activation energy , E

50000 J/mol

frequency factor, A

3.29 105

0.0192 S-1

Number of Reactors

Volume of one reactor needed

42.23 m3

Filter Design (Unit 7) :

Filtration is the process of separating solid particles from a liquid by the force
of the pressure difference on both sides of the filter medium (a porous
material). The filter residue is the solid that remains on the filter medium
(nonsugars), and filtrate (thin juice) is the liquid that passes through the filter
medium and is collected during filtration. There are many types of filters , we
will use Rotary Drum Filter in our project because the amount of cake on filter
is very big with time , and the rotary drum can stand this large amounts.
Type : Rotary drum filter (continuous filtration).

32

Figure 5.2 Rotary Drum Filter

The general relation to specify the total area of rotary drum filter "with
constant pressure drop" :[5]

=(

(5.11)

Assumptions :
- The pressure drop will be constant in rotary drum filter , P = 103.42 KPa
- The cake resistance (0 = 2.7 x 1010 m/kg)
- The compressibility coefficient of the cake (s = 0.29)
- The cycle time (Tc = 4 minutes = 4 x 60 = 240 second)
- The submergence fraction (f = A/AT = 0.4)

The total area of filter can be calculated using equation (5.12) :[5]

(5.12)

MF from mass balance = 213218.1 Kg/h = 59.22 Kg/s


Mc from mass balance = 3837.925 Kg/h = 1.066 Kg/s
MF/MC = 55.5

33

sugar = 1587 Kg/m3


C = 15 / [1 (mF/mc 1) 15/sugar] = 33.35 Kg/m3
w at (92oC) = 0.3095*10-3 Kg/m.s
Hence, the total area :
AT = 1.066 [(2.70*1010 )(0.3095*10-3)]/[2*33.35*10342140.71*0.4*(1/240)]0.5
AT = 67.7 m2
*D*L = 67.7
D*L= 67.7/ = 21.5
In filter design , the length at least double of diameter , hence, the diameter D
about 3 m and length L about 7.2 m .
Submerged area (A) = f * AT
0.4 * 67.7 = 27.08 m2 .
Table 5.2 Filter Design

Pressure drop (P)

103.4214 KPa

Cake resistance (0)

2.7*1010 m/Kg

Compressibility coefficient (s)

0.29

The cycle time (Tc)

4 minutes (240 second)

The submergence fraction (f)

40 % (0.4)

Total area of filter (AT)

67.7 m2

The diameter (D)

3m

The length (L)

7.2 m

The submergence area (A)

27.08 m2

34

5.3

Evaporator Design (Unit 8) :

Evaporation is the process of concentrating a solution by boiling to convert


some of the liquid to vapor. The evaporation station can be viewed as the
heat center of the factory because it serves the sugar factory in three ways:
- Concentrates thin juice and produces thick juice.
- Produces condensate for boilers.
- Produces vapor and condensate for heat users.
In our project, multiple effect evaporator is used.[1]

Figure 5.3 Multiple Effect Evaporator[10]

Type : (Multiple Effect Evaporator).


Assumptions :
- Number of effects = 3
- U1 = 3123 , U2 = 1987 , U3 = 1136 W/m2.oC [4]
- Boiling Point Rise (BPR OC) = 1.78DS + 6.22DS2 (DS = % sugar in each
effect) [4]
- Cp = 4.19 2.35DS KJ/kg.OC [4]
- Each effect has same surface area
- Each effect has same amount of water vaporized (V1 = V2 = V3)
- The vapor pressure at third effect is 84.55 KPa
- The temperature of saturation steam is 180OC

35

STEP 1 : The temperature of the third effect at 84.55 KPa is 95

C , the

temperature of the thick juice can be estimated as follows :


BPR3 = 1.78 (0.7) + 6.22 (0.72) = 4.2938OC
T3 = 95 + 4.2938 = 99.2938 OC
STEP 2 : From overall mass balance in each effect :
1st effect with (V1 = V2 = V3 = 160244.79 / 3) :
F = V1 + L1 L1 = 203947.9167 53414 .93 = 150532.9861 Kg/h
2nd effect :
L1 = V2 + L2 L2 = 150532.9861 53414.93 = 97118.05613 Kg/h
3rd effect :
L2 = V3 + L3 L3 = 97118.05613 53414.93 = 43703.126 Kg/h
From component mass balance in each effect :
1st effect with (V1 = V2 = V3 = 160244.79 / 3) :
0.15 F = L1x1 30592.1875 = 150532.9861 x1 x1 = 0.203
2nd effect :
0.203L1 = L2x2 30558.196 = 97118.05613 x2 x2 = 0.314
3rd effect :
0.314L2 = L3x3 30495.06962 = 43703.126 x3 x3 = 0.70
STEP 3 : The BPR in each effect :
BPR1 = 1.78 (0.203) + 6.22 (0.2032) = 0.617OC
BPR2 = 1.78 (0.314) + 6.22 (0.3142) = 1.172OC
BPR3 = 1.78 (0.7) + 6.22 (0.72) = 4.2938OC
T = TSTEAM T3Sat - BPR

(5.13)[4]
36

= 180 95 (0.617 + 1.172 + 4.2938) = 78.9172OC


T1 = T [(1/U1)/(1/U1+1/U2+1/U3)]

(5.14)[4]

= (78.9172) [(1/3123)/(1/3123+1/1987+1/1136)] = 14.831OC


T2 = T [(1/U2)/(1/U1+1/U2+1/U3)]
= (78.9172) [(1/1987)/(1/3123+1/1987+1/1136)] = 23.311OC
T3 = T [(1/U3)/(1/U1+1/U2+1/U3)]
= (78.9172) [(1/1136)/(1/3123+1/1987+1/1136)] = 40.774OC
Actual BP in each effect :[4]
T1 = TS1 - T1 = 180 14.831 = 165.169OC = TS2
T2 = T1 - T2 BPR1 = 165.169 23.311 0.617 = 141.241OC = TS3
T3 = T2 - T3 BPR2 = 141.241 40.774 1.172 = 99.3OC
STEP 4 : The heat capacity of the juice in each effect (4.19 2.35DS) :
F : Cp1 = 4.19 2.35 (0.15) = 3.83 KJ/Kg.OC
L1 : Cp2 = 4.19 2.35 (0.203) = 3.71 KJ/Kg.OC
L2 : Cp3 = 4.19 2.35 (0.314) = 3.45 KJ/Kg.OC
L3 : Cp4 = 4.19 2.35 (0.70) = 2.54 KJ/Kg.OC
Enthalpy in each effect : [4]
Effect (1) : H1 = HS2 + 1.884 (BPR1) = 2763.5 + 1.884 (0.617) = 2764.6624
KJ/Kg
s1 = HS1 hS1 = 2778.2 763.22 = 2014.98 KJ/Kg
Effect (2) : H2 = HS3 + 1.884 (BPR2) = 2735 + 1.884 (1.172) = 2737.208 KJ/Kg
s2 = HS2 hS2 = 2763.5 697.34 = 2066.16 KJ/Kg
Effect (3) : H3 = HS4 + 1.884 (BPR3) = 2668.1 + 1.884 (4.2938) = 2676.186
KJ/Kg
s3 = HS3 hS3 = 2735 592 = 2143 KJ/Kg
Heat balance in each effect , noting this relations :
37

V1 = 203947.9167 L1
V2 = L1 L2
V3 = L2 43703.126
Effect (1) : FCp1(TF 0) + S s1 = L1Cp2(T1 0)+ V1H1
203947.9167 (3.83) (92) + S (2014.98) = L1 (3.71) (165.169) +
(203947.9167 L1) (2764.6624)
Effect (2) : L1Cp2(T1 0) + V1 s2 = L2Cp3(T2 0)+ V2H2
L1 (3.71) (165.169) + (203947.9167 L1) (2066.16) = L2 (3.45) (141.241) +
(L1 L2) (2737.208)
Effect (3) : L2Cp3(T2 0) + V2 s3 = L3Cp4(T3 0)+ V3H3
L2 (3.45) (141.241) + (L1 L2) (2143) = 43703.126 (2.54) (99.3) +
(57461.5182) (2676.186)
Solving equation for effects (2) and (3) simultaneously :
L1 = 155188.6455 Kg/h ,

V1 = 48759.2712 Kg/h

L2 = 101164.6418 Kg/h ,

V2 = 54024.0037 Kg/h

L3 = 43703.126 Kg/h

, V3 = 57461.5182 Kg/h

From effect (1) :


(203947.9167) (3.83) (92) + S(2014.98)=(155188.6455)(3.71)(165.169)+
(48759.2712) (2764.6624)
The amount of steam used in first effect :
S = 78430.489 Kg/h

38

STEP 5 : The heat required of each effect and area can be calculated as
follows : [4]
=

(5.15)

Q1 = SS1 = (78430.489/3600) * (2014.98*1000) = 43.898*106 W


Q2 = V1S2 (48759.2712/3600) * (2066.16*1000) = 27.984*106 W
Q3 = V2S3 (54024.0037/3600) * (2143*1000) = 32.159*106 W
Hence, the area required for each effect from equation (5.16) shown: [4]

(5.16)

A1 = (Q1)/(U1*T1) = (43.898*106)/(3123*14.831) = 947.76 m2


A2 = (Q2)/(U2*T2) = (29.661*106)/(1987*8.541) = 640.36 m2
A3 = (Q3)/(U3*T3) = (33.239*106)/(1136*14.94) = 717.60 m2

Table 5.3 Evaporator Design

The amount of steam at 1st effect (S)

78430.489 Kg/h

The amount of heat at 1st effect (Q1)

43.898*106 W

The amount of heat at 2nd effect (Q2)

27.984*106 W

The amount of heat at 3rd effect (Q3)

32.159*106 W

The total area in 1st effect

947.76 m2

The total area 2nd effect

640.36 m2

The total area in 3rd effect

717.60 m2

The temperature of thick juice (TOUT)

95 OC

The temperature of steam (TS)

180 OC

39

5.4

Dryer Design (Unit 13) :

Drying is the process of removing a liquid (usually water) from a wet solid
substance by the use of heat (usually hot air). The concentration difference
between the heating medium and the solid substance under drying is the
driving force (cause) of drying, which evaporates the water in the substance.
In normal operations, if the sugar entering the dryer has a moisture content
below 1% and is at about 60C, its heat provides sufficient energy to reduce
the moisture to about 0.00%. Most of the water in wet sugar is on the surface
of the crystals in the form of a saturated sucrose solution with high purity (very
close to 100%) and high concentration (about 90%). The wet sugar is dried
and cooled in the sugar dryer to a moisture content of about 0.00% and a
temperature below 30C. The sugar loses more moisture and cools during
transportation from the dryer to the silo or in the packing station. The dryer
used is rotary drum because the efficiency is higher than other types.
Type : Rotary drum dryer.

Figure 5.4 Rotary Drum Dryer[1]

Assumption :
Mass velocity of dry air (G) = 2000 Kg/m2.h
Temperature of entering air (Thb) = 126.7C
Temperature of exiting air (Tha) = 70C
The amount of mass entering the dryer (m) = 13157.5 Kg/h
Initial moisture (Xa) = 0.05 , Final moisture (Xb) = 0 , G = 2000 Kg/m2.h
Tsa = 60C , Tsb = 65C , Thb = 126.7C , Tha = 70C , Csb = 0.57 kJ/Kg.C
Rate of mass transfer : mv = m(Xa Xb) = 657.875 Kg/h , hb = 0.01

40

The heat duty was found from energy balance : Q = 87813.55 kJ/h
The flow rate of entering air is found from heat balance :[5]

(1

(1

= 2717.087

(5.17)

The outlet humidity : [5]

= 0.01

= .

(5.18)

The cross sectional area : [5]


(

= .

(5.19)

The dryer diameter : [5]


.

=(

= .

(5.20)

The dryer length : [5]


LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference

=
=

(5.21)

.
.
.

41

Table 5.4 Dryer Design

mass entering the dryer (m)

13157.5 Kg/h

Initial moisture (Xa)

0.05

Final moisture (Xb)

Mass velocity of dry air (G )

2000 Kg/m2.h

Amount of heat (Q)

87813.55 kJ/h

The cross sectional area


The dryer diameter (D)
The dryer length (L)

5.5

.
.
.

Cooling Tower Design (Unit 14):

Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat
to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of
the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently
discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water is
cooled down significantly.
The chosen cooling tower type that is natural draft cooling tower.

Figure 5.5 Natural Draft Cooling Tower[13]

42

Assumption :
Temperature of entering water (t1) = 40 oC
Temperature of exiting water (t2) = 25 oC
Temperature of entering air (t1) = 20 oC
Temperature of exiting air (t2) = 38 oC
Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) = 650 w/m2.K
The heat duty was found from energy balance : Q = - 820804.69 kJ/h

Mass flow rate of water :


Cp,water at Tav= (40+25)/2= 32.5oC ,Cp,water= 4.18 (kJ/kg.oC)
twater = ( t2- t1) = (40 - 25) = 15oC
Q = mwater* Cpwater *Twater = mwater* (4.18)(15)
mwater = 13091 (kg/h)

Mass flow rate of air :


Cp,air at Tav = (38+20)/2= 29 oC, Cp,air = 1.005 kJ/Kg.oC
tair = ( t2- t1) = (38 - 20) = 18oC
Q = mair* Cpair *Tair = mwater* (1.005)(18)
mair = 45373.39 (kg/h)

Design equation:

(5.22)[5]

Where :
U: overall heat transfer coefficient (w/m2.K).
A: surface area for cooler (m2).
Tln: log mean temperature difference.

43

Tln =

Tout Tin
, Tout= (40-30)= 10oC, Tin= (65-25)= 40oC
Tout
ln
Tin

Tln=(10 - 40)/ln(10/40)= 21.64oC


Area of cooling tower = (Q/U* Tln)= (228001.303/(650*21.64))= 16.21 m2

Table 5.5 Cooling Tower Design

Mass flowrate of water (mwater)

13091 Kg/h

Mass flowrate of air (mair)

45373.39 Kg/h

Amount of heat (Q)

- 820804.69 kJ/h

Overall heat transfer coefficient (U)

650 w/m2.K

Log mean temperature difference (Tln)

21.64oC

Area of cooling tower

16.21 m2

44

Chapter 6. Sizing equipment


6.1 Sizing of Mixer (Unit -1):
Type : BMA (Braunschweig Machinenbau Anstalt).
The cossette mixer works as a heat exchanger because the hot tower juice
preheats the cossettes.
The retention time = 15 minutes

.
.

= 5.73 m3/min

(6.1)[4]

V = 5.73* ( 15 ) = 85.95 m3
The volume is big , then will dived to three tanks (28.65 m3 per tank)
Table 6.1 Mixer Sizing
Diameter of one tank (D)

2.5 m

High of one tank (H)

5. 85 m

Retention time (TR)

15 minutes

Volumetric flow rate

5.73 m3/min

Number of tanks

Volume of one tank needed

28.65 m3

45

6.2 Sizing of Diffuser (Unit -2):


Type : Braunschweig Machinenbau Anstalt (BMA) tower diffuser
Assumptions :
- The process takes about 50 minutes at 70C .
- A BMA diffuser (5-7) m in diameter and (11-16) m high can
handle 5000 t beets/day .

.
.

= 6.033 m3/min

V = 6.033* ( 50 ) = 301.65 m3
Table 6.2 Diffusion Tower Sizing

Diameter (D)

5.44 m

High (H)

13 m

Time of process (t)

50 minutes

Volumetric flow rate

6.033 m3/min

Volume of diffuser needed

310.65 m3

46

6.3 Sizing of Heater (Unit-3):


The area of heater is depending on overall heat transfer coefficient "U"
(W/m2.oC). The value of "U" for organic compounds (sugar) with water is
between (500 750).
"U" = 700 W/m2.oC
The amount of heat required in heater is calculated from the general equation
of heat exchanger (6.2): [4]

Tlm =

(6.2)

Tout Tin
T
ln out
Tin

(6.3)

Tout = (170-88)= 82oC , Tin=(250-30)= 220oC


Tlm = (82 220) / ln (82/220) = 139.83 oC
Qheater = 66252567.46 kJ/h (Appendix B.2) .
Hence, the area of heater can be calculated now :
A = (66252567.46 *103/3600) / (700*139.83) = 188 m2
Table 6.3 (Heater Sizing)

Overall heat transfer coefficient (U)

700 W/m2.OC

Logarithmic mean temperature (Tlm)

139.83 OC

Amount of heat needed in heater (Q)

66252567.46 KJ/h

The area of heater (A)

188 m2

47

6.4 Sizing of Lime Unit (Unit - 4):


Liming is the step of purification where lime is added to the juice .
Type : BMA
Vertical , H= (8-12) m , D= (2.5 4 ) m
The retention time = 15 minutes

= 4.26 m3/min

V = 4.26 * ( 15 ) = 64 m3

Table 6.4 Lime Unit Sizing


Diameter (D)

3m

High (H)

9m

Retention time (TR)

15 minutes

Volumetric flow rate

4.26 m3/min

Volume of liming needed

64 m3

6.5 Sizing of Clarifier (Unit - 5):


Type : Dorr clarifier .
Vertical , H= (8 -12) m , D= 2-6 m
The retention time = 20 minutes
=

= 4.34 m3/min

V = 4.34 * ( 20 ) = 86.8 m3
Table 6.5 Clarifier Sizing

Diameter (D)

2.5 m

High (H)

11 m

Retention time (TR)

20 minutes

Volumetric flow rate

4.34 m3/min

Volume of dorr clarifier needed

86.8 m3

48

6.6 Sizing of Heater (Unit - 6):


The area of heater is depending on overall heat transfer coefficient "U"
(W/m2.oC). The amount of "U" for organic compounds (sugar) with water is
between (500 750)
"U" = 700 W/m2.oC
The amount of heat required in heater is calculated from the general equation
of heat exchanger (6.2)

=
Tlm =

Tout Tin
, Tout = (100-92)= 8oC ,Tin=(130-88)= 42oC
T
ln out
Tin

Tlm = (8 42) / ln (8/42) = 20.5 oC


Qheater = 3542618.875 kJ/h (Appendix B.6).
Hence, the area of heater can be calculated now :
A = (3542618.875*103/3600) / (700*20.5) = 68.56 m2
Table 6.6 Heater Sizing

Overall heat transfer coefficient (U)

700 W/m2.OC

Logarithmic mean temperature (Tlm)

20.5 OC

Amount of heat needed in heater (Q)

3542618.875 KJ/h

The area of heater (A)

68.56 m2

49

6.7 Sizing of Sulfitation (Unit - 9):


Assuming t= 1 h
m = 43703.125 Kg/h and = 1343.30 kg/m3
= 32.5 m3

Volume required =

6.8 Sizing of Crystallizer (Unit - 10):


Assuming t= 1.5 h
m = 32893.75 kg/h and = 1586.2 kg/m3

volume required=

= 31.11 m3

6.9 Sizing of Cooler (Unit - 11):


The area of cooler is depending on overall heat transfer coefficient "U"
(W/m2.oC). The amount of "U" for organic compounds (sugar) with water is
between (500 750)
"U" = 650 W/m2.oC
The amount of heat required in cooler is calculated from the general equation
of heat exchanger (6.2)

=
Tlm =

Tout Tin
, Tout = (75-50)= 25oC ,Tin=(100-25)= 75oC
Tout
ln
Tin

Tlm = (25 75) / ln (25/75) = 45.5 oC


Qcooler = 1203015.6 w (Appendix B.10).
50

Hence, the area of cooler can be calculated now :


A = (1203015.6) / (650*45.5) = 40.7 m2

Table 6.7 Cooler Sizing

Overall heat transfer coefficient (U)

650 W/m2.OC

Logarithmic mean temperature (Tlm)

45.5 OC

Amount of heat needed in cooler (Q)

1203015.6 w

The area of cooler (A)

40.7 m2

6.10 Sizing of Centrifuge (Unit -12):

Table 6.8 Centrifuge Sizing[11]

Model

TITAN 2400

Basket volume (m3)

1.4

Capacity (Kg)

2413

Length (m)

6.299

Diameter (m)

1.981

51

6.10 Sizing of Storage (Unit - 15):


Data of sugar :
Mass flowrate of sugar (ms) = 300 ton/day = 300000 Kg/day
Density of sugar (s) = 1586.2 Kg/m3
Volumetric flowrate of sugar (Vs) = ms/s = 189.13 m3/day = 1323.92 m3/week
Assume :
Length (L) = 12m , Diameter (D) = 3.5m

= 11 .4

(6.4)[5]

52

Chapter 7. Water Recycling and


Treatment
7.1

Overview:

Water recycling is used on four units in this project : washing ,diffusion tower ,
evaporation and cooling tower.
The objectives of this operation is to reduce water consumption to reduce
costs and preserve the natural resources .

Figure 7.1 (Diagram of Water Recycling and Treatment)

53

7.2

Washing Water Recycling:

In this plant ,we need one ton of water to clean two ton of beet . Most of this
water is supplied by various in-factory sources such as condensate,
condenser water, and wastewater treatment system.

Figure 7.2 (Diagram of Washing Water Recycling)

Table 7.1 (Mass Balance)

Stream

Water(ton/day)

Beet(ton/day)

Mud(ton/day)

3554

396

2370

3554

7900

396

5530

2370

396

1659

711

396

54

7.3

Diffusion Tower Water Recycling:

The pulp exiting from diffuser has 90% water and 10% solid . We need to
compress the pulp to extract the water in it. After that drain the pulp to be sold
as food for animals.
10

12

11

Figure 7.3(Diagram of diffusion tower water recycling)

Table 7.2 (Mass Balance)

7.4

Stream

Water(ton/day)

Pulp(ton/day)

639.72

71.08

10

511.78

11

127.94

71.08

12

71.08

Evaporator Water Recycling To Diffusion Tower:

Diffusion
Tower

13
Evaporator

Figure 7.4 (Diagram of Evaporator Water Recycling to Diffusion Tower)

Table 7.3 (Mass Balance)

Stream

Water(ton/day)

13

3845.875

55

7.5 Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower:

Figure 7.5 (Diagram of Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower)

Mass balance:Mass flowrate of water (W) :


Cp,water at Tav= (40+25)/2= 32.5oC ,Cp,water= 4.18 (kJ/kg.oC)
Twater = ( T2- T1) = (40 - 25) = 15oC
Q = mwater (Cpwater) (Twater) = mwater (4.18)(15)
mwater = 14171.4 (kg/h) = 340.11 (ton/day)
Mass flowrate of air (A) :
Cp,air at Tav = (38+20)/2= 29 oC, Cp,air = 1.005 kJ/Kg.oC
tair = ( t2- t1) = (38 - 20) = 18oC
Q = mair (Cpair) (Tair) = mwater (1.005)(18)
mair = 49118.125 (kg/h)

56

7.6

Water Treatment :

The major aim of wastewater treatment is to remove as much of the


suspended solids as possible before the remaining water, called effluent, is
discharged back to the environment. There are many types of water
treatment. Chlorination is the most famous type because it is easily available
and not expensive.

Chlorination :

Chlorination is the process of adding the element chlorine to water as a


method of water purification to make it fit for human consumption as drinking
water. Water which has been treated with chlorine is effective in preventing
the spread of waterborne diseases.
The chlorination of public drinking supplies was originally met with resistance,
as people were concerned about the health effects of the practice. The use of
chlorine has greatly reduced the prevalence of waterborne disease as it is
effective against almost all bacteria and viruses, as well as amoeba.
From flow sheet , we need to treat the amount of water exit from filter in
washing process by adding chlorine (Cl2) to get useable pure water.

57

Chapter 8.HAZOP and


Environment
8.1

HAZOP

A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a structured and systematic


examination of a planned or existing process or operation in order to identify
and evaluate problems that may represent risks to personnel or equipment, or
prevent efficient operation. The HAZOP technique was initially developed to
analyze chemical process systems, but has later been extended to other
types of systems and also to complex operations. A HAZOP is a qualitative
technique based on guide-words and is carried out by a multi disciplinary
team (HAZOP team) during a set of meetings. The hazard is any operation
that could possibly cause a catastrophic release of toxic, flammable or
explosive chemicals or any action that could result in injury to personnel. The
operability is any operation inside the design envelope that would cause a
shutdown that could possibly lead to a violation of environmental, health or
safety regulations or negatively impact profitability.
HAZOP study will be covered the following equipment :
- Reactor
- Cooling Tower
- Evaporator
- Dryer

58

8.1.1 Reactor
Table 8.1 HAZOP of Reactor
Unit

Guide Word
No

Reverse

Deviation Causes
No flow
cooling

Reverse
Flow

More of

More
cooling
flow

As well as

Reactor
product
in
Coils

Reactor

Other than

-Another
material
besides
cooling
water

-Cooling
water valve
Malfunction
- Failure of
water
source
resulting in
backward
flow
- Control
valve
failure,
operator fails
to take
action
on alarm
- More
pressure in
reactor

Consequences Action
- Temperature
-Install high
increase in
temperature
reactor
alarm (TAH)
- Less cooling,
possible
runaway
reaction

- Too much
cooling,
reactor cool

- Off-spec
product

-May be cooling
-Water
inefffective
source
and
Contaminated
effect on the
reaction

- Install check
valve

Instruct
operators on
Procedures
- Check
maintenance
procedures
and
schedules
-If less
cooling, TAH
will
detect. If
detected,
isolate
water source.
Back up
water source?

59

8.1.2 Cooling Tower

Unit

Guide Word
No

Table 8.2 HAZOP of Cooling Tower


Deviation
Causes
Consequences
No flow
- Failure of
- Process fluid
cooling
inlet cooling
temperature is
water
not
valve to open lowered
accordingly

Less

Less cooling
flow

- Pipe leakage - Process fluid


temperature
too
low

More

More cooling
flow

- Reverse
process fluid
Flow

- Output of
Process fluid
temperature
too low

Reverse

Reverse
cooling
Flow

- Failure of
process fluid
inlet
Valve

- Product off
set

Other than

Other material -Outlet


than water
Contamination temperature
in cooling
too low
water

Cooling
tower

Action
- Install
Temperature
indicator
before and
after the
process
fluid line
Install TAH
- Installation
of flow meter

- Install
Temperature
indicator
before and
after
process fluid
line
Install TAL
- Install
check valve
(whether it
is crucial
have to
check)
- Proper
maintenance
and
operator
alert

60

8.1.3 Evaporator

Unit

Guide Word
No

Table 8.3 HAZOP of Evaporator


Deviation
Causes
Consequences
No steam flow - Failure of
- Process fluid
inlet steam
temperature is not
valve to open increased
accordingly

Less

Less steam

- Pipe
leakage

- Process fluid
temperature low

Evaporator More

More steam
flow

- Reverse
process fluid
Flow

- Output of Process
fluid
temperature too high

Reverse
process fluid
Flow

- Failure of
process fluid
inlet
Valve

- Product off set

Reverse

Action
- Install
Temperature
indicator
before and
after the
process
fluid line
Install TAL
- Installation
of flow meter
- Install
Temperature
indicator
before and
after
process fluid
line
Install TAH
- Install
check valve

61

8.1.4 Dryer

Table 8.4 HAZOP of Dryer


Unit

Rotary
drum
dryer

Guide Word
No

Deviation
No hot Air
flow

Causes
- Failure of
inlet hot air
valve to
open

Consequences
- Process fluid
temperature is
not
Increased
accordingly

Less

Less hot Air

- Pipe
leakage

- Process fluid
temperature
low

More

More hot Air


flow

- Reverse
process fluid
flow

- Output of
Process fluid
temperature
too high

Reverse

Reverse
process fluid
Flow

- Failure of
process fluid
inlet
valve

- Product off
set

Action
-Install
Temperature
indicator
Before and
after the
process
fluid line
Install TAL
- Installation
of flow meter
-Install
Temperature
indicator
before and
after
process fluid
line
Install TAH
- Install
check valve

62

8.2

Environmental

"We are dependent on water and air in every minute of our life. Thus , it is the
responsibility of every one of us to not degrade the natural environment with
solid, liquid, and air pollutants. The systems for treatment of wastewater and
solid wastes for reuse and to release safe enivroment . The beet-sugar factory
produces more waste products than sugar, pulp, and molasses combined. If
beet-sugar producers are not diligent in caring and disposing of waste
products, the wastes can pollute the natural environment significantly. It
makes good business sense for producers to reduce pollution and comply
with all legally required actions and limitations with regard to the creation,
storage, treatment, and disposal of pollutants, wastes, and hazardous
compounds. Not doing so invites costly enforcement actions by the
governments and lawsuits by citizens. If comprehensive pollution reduction is
approached correctly, sugar producers not only be environmentally safe but
also can generate considerable cost savings."[1]

8.2.1 Pollution Control Strategies


"Managers at each facility have to determine what combination of strategies
makes sense for their situation. Weather, soil types, ground and surface
water, facility age, current equipment,local population, local regulatory
interests, costs and return on investment are some of the factors that
managers must balance when selecting and implementing pollution control
strategies. Pollution control strategies fall into one of the following four
categories:
Prevention
Treatment
Measured release
Storage
After management has selected and implemented a strategy, plant personnel
must operate and maintain the systems to economically perform the required

63

functions. One way to control pollution is to not create polluting compounds


or conditions through energy efficiency, better controls on operations,
changes in processes, and reduced wasting. Increasing energy efficiency
reduces pollutants associated with energy generation. Facilities can reduce
the amount of waste water through changes in beet transport and washing."[1]

8.2.2 Emissions to Air


"Air emissions in sugar manufacturing are primarily related to particulate
matter generated from bagasse-fired steam boilers,dust from unpaved access
roads and areas, and sugar drying or packing activities. In addition, odor
emissions are generated from beet processing activities and storage facilities.
Beet factory juice clarification produces a sweet odor, which can be irritating.
Inadequate cleaning of the raw material may result in fermented juice, which
will also create a foul smell."[12]

64

8.2.3 Safety :
Table 8.5 MSDS for Sugar Factory *
- First aid measures :

Swallowed: Give water to drink.


Eye: Flush thoroughly with copious
amounts

of

symptoms

running

persist,

water.

seek

If

medical

attention.
Skin: Wash thoroughly with soap and
water.
Inhaled: Remove to fresh air.
Advice

to

Doctor:

symptomatically.

Treat

People

with

diabetes may need stabilization.


- Flammability :

Low, product will burn in surrounding


fire situation.

- Extinguishing Media :

Water, dry chemical, carbon dioxide,


foam.

- Handling :

Material can ferment if excessive


moisture contamination is allowed.
Fermentation

can

yield

carbon

dioxide with possible traces of ethanol


or volatile fatty acids (e.g. acetic,
propionic, lactic, or butyric) and if
exposed to a spark or flame may
result

in

an

explosion.

These

conditions should be avoided. If


maintenance of tank requires entry by
personnel,

confined

space

precautions should be complied with.


Insufficient oxygen may be present in
vessels containing the product due to
the generation of carbon monoxide
65

during fermentation.
- Storage:

This product should be stored in its


factory packaging in a dry area.

- Personal protection:

Eye Protection : Ventilated nonfogging goggles should be worn if


dust is generated.
Skin Protection : Direct skin contact
should be avoided by wearing long
sleeved shirts and long trousers, a
cap or hat, and gloves Work clothes
should be washed regularly.

- Chemical Stability:

Stable.

- Toxicity Data :

Non-toxic .

- Health Effects:

Swallowed : No health effects under


normal conditions of industrial use,
but ingestion may destabilise people
with diabetes.
Eye: Irritating to the eyes and may
cause watering and redness .
Skin: Skin contact may result in mild
skin irritation .

MSDS : Material Safety Data Sheet for (white sugar pulp molasses)

66

Chapter 9. Control Loop


9.1

Overview :

Control Unit is an important process to observe the conduct of operations in


the factory.
There are three forms of control operations:
o Flow control (FC).
o Temperature control (TC).
o Concentration control (CC).[6]

Figure 9.1 Control Flow Sheet

67

9.2 Diffusion Tower Control :

Figure 9.2 Diffusion Tower Control

9.3

Mixer Control :

Figure 9.3

Mixer Control

68

9.4

Heater(1) Control :

Figure 9.4 Heater1 Control

9.5

Liming Control :

Figure 9.5 Liming Control

69

9.6

Clarifier Control :

Figure 9.6 Clarifier Control

9.7

Heater(2) Control :

Figure 9.7 Heater2 Control

9.8

Filter Control :

Figure 9.8 Filter Control

70

9.9

Evaporator Control :

Figure 9.9 Evaporator Control

9.10 Sulfitation Control :

Figure 9.10 Sulfitation Control

9.11

Crystallizer Control :

Figure 9.11 Crystallizer Control

71

9.12

Cooler Control :

Figure 9.12 Cooler Control

9.13

Centrifuge Control :

Figure 9.13 Centrifuge Control

9.14

Dryer Control :

Figure 9.14 Dryer Control

72

9.15

Cooling Tower Control :

Figure 9.15 Cooling Tower Control

73

Table 9.1 : Control Overview

Equipment

Manipulated

Controlled

Action

Variables

Variables

Diffusion Tower

St.14 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B1 )

Mixer

St.1 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B2 )

Liming

St.7 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B4 )

St.8 Flow rate

Exit composition

Control Valve ( B5)

Clarifier

St.8 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B6)

Filter

St.13 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B8 )

Evaporator

St.13 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B8 )

St.15 Flow rate

Temperature

Control Valve ( B9)

Sulfitation

St.16 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B10)

Crystallizer

St.16 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B10)

St.18 Flow rate

Temperature

Control Valve ( B11)

Centrifuge

St.20 Flow rate

Flow rate

Control Valve ( B13)

Dryer

St.21 Flow rate

Temperature

Control Valve ( B14 )

Cooling Tower

St.22Flow rate

Temperature

Control Valve ( B15 )

Heater (1)

St.6 Flow rate

Temperature

Control Valve ( B3 )

Heater (2)

St.11Flow rate

Temperature

Control Valve ( B7 )

Cooler

St.19 Flow rate

Temperature

Control Valve ( B12 )

74

Chapter 10. Cost Analysis


10.1 Overview
The cost is a rough estimate to evaluate a preliminary cost for the equipment
of the sugar production to make quick decision to the project evaluation .
The cost of equipment can be found by the following formula : [7]

(10.1)

10.2 Methods for estimating capital investment


Various methods can be employed for estimated capital investment. The
choice of any one methods depends on the amount of available information
and the accuracy desired. Seven methods are listed below :
1. Detailed-Item Estimate Method.
2. Unit-Cost Estimate Method.
3. Percentage of Delivered Equipment Cost Method.
4. Lang Factor for Approximation of Capital Investment Method.
5. Power Factor Applied to Plant/Capacity Ratio Method.
6. Investment Cost per Unit of Capacity Method.
7. Turnover Ratio Method.[7]

10.3 Equipment cost purchased in 2007 [14]


Diffusion Tower = $ 77200
Mixer 1 = $ 681800
Heater 1 = $ 61,100
Liming tank = $ 512,600
75

Reactor 2 = $ 627,900
Clarifier = $ 389,900
Heater = $ 32,200
Filter = $ 380,800
1st Evaporator = $ 3,253,000
2nd Evaporator = $ 2,489,700
3rd Evaporator = $ 2,690,800
Crystallizer = $ 152,300
Sulfitation Tank = $ 36300
Cooler 1 = $ 205,100
Centrifuge = $ 203,500
Dryer = $ 519,400
Cooler 2 = $ 79,300
Storages = $ 321,600
Total purchased equipment = $ 12,699,800
Cost index at 2007 = 525
Cost index at 2012 = 580
Cost of equipment in KSA in 2012 =
(10.2)[7]

(2007
Location factor = 1.4 "because the plant location in KSA"

10.4 Equipments In KSA at 2012 :


Diffusion Tower :
Type

Diffuser

Pressure

atm

Volume

310.65

m3

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of diffuser at 2012 in KSA = 77200*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 119402

76

Static Mixer :
Pressure

Atm

Volume

85.95

m3

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of mixer at 2012 in KSA = 681800*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 1,054,517


Heater 1 :
Type

Shell and tube floating head

Pressure

Atm

Area

175.5

m2

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of heater at 2012 in KSA = 61100*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 94,501


Reactor 1 :
Type

Continuous stirred tank reactor

Pressure

atm

Volume

84.46

m3

Material

Stainless steel

Cost of reactor at 2012 in KSA = 627900*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 971,152


Liming Tank :
Pressure

atm

Volume

64

m3

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of tank at 2012 in KSA = 512600*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 792,821


Clarifier :
Type

Dorr rake

Pressure

atm

Diameter

2.5

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of clarifier at 2012 in KSA = 389900*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 603,045

77

Heater 2 :
Type

Shell and tube floating head

Pressure

atm

Area

68.56

m2

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of heater at 2012 in KSA = 32200*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 49,803


Filter :
Type

Rotary drum (continuous)

Pressure

atm

Area

67.7

m2

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of filter at 2012 in KSA = 380800*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 588,971


Evaporator 1 :
Type

Robert (vertical tube)

Pressure

atm

Area

947.79

m2

Material

Stainless steel

st

Cost of 1 effect evaporator at 2012 in KSA = 3253000*(580/525)*1.4


= $ 5,031,307

Evaporator 2 :
Type

Robert (vertical tube)

Pressure

atm

Area

640.36

m2

Material

Stainless steel

Cost of 2nd effect evaporator at 2012 in KSA = 2489700*(580/525)*1.4


= $ 3,850,736

78

Evaporator 3 :
Type

Robert (vertical tube)

Pressure

atm

Area

717.6

m2

Material

Stainless steel

Cost of 3rd effect evaporator at 2012 in KSA = 2690000*(580/525)*1.4


= $ 4,160,533
Crystallizer :
Type

Batch

Pressure

atm

Volume

31.11

m3

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of crystallizer at 2012 in KSA = 152300*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 235,557

Sulfitation Tank :
Pressure

atm

Volume

32.4

m3

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of tank at 2012 in KSA = 36300*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 56144


Cooler 1 :
Type

Cooling tower , natural draft

Pressure

atm

Area

293.7

m2

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of cooler at 2012 in KSA = 205100*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 317,221

79

Centrifuge :
Type

Vertical , Batch

Pressure

atm

Diameter

1.981

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of centrifuge at 2012 in KSA = 203500*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 314,747


Dryer :
Type
Area

Rotary drum
m2

89.87

Material

Stainless steel

Cost of dryer at 2012 in KSA = 519400*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 803,339


Cooler 2 :
Type

Cooling tower , natural draft

Pressure

atm

Area

17.55

m2

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of cooler at 2012 in KSA = 79300*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 122,651


Storages :
Type

Silos

Number

12

Pressure

atm

Volume

115.45

m3/silos

Material

Carbon steel

Cost of 12 storage at 2012 in KSA = 321600*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 497,408


TOTAL PURCHASED EQUIPMENTS AT 2012 IN KSA = $ 19,544,453

80

10.5 Total Capital Investment (TCI) :


Total Capital Investment divided into Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) and
Working Capital Investment (WCI) as follows in equation (10.3) : [7]
=

(10.3)

Where : Fixed Capital Investment = Direct Costs + Indirect Costs

(10.4)

Direct Costs = $ 59,024,247


Indirect Costs = $ 24,626,011
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = $ 83,650,258
Working Capital Investment = 75% of Purchased equipments cost
Working Capital Investment (WCI) = (0.75 * 19,544,453) = $ 14,658,340
Total Capital Investment (TCI) = FCI + WCI
TCI = $ 83,650,258 + $ 14,658,340 = $ 98,308,598

81

Table 10.1 : The Total Capital Investment In Sugar Factory[7]

Item

Cost Capital %

Cost ($)

Direct Costs
Purchased equipments cost

100

19,544,453

Purchased equipments installation

39

7,622,337

Instrumentation and controls

26

5,081,558

Piping (installed)

31

6,058,780

Electrical system (installed)

10

1,954,445

Buildings (including service)

29

5,667,891

Yard improvement

12

2,345,334

Service facilities

55

10,749,449

302

59,024,247

Engineering and supervision

32

6,254,225

Construction expenses

34

6,645,114

Contractor's fee

19

3,713,446

Contingency

37

7,231,448

Legal expenses

781,778

Total indirect costs

126

24,626,011

FCI $

428

83,650,258

Working capital (15% T.C.I)

75

14,658,340

Total Capital Investment

503

98,308,598

Total direct plant costs


Indirect Costs

82

10.6 Total Production Cost (TPC) :


Total production cost is divided into the manufacturing cost (MC) and general
expenses (GE).
=

(10.5)

Annual production = (300 ton/day) * (180 day/year) = 54,000 ton/year


Our plant will be operating for 6 months :
Table 10.2 : Raw Material Cost

Raw Material

Cost ($/ton)

ton/year

$/year

41

711,000

29,151,786

0.267

1,422,000

379,200

CO2

11

24,562

270,182

SO2

2.12

180

381.6

80

24,080

1,926,400

Beet
Water

Lime (CaCO3)

Total Raw Material Cost (TRMC)

31,727,164

83

Table 10.3 : The Total Production Cost[7]

Item

Cost capital %

Cost ($)

MANUFACTURE COST
Direct Production Cost (DPC)
Raw Material

31,727,164

31,727,164

Operating Labor (OL)

10% TPC

0.1 TPC

Direct supervisory and Electrical Labor

10% OL

0.01 TPC

Utilities

10% TPC

0.1 TPC

Maintenance and Repairs

4% FCI

3,346,010

Operation Supplies

0.5% FCI

418,251

Laboratory Supplies

10% OL

0.01 TPC

Patents and Royalties

3% TPC

0.03 TPC

Fixed Charges (FC)

11,711,036

Depreciation

10% FCI

8,365,026

Local Taxes

---

---

Insurance

0.4% FCI

3,346,010

Plant Overhead Cost (POC)

6% TPC

0.06 TPC

GENERAL EXPENSES
Administration Cost

2 % TPC

0.02 TPC

Distribution and Marketing Cost

5% TPC

0.05 TPC

Research and Development Costs

5% TPC

0.05 TPC

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST (TPC)

47,202,461 + 0.43 TPC

From table above :


TPC = 47,202,461 + 0.43 TPC TPC = (47,202,461) / (0.57)
= $ 82,811,335

84

Table 10.4 : The calculations of Total Production Cost

Item

Cost ($)

MANUFACTURE COST = 72,873,974


Direct Production Cost (DPC)

56,194,259

Raw Material

31,727,164

31,727,164

Operating Labor (OL)

10% TPC

8,281,134

Direct supervisory and Clerical Labor

10% OL

828,113

Utilities

10% TPC

8,281,134

Maintenance and Repairs

4% FCI

3,346,010

Operation Supplies

0.5% FCI

418,251

Laboratory Supplies

10% OL

828,113

Patents and Royalties

3% TPC

2,484,340

Fixed Charges (FC)

11,711,036

Depreciation

10% FCI

8,365,026

Local Taxes

---

---

Insurance

0.4% FCI

3,346,010

Plant Overhead Cost (POC)

4,968,680

GENERAL EXPENSES = 9,937,361


Administration Cost

2 % TPC

1,656,227

Distribution and Marketing Cost

5% TPC

4,140,567

Research and Development Costs

5% TPC

4,140,567

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST (TPC)

82,811,335

85

10.7 Profitability Analysis :


Rate of Return can be calculated in equation (10.6) as follows : [7]
(

100 (10.6)

Sales = [White Sugar] + [Molasses] + [Pulps]


White Sugar = 54,000,000 (Kg/year) * 1 ($/Kg) = 54,000,000 $/year
Molasses = 8,526,600 (Kg/year) * 10 ($/Kg) = 85,266,000 $/year
Pulps = 12,794,400 (Kg/year) * 0.19 ($/Kg) = 2,430,936 $/year
Sales = 54,000,000 + 85,266,000 + 2,430,936 = $ 141,696,936/year
Net profit = Sales Total Production Cost
= 141,696,936 82,811,335 = $ 58,885,601/year
(

100 = 59.89 %

Since the plant operates for 6 months per year :


59.89 / 2 = 29.95 %

10.8 Payback Period (PBP)

Payback Period =

(10.7)[7]

Annual Cash Flow = Annual Profits + Depreciation


Depreciation = $ 8,365,026
Annual Cash Flow = 58,885,601 + 8,365,026
Annual Cash Flow = $ 67,250,627/year
(10.8)[7]

Payback Period =
= 1.46

Payback Period =

The plant operates for (6 months)/year


Payback Period =

.
(

= 2.92
86

Table 10.5 : Summary for Economics Calculations

Total capital Investment

$ 98,308,598

Fixed Capital Investment

$ 83,650,285

Working Capital Investment

$ 14,658,340

Total Production Costs

$ 82,811,335

Rate of Return

29.95 %

Payback Period

2.92 Year

87

CHAPTER 11. Conclusion


This project is related with production of sugar from beets using the
carbonation process . The production rate was fixed to 300 ton/day of sugar.
The main product consists of 150 ton of normal sugar and 150 ton of specially
sugar (powder). The pulp of the slicing beet after diffusing will be sold as byproduct used as animals food.
The overall and individual material and energy balances have been performed
. Furthermore, the HAZOP, safety and environmental analysis has been
conducted for the major equipments.
On the other hand, the control loop has been carried out for the overall flowsheet and individual major equipments where both the control and
manipulated variables have been specified.
The treatment and recycling of the large amount of water requested in
different parts of the process (especially in the washing and diffusion steps)
have reduced the total cost of the plant.
Based on this study and since the raw materials are not very expensive, the
cost estimation confirms the profitability of the carbonation process.

88

REFERENCES :

Books :
[1] Mosen Asadi (2007). Beet-Sugar Handbook.

[2] Felder and Rousseau (2005). "Elementary Principles of Chemical


Process". 3rd edition.
[3] Fogler and Gurmen (2011). "Essentials of Chemical Reaction
Engineering". 4th edition.
[4] Christie John Geankoplis (2008). "Transport Process and Separation
Process Principles". 4th edition.
[5] McCabe, Smith and Harriott (2005). "Unit Operation of Chemical
Engineering". 7th edition.
[6] Stephanopoulos, G (2003). "Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to
Theory and Practice".
[7] Peters and Timmerhaus (1991). "Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineering". 4th edition.

89

Websites :

[8] http://www.food-info.net/uk/products/sugar/history.htm
[9]http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sugarcane
profile.cfm
[10] (http://blog.ub.ac.id/spiritgumilang/2012/10/05/single-multiple-effectevaporator/)
[11] www.westernstates.com/centrifuge
[12] http://ar.scribd.com/doc/6749495/Sugar-Safety
[13] www.klmtechgroup.com
[14] www.matche.com/equipment

90

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A : MASS BALANCE
A.1 Diffusion balance

Water
14

beet

(C12H22O12)
Juice diff.

XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

Diffusion
5

1
4
Pulp
Xp= 0.2 onbeet

Overall M.B. :
m1+ m14= m4 + m5 m1+ 3845.87= m4 + 6689.05
m4=0.2m1
m1+3845.87= 0.2m1 + 6689.05
0.8m1=6689.05-3845.87
m1=3554 ton/day = 148083.33 kg/h
m4= (0.2)(3554)=710.8 ton/day = 29616.67 kg/h
Component M.B. :
STREAM 5 :
m5DS = 0.15 (6689.05) = 1003.36 ton/day =41806.67 kg/h
m5S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m5NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m5w = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h

91

A.2 Mixer balance :


Juice tower
(C12H22O12)
3

XDS = 0.15

Xw = 0.85

Mixer

Beet

Beet
1

+
0.8 juice (on

beet)

Juice diff.
(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

DS= Dry substance (88% S , 12% NS)


W = Water
(Purity = 88 %)
Overall M.B. :
m1+ m3 = m2 + m5 3554+ m3 = m2 + 6689.05
m2= m1+ 0.8m5

m2=3554+(0.8)(3554)= 6397.2 ton/day = 266550 kg/h

m3=m2+m5-m1= 6397.2+ 6689.05- 3554= 9532.25 ton/day =397177.1 kg/h

92

At (88%) purity
STREAM (3) :
m3 = 9532.25 ton/day =397177.1 kg/h
m3DS = 9532.25 (0.15) = 1429.84 ton/day = 59576.67 kg/h (88% S, 12% NS)
m3S = 1429.84 (0.88) = 1258.26 ton/day = 52427.5 kg/h
m3NS = 1429.84 (0.12) = 171.58 ton/day = 7149.17 kg/h
STREAM (5) :
m5DS = 6689.05 (0.15) = 1003.36 ton/day = 41806.67 kg/h (88% S, 12% NS)
m5S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m5NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m5W = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h
STREAM (2)
m2DS = 6397.2 (0.15) = 959.58 ton/day = 39982.5 kg/h
m2W = 6397.2(0.85) = 5437.62 ton/day = 226567.5kg/h

93

A.3 Diffuser balance :

Water
Beet
+
0.8 juice

14

(on beet)

4
diffuser

Juice tower
(C12H22O12)

Pulp
Xp= 0.2
onbeet

XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

Overall M.B. :
STREAM (2)
m2DS = 6397.2 (0.15) = 959.58 ton/day = 39982.5 kg/h
m2W = 6397.2(0.85) = 5437.62 ton/day = 226567.5kg/h
STREAM (3) :
m3 = 9532.25 ton/day =397177.1 kg/h
m3DS = 9532.25 (0.15) = 1429.84 ton/day = 59576.67 kg/h (88% S, 12% NS)
m3S = 1429.84 (0.88) = 1258.26 ton/day = 52427.5 kg/h
m3NS = 1429.84 (0.12) = 171.58 ton/day = 7149.17 kg/h
STREAM(4):
m4=710.8 ton/day = 29616.67 kg/h
STREAM(14):
m14=3845.87 ton/day =160244.58 kg/h

94

A.4 Liming balance :


MOL
(Ca(OH)2)
Xl = 0.02

7
6

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

8
Liming

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

(Purity = 88 %)
Overall M.B. :
m6+ m7 = m8 m6+ m7 = 6822.83 m6 +0.02 m6 = 6822.83
1.02m6 = 6822.83
m6 = 6689.05 ton/day = 278710.42 kg/h
m6DS = 6689.05 (0.15) =1003.36 ton/day = 41806.67 kg/h(88% S,12% NS)
m6S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m6NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m6W = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h
At (STREAM 7) Hence, the amount of milk of lime can be calculated as
follows :

m 7 = m 8 m6

= 6822.83 6689.05 = 133.78 ton/day = 5574.2 kg/h

95

A.5 Clarifier balance :

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

CLARIFIER

10

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

9
Slurry (Mud)
XDS = 0.7
XW = 0.3

DS= Dry substance (88% S , 12% NS)


W = Water
(Purity = 88 % and m9 = 25 % m8 and 70 % of m9 DS )
Overall M.B. :
m8 = m9 + m10 m8 = m9 + 5117.12
m8 = 0.25 m8 + 5117.12 0.75 m8 = 5117.2
m8 = 6822.83 ton/day = 284284.5833 kg/h
m9 = m8 m10 = 6822.83 5117.12 = 1705.71 ton/day = 71071.25 kg/h
Component M.B. :
STREAM 8 :
m8DS = 0.15 (6822.83) = 1023.42 ton/day = 42642.5 kg/h
m8S = 0.88 (1023.42) = 900.6096 ton/day = 37525.4 kg/h
m8NS = 0.12 (1023.42) = 122.8104 ton/day = 5117.1 kg/h
m8w = 0.85 (6822.83) = 5799.4055 ton/day = 241641.8958 kg/h
STREAM 9 :
m9DS = 0.7 (1705.71) = 1193.997 ton/day = 49749.875 kg/h
m9w = 0.3 (1705.71) = 511.713 ton/day = 21321.375 kg/h

96

A.6 Filter balance :

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

11

FILTER

13

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

12
REJECT
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

DS= Dry substance (92% S , 8% NS)


W = Water
(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m11 = m12 + m13 m11 = m12 + 4894.75 m12 = m11 4894.75
At (92%) purity (STREAM 13) :
m13 = 4894.75 ton/day = 203947.9167 kg/h
m13DS = 4894.75 (0.15) = 734.2125 ton/day = 30592.1875 kg/h (92% S, 8%
NS)
m13S = 734.2125 (0.92) = 675.4755 ton/day = 28144.8125 kg/h
m13NS = 734.2125 (0.08) = 58.737 ton/day = 2447.375 kg/h
In filtration , the inlet has (88%) purity , the filtrate has (92%) purity , so we
can find the mass flow rate of the inlet (STREAM 11) as follows :
m11T = m11DS + m11W
m11DS = (675.4755/0.88) = 767.585 ton/day = 31982.708 kg/h (88% S,
12%NS)

97

m11S = 767.585 (0.88) = 675.474 ton/day = 28144.7833 kg/h


m11NS = 767.585 (0.12) = 92.11 ton/day = 3837.925 kg/h
m11T = (767.585/0.15) = 5117.2 ton/day = 213218.1 kg/h
m11w = m11T m11DS = 4349.6 ton/day = 181233.95 kg/h
STREAM 12 :
m12 = m11 4894.75 m12 = 222.45 ton/day = 9268.75 kg/h
m12w = 0.85 (222.45) = 189.0825 ton/day = 7878.4375 kg/h
m12DS = m12NS = 0.15 (222.45) = 33.368 ton/day = 1390.3125 kg/h

98

A.7 Evaporator balance :

VAPOR
XDS = 0.0
Xw = 1.0

14

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

13

15
Evaporator

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.7
Xw = 0.3

(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m13 = m14 + m15 m13 = m14 + 1048.875 m14 = m13 1048.875
Component M.B. :
For water : (STREAM 13)
0.85 m13 = (m13 1048.875) + 0.3(1048.875)
-0.15 m13 = -734.2125
m13 = 4894.75 ton/day = 203947.9167 kg/h
m13DS = 4894.75 (0.15) = 734.2125 ton/day = 30592.1875 kg/h (92% S, 8%
NS)
m13S = 734.2125 (0.92) = 675.4755 ton/day = 28144.8125 kg/h
m13NS = 734.2125 (0.08) = 58.737 ton/day = 2447.375 kg/h
m13W = 0.85 (4894.75) = 4160.5375 ton/day = 173355.7292 kg/h
At (STREAM 14) XDS = 0 and XW = 1.0
Hence, the amount of water vaporized during evaporation can be calculated
as follows :
m14 = m13 m15
= 4894.75 1048.875 = 3845.875 ton/day = 160244.7917 kg/h

99

A.8 Sulfitation balance :

SO2
(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.7
Xw = 0.3

15

16

SULFITATION

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.7
Xw = 03

(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m15= m16 1048.875 ton/day (43703.125 Kg/h)
Component M.B. :
(STREAM 15 = STREAM 16)
0.7 m16 = m16DS = m15DS = 43703.125(0.7) = 30592.1875 Kg/h
m15S = m16S = 30592.1875 (0.92) = 28144.8125 kg/h
m15NS = m16NS = 30592.1875 (0.08) = 2447.375 kg/h
0.3m16 = m16W = m15W = 0.3 (43703.125) = 13110.9375 kg/h

100

A.9 Crystallizer balance :

17
(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.7
Xw = 0.3

H2O

16

18

CRYSTALLIZER

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.93
Xw = 0.07

(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m16 = m17 + m18 m16 = m17 + 798.45 ton/ day (32893.75 Kg/hr)
m17 = m16 32893.75
Component M.B. :
( STREAM 16)
mT = 43703.125=
m16DS = 43703.125(0.7) = 30592.1875 Kg/h
m16S = 30592.1875 (0.92) = 28144.8125 kg/h
m16NS = 30592.1875 (0.08) = 2447.375 kg/h
m16W = 0.3 (43703.125) = 13110.9375 kg/h
( STREAM 18)
m18= 32893.75 Kg/hr
m18DS = m16DS = 30592.1875 Kg/h
m18S = m16S = 28144.8125 kg
m18NS = m16NS = 2447.375 kg/h
m18W = m18 - m18DS = 2301.5625 Kg/hr
m17 (Only water):
m17W= 43703.125 - 32893.75 = 10809.375 Kg/hr

101

A.10 Cooler balance :

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.93
Xw = 0.07

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.93
Xw = 0.07

COOLER

m18=m19 = 32893.75 Kg/hr


A.11 Centrifuge balance :

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.93
Xw = 0.07

19

20

CENTRIFUGE

Other
processes
XDS = 0.94
Xw = 0.06

21

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.95
XW = 0.05

DS= Dry substance (92% S , 8% NS)


W = Water
(Purity = 92 % and m19 = 60 % m18 and m20 = 40 % of m18)
Overall M.B. :
m19 = m20 + m21 m19 = m20 + 315.78
m19 = 0.6m19 + 315.78 0.4m19 = 315.78
m19 = 789.45 ton/day = 32893.75 Kg/h
m20 = m19 - m21 = 789.45 315.78 = 473.7 ton/day = 19737.5 Kg/h
102

Component M.B. :
STREAM 19 :
m19DS = 0.93 (789.45) = 734.2 ton/day = 30591.7 kg/h
m19S = 0.92 (734.2) = 675.46 ton/day = 28144.33 kg/h
m19NS = 0.08 (734.2) = 58.736 ton/day = 2447.33 kg/h
m19w = 0.07 (789.45) = 55.26 ton/day = 2302.56 kg/h
STREAM 20 :
m20DS = 0.94 (473.7) = 445.278 ton/day = 18553.25 kg/h
m20w = 0.06 (473.7) = 28.422 ton/day = 1184.25 kg/h
STREAM 21 :
m21DS = 0.95 (315.78) = 300 ton/day = 12500 kg/h
m21W = 0.05 (315.78) = 15.78 ton/day = 657.5 kg/h

103

A.12 Dryer balance :

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.95
Xw = 0.05

21

DRYER

23

(C12H22O12)
XDS = 1
Xw = 0.00

22

WATER
XDS = 0.00
Xw = 1

DS= Dry substance (100% S , 0% NS)


W = Water
(Purity = 100 %)
Overall M.B. :
m23 = 300 ton/day = 12500 kg/h
m21 = m22 + m23 m21 = m22 + 300
0.95m21 = 0 + 300 m21 = 315.78 ton/day = 13157.5 kg/h
m22 = 315.78 300 = 15.78 ton/day = 657.5 kg/h

104

A.13 Storage balance :

(C12H22O12)

25

24

XDS = 1

STORAGE

STOREHOUSE
XDS = 0.5
Xw = 0.00

Xw = 0.00
26

SPECIALTY
SUGARS
XDS = 0.5
Xw = 0.00
DS= Dry substance (100% S , 0% NS)
W = Water
(Purity = 100 %)
Overall M.B. :
m26 = 150 ton/day = 6250 kg/h
m24 = m25 + m26 m24 = m25 + 150
0.5m24 = 150 m24 = 300 ton/day = 12500 kg/h
m25 = 300 150 = 150 ton/day = 6250 kg/h

105

APPENDIX B : ENERGY BALANCE


B.1) Energy Balance on mixer :
2
beet
T= 25oC
H1

mixer

(C12H22O12)
T= 65oC
H2

3
(C12H22O12)
T= 70oC
H3
5

(C12H22O12)
T= 35oC
H5

Water @ 25oC

Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kmol .oC) = 75.4*10-3

H1=m1cp T T = 25-25=0 H1=0


H2 = H2DS + H2W
H2DS = m2DS CpDS T
CPDS at 65oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.8775 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H2DS = (959.58 *103)( 3.8775)(65-25) = 148830858kJ/day = 6201285.75 kJ/h
H2W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [65-25]

= 9111034440 kJ/day = 379626435 kJ/h


H2 = 9259865298 kJ/day = 385827720.8 kJ/h

106

H3 = H3DS + H3W
H3DS = m3DS CpDS T
CPDS at 70oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.88 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H3DS = (1429.84*103)(3.88)(70-25) = 249650064 kJ/day = 10402086 kJ/h
H3W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [70-25]

= 1527308055 kJ/day = 63637835.63 kJ/h


H3 = 1776958119 kJ/day = 74039921.63 kJ/h
H5 = H5DS + H5W
H5DS = m5DS CpDS T
CPDS at 30oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.835 kJ/kg.oC

(From App D.1)

H5DS = (1003.36*103)(3.835)(30-25) = 19239428 kJ/day = 801642.83 kJ/h


H5W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [30-25]

= 137933618.3 kJ/day = 5747234.1 kJ/h


H5 = 157173046.3 kJ/day = 6548876.93 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H5 + H2) (H1+H3)
Q = 7640080225 kJ/day = 318336676.1 kJ/h

107

B.2) Energy Balance on Heater :

(C12H22O12)
T= 30oC
H5

(C12H22O12)
T= 88oC
H6

H5 = 157173046.3 kJ/day = 6548876.93 kJ/h


H6 = H6DS + H6W
H6DS = m6DS CpDS T
CPDS at 88oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.905 kJ/kg.oC
H6DS = (1003.36*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 246841610.4 kJ/day = 10285067.1 kJ/h
H6W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [88-25]

= 1500393055 kJ/day = 62516377.29 kJ/h


H6 = 1747234665 kJ/day = 72801444.38 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H6) (H5)
Q = 1590061619 kJ/day = 66252567.46 kJ/h

108

B.3) Energy Balance on Diffuser:

water
T=90oC
H14

Beet+(C12H22O12)
T=65oC
H2

Diffuser

(C12H22O12)
T=70oC
H3

(C12H22O12)
T=70oC
H4

H2 = 9259865298 kJ/day = 385827720.8 kJ/h


H3 = 1776958119 kJ/day = 74039921.63 kJ/h
H14 = H14W
H14W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [90-25]

= 1046931278 kJ/day = 43622136.58 kJ/h


H4 = H4DS + H4W
H4DS = m4DS CpDS T
CPDS at 70oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.88 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H4DS = (106.6*103)(3.88)(70-25) = 18612360 kJ/day = 775515 kJ/h
H4W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [70-25]

= 113891700 kJ/day = 4745487.5 kJ/h


H4=52179026.67 kJ/day = 2174126.11 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H3 + H4) (H2+ H14)
Q = -8477659430 kJ/day = -353235809.6 kJ/h

109

B.4) Energy Balance on Liming :


MOL(ca(OH)2)
T=40oC
H7
7

(C12H22O12)
T=88oC
H6

8
liming

(C12H22O12)
T=88oC
H8

H6 = 1747234665 kJ/day = 72801444.38 kJ/h


Ca(OH)2 @ 25oC

Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kg .oC) = 89.5*10-3

H7 =

CPdT =

[89.5*10-3] [40-25]

= 2423746.96 kJ/day = 100989.46 kJ/h


H8 = H8DS + H8W
H8DS = m8DS CpDS T
CPDS at 88oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.905kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H8DS = (1023.42*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 251776671.3 kJ/day=10490694.64 kJ/h
H8W = 1530466938 kJ/day = 63769455.75 kJ/h
H8 = 1782243609 kJ/day = 74260150.38 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H8) (H6 + H7)
Q = 32585197.04 kJ/day = 1357716.54 kJ/h

110

B.5) Energy Balance on Clarifier :

(C12H22O12)
T= 88oC
H8

CLARIFIER

10

(C12H22O12)
T= 88oC
H10

9
SLURRY
T= 88oC
H9

Water @ 25oC

Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kmol .oC) = 75.4*10-3

H8 = H8DS + H8W
H8DS = m8DS CpDS T
CPDS at 88oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.905 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H8DS = (1023.42*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 251776671.3 kJ/day = 10490694.64
kJ/h
H8W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [88-25]

= 1530466938 kJ/day = 63769455.75 kJ/h


H8 = 1782243609 kJ/day = 74260150.39 kJ/h
H9 = H9DS + H9W
H9DS = m9DS CpDS T
CPDS at 88oC (90% purity)(70%DS) = 2.87 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H9DS = (1193.997*103)(2.87)(88-25) = 215886597.6 kJ/day = 8995274.899
kJ/h
H9W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [88-25]

111

= 135041060.7 kJ/day = 5626710.863 kJ/h


H9 = 350927658.3 kJ/day = 14621985.76 kJ/h
H10 = H10DS + H10W
H10DS = m10DS CpDS T
CPDS at 88oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.905 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H10DS = (767.568*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 188833241.5 kJ/day = 7868051.73
kJ/h
H10W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [88-25]

= 1147846773 kJ/day = 47826948.87 kJ/h


H10 = 1336680015 kJ/day = 55695000.6 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H10 + H9) (H8)
Q = -94635935 kJ/day = -3943163.963 kJ/h

112

B.6) Energy Balance on Heater :

10

(C12H22O12)
T= 88oC
H10

11

(C12H22O12)
T= 92oC
H11

H10 = 1336680015 kJ/day = 55695000.6 kJ/h


H11 = H11DS + H11W
H11DS = m11DS CpDS T
CPDS at 92oC (90% purity)(15%DS) (From App D.1)
By Interpolation : x1 = 90 , x2 = 100 , x= 92 , y1 = 3.905 , y2 = 3.92 , y = ?

.90

(92 90

(
(

( .92 .90
(100 90

=3.908
CPDS at 92oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.908 kJ/kg.oC
H11DS = (767.568*103)(3.908)(92-25) = 200976934.8 kJ/day = 8374038.952
kJ/h
H11W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [92-25]

= 1220725933 kJ/day = 50863580.54 kJ/h


H11 = 1421702868 kJ/day = 59237619.49 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H11) (H10)
Q = 85022853 kJ/day = 3542618.875 kJ/h

113

B.7) Energy Balance on Filter :

11

(C12H22O12)
T=92oC
H11

FILTER

13

(C12H22O12)
T=92oC
H13

12
REJECT
T=92oC
H12
H11 = 1421702868 kJ/day = 59237619.49 kJ/h
H12 = H12DS + H12W
H12DS = m12DS CpDS T
CPDS at 92oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.908 kJ/kg.oC

(By Interpolation in

previous page)
H12DS = (33.368*103)(3.908)(92-25) =8736943.648 kJ/day = 364039.3187 kJ/h
H12W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [92-25]

= 53067054.08 kJ/day = 2211127.253 kJ/h


H12 = 61803997.73 kJ/day = 2575166.572 kJ/h
H13 = H13DS + H13W
H13DS = m13DS CpDS T
CPDS at 92oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.908 kJ/kg.oC
H13DS =(734.2125*103)(3.908)(92-25)= 192243264.2kJ/day=8010136.006 kJ/h
H13W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [92-25]

= 1167677963 kJ/day = 48653248.48 kJ/h


H13 = 1359921227 kJ/day = 56663384.47 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H13 + H12) (H11)
Q = 22356.73 kJ/day = 931.5304 kJ/h

114

B.8) Energy Balance on Evaporator :


VAPOR
T=100oC
H14

14

(C12H22O12)
T=92oC
H13

13

15
Evaporator

(C12H22O12)
T=95oC
H15

H13 = 1359921227 kJ/day = 56663384.47 kJ/h


H14 = H14W (Only vapor)
H14W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [100-25]

= 1208245729 kJ/day = 50343572.05 kJ/h


H15 = H15DS + H15W
H15DS = m15DS CpDS T
CPDS at 95oC (90% purity)(70%DS) = 2.985 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H15DS =(734.2125*103)(2.985)(95-25)=153413701.9 kJ/day=6392237.578 kJ/h
H15W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [95-25]

= 92266037.5 kJ/day = 3844418.229 kJ/h


H15 = 245679745.4 kJ/day = 10236656.06 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H14 + H15) (H13)
Q = 94004247.4 kJ/day = 3916843.642 kJ/h

115

B.9) Energy Balance on Crystallizer :

Water
T=100oC
H17

(C12H22O12)
T=95oC
H16

CRYSTALLIZER

(C12H22O12)
T=100oC
H18

H16 = H16DS + H16W


H16DS = m16DS CpDS T
CPDS at 95oC (90% purity)(70%DS)= 2.985kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H16DS=(734.2125*103)(2.985)(95-25)=153413701.9kJ/day=6392237.578 kJ/h
H16W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [95-25] = 92266037.5 kJ/day =

3844418.229 kJ/h
H16T = 245679745.4 kJ/day = 10236656.06 kJ/h
H17W=

CpdT =

[75.4*10-3] [100-25]= 81494833.33 kJ/day

= 3395618.055 kJ/h
CPDS at 100oC (90% purity)(90%DS) = 2.43 kJ/kg.oC (From App A.4)
H18DS = (734.2*103)(2.43)(100-25) = 133807950 kJ/day = 5575331.25 kJ/h
H18W=

CpdT =

(75.4*10-3) (100-25)= 173608500 kJ/day

= 7233687.5 kJ/h
H18T= 12809018.75 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H18 + H17) (H16)
Q = 5967980.745 kJ/h

116

B.10) Energy Balance on cooler :


(C12H22O12)
T=100oC
H18

COOLER

(C12H22O12)
T=75oC
H19

CPDS at 100oC (90% purity)(90%DS) = 2.43 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)


H18DS = (734.2*103)(2.43)(100-25) = 133807950 kJ/day = 5575331.25 kJ/h
H18W=

CpdT =

(75.4*10-3) (100-25)= 173608500 kJ/day

= 7233687.5 kJ/h
H18T= 12809018.75 kJ/h
CpDS at 75

(90% purity)(90%DS) = 2.39 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)

H19DS= (734.2*103)(2.39)(75-25) = 87736900 kJ/day = 3655704.167 kJ/h


H19W=

CpdT =

(75.4*10-3) (75-25)= 115739000 kJ/day =

= 482245.83 kJ/h
H19T= 8478162.497 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H19) (H18)
Q = - 4330856.253 kJ/h

117

B.11) Energy Balance on Centrifuge :

(C12H22O12)
T= 75oC
H19

CENTRIFUGE

19

20

Other processes
T= 60oC
H20

21

(C12H22O12)
T= 60oC
H21

Water @ 25oC

Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kg .oC) = 75.4*10-3 kJ/kmol.oC

H19 = H19DS + H19W


H19DS = m19DS CpDS T
CPDS at 75oC (92% purity)(93%DS)
By Interpolation : x1 = 70 , x2 = 80 , x= 75 , y1 = 2.36 , y2 = 2.42 , y = ?

=
= 2. 6

(
(7 70

(
(

(2.42 2. 6
(80 70

=2.39

118

CPDS at 75oC (92% purity)(93%DS) = 2.39 kJ/kg.oC


H19DS = (734.2*103)(2.39)(75-25) = 1754788 kJ/day = 73116.166 kJ/h
H19W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [75-25]

= 11573900 kJ/day = 482245.833 kJ/h


H19 = 13328688 kJ/day = 555362 kJ/h
H20 = H20DS + H20W
H20DS = m20DS CpDS T
CPDS at 60oC (84% purity)(94%DS) = 2.175 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H20DS =(445.278*103)(2.175)(60 - 25)=33896787.75 kJ/day=1412366.156 kJ/h
H20W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [60-25]

= 4166.981 kJ/day = 173.624 kJ/h


H20 = 33900954.73 kJ/day = 1412539.78 kJ/h
H21 = H21DS + H21W
H21DS = m21DS CpDS T
CP=4.187DS (0.02974.6.105 P)+7.5*105 DS T (1.18)
by integral the equation from (25 - 60

C) we find CPDST(100%

purity)(95%DS) = 68.24 kJ/kg


H21DS = (300*103)(68.24) = 23415000 kJ/day = 975625 kJ/h
H21W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [60-25]

= 2313523.33 kJ/day = 96396.8055 kJ/h


H21 = 22784501.46 kJ/day = 949354.23 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H20 + H21) (H19)
Q = 43356768.19 kJ/day = 1806532.008 kJ/h

119

B.12) Energy Balance on Dryer :

(C12H22O12)
T= 60oC
H21

DRYER

21

23

(C12H22O12)
T= 65oC
H23

22

WATER
T= 65oC
H22
Water @ 25oC

Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kmol .oC) = 75.4*10-3

H21 = H21DS + H21W


H21DS = m21DS CpDS T
CPDS at 60oC (100% purity)(95%DS)
We can calculate the specific heat of pure sucrose
solutions by using the following equation (Bubnik et al. 1995):
CP=4.187DS (0.02974.6.105 P)+7.5*105 DS T (1.18)
DS Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)
T Temperature (oC)
P Purity (for pure solutions, P = 100)
by integral the equation from (25 - 60

C) we find CPDST(100%

purity)(95%DS) = 68.24 kJ/kg


H21DS = (300*103)(68.24) = 20470978.13kJ/day = 852957.42 kJ/h
H21W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [60-25]

= 2313523.33 kJ/day = 96396.8055 kJ/h


H21 = 22784501.46 kJ/day = 949354.23 kJ/h

120

H22 = H22W
CPW at 65oC (0%DS) = 3.016 kJ/mol .oC
H22W =

CPdT =

[75.4*10-3] [65-25]

= 2644026.667 kJ/day = 110167.778 kJ/h


H22 = H22W= 2644026.667 kJ/day = 110167.778 kJ/h
H23 = H23DS
H23DS = m23DS CpDS T
CPDST from (25 65oC) (100% purity)(100%DS) = 74.16 kJ/kg

(From

equation)
H23DS = H23 = (300*103)(74.16) = 22248000 kJ/day = 927000 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H22 + H23) (H21)
Q = 2107525.207 kJ/day = 87813.55 kJ/h

121

B.13) Energy Balance on Cooler :

(C12H22O12)
T= 65oC
H23

23

COOLER

24

(C12H22O12)
T= 30oC
H24

H23 = H23DS
H23DS = m23DS CpDS T
CPDST from (25 65) (100% purity)(100%DS) = 74.16 kJ/kg

(From

equation)
H23DS = (300*103)(74.16) = 22248000 kJ/day = 927000 kJ/h
H24 = H24DS
H24DS = m24DS CpDS T
CPDST from (25 30) (100% purity)(100%DS) = 8.5 kJ/kg (From equation)
H24DS = (300*103)(8.5) = 2548687.5 kJ/day = 106195.31 kJ/h
Q = Hout - Hin = (H24 H23)
Q = -19699312.5 kJ/day = - 820804.69 kJ/h

122

APPENDIX C : Mass balance of water recycling and treatment


C.1 Mass balance of washing water recycling :
m1= 3950 ton/day (beet)
m2= 7900 ton/day (water)
m2(recycled water) = 5530 ton/day
m2 (fresh water) = 7900-5530= 2370 ton/day
m3= 3554 ton/day (beet after washing)
m4= 8296 ton/day (waste water)
m4(mud)= m1- m3 = 3950-3554= 396 ton/day
m4(water) = m4- m4(mud)= 8296-396= 7900 ton/day
m5= 0.67(8296) = 5530 ton/day (recycled water)
m6= 0.33(8296)= 2766 ton/day (water +mud)
m6(water)=m6-m(mud)= 2766-396= 2370 ton/day
m7= 0.7(2370)= 1659 ton/day (water)
m8= 0.3(2370)+396= 1107 ton/day (water +mud)

C.2 Mass balance of Diffusion Tower water recycling :

m9= 710.8 ton/day ( pulp)


m9(water)= 0.9(710.8)= 639.72 ton/day
m9(pulp)= 0.1(710.8)= 71.08 ton/day
m10= 0.8(639.72)= 511.78 ton/day (water recycled)
m11= m9- m10= 710.8-511.78=199.02 ton/day
m11(water)= 0.2(639.72)= 127.94 ton/day
m11(pulp)= m9(pulp)=m12(pulp)= 71.08 ton/day

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APPENDIX D (Physical properties of sugar )


D.1) Heat capacity :

124

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D.2) Density :

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