Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Applications
Prepared by:
Mamdouh Al-anazi
Mohammed Al-Ajlan
Sultan Al-Sebeai
Hussni Mandeeli
Supervised by:
Dr. Farag Abd El-Salam
Dr. Malik Al-Ahmad
Prof. Tariq Al-Fariss
Riyadh
1434 1435 H
2013 2014 G
Table of Contents
Contents
Acknowledgement
Summery
Problem Statement
Objectives
Scope of Work
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1
Backgrounds and History
1.2
The Nitric Acid Production Processes
1.2.1
The single Pressure Process
1.2.2
The Dual Pressure Process
1.2.3
The Process Selection
1.2.4
The Process Selection Conclusion
1.3
Main Uses of Nitric Acid
1.4
Physical Properties
1.5
Chemical Properties
1.6
Safety Properties
1.7
Market Survey
1.7.1
Economic Outlook
1.8
Preliminary Hazard Analysis
1.8.1
Summary of Previous Plant Accident
1.8.2
Inherent Safety Aspects
1.8.3
Local Safety and Environmental Regulations
1.9
Site Feasibility Study
1.9.1
Selection Criteria
1.9.2
Potential Site location
Chapter 2: Material Balance
2.1
Process Description
2.1.1
Process Flow Sheet
2.1.2
Justification of Equipment Selection
2.2
Overall Material Balance
2.3
Reactor Material Balance
2.4
Oxidation Material Balance
2.5
Absorber Material Balance
Chapter 3: Energy Balance
3.1
Vaporizer Energy Balance
3.2
Compressor Energy Balance
3.3
Superheater Energy Balance
3.4
Mixer Energy Balance
Page
4
5
6
6
6
7
8
9
9
11
13
13
13
14
15
15
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18
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20
22
22
22
24
25
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
2
3.5
Reactor Energy Balance
3.6
1st Cooler Energy Balance
3.7
Oxidation Energy Balance
3.8
2nd Cooler Energy Balance
3.9
Absorber Energy Balance
Chapter 4: Design and Sizing Equipment
4.1
Sizing of Pump
4.2
Design of Vaporizer
4.3
Sizing of Compressor
4.4
Design of Superheater
4.5
Sizing of Mixer
4.6
Design of Reactor
4.7
Design of 1st Cooler
4.8
Design of Oxidation
4.9
Design of 2nd Cooler
4.10
Design of Absorber
4.11
Design of Nitric Acid Tank
Chapter 5: Control Loop
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Control of Vaporizer
5.3
Control of Reactor
5.4
Control of Absorber
Chapter 6: Economic Analysis
6.1
Estimation of Capital Investment Items Based on
Delivered Equipment
6.2
Equipment Cost (at 2011)
6.3
Total Production Cost (TPC)
Chapter 7: Process Integration
Chapter 8: Safety and Loss Prevention
8.1
Plant Layout
8.2
Safety of Materials
8.3
Hazard and Operability Studies
Chapter 9: Waste Treatment
Conclusion
Reference
Appendices A: Material Safety Data
Appendices B: Physical Properties Data
Appendices C: Detailed Material Balance Calculation
Appendices D: Detailed Energy Balance Calculation
Appendices E: Equipment Design References
Appendices F: Computer Simulation by CHEMCAD
39
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105
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Acknowledgement
First, thanks are to Allah who helped us throughout this work. Then, it is our
pleasure to thank those people who helped us in the completion of this project. Also,
we would like to express our deep gratitude and apprec ation to our dear supervisors:
Dr.Farag Abd El-Salam, Prof. Tariq Al-Fariss and Dr. Malik Al-Ahmad for their
support, advise, valuable scientific knowledge and patience throughout this project.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to the department of chemical
engineering at the College of Engineering, King Saud University, for giving us this
opportunity to carry out this project and we are grateful to our colleagues at King
Saud University for their inspiration, help and encouragement without which we
would not have been able to complete this project too. Last but not least we thank our
dear families and relatives for their assistance and encouragement.
Summary
The results of the design project for the commercial production of nitric acid are
presented. The project has been performed in two stages. The first part covers a
literature review on various processes for nitric acid production, selection of the suit
table processes, materials and energy balance calculations as well as the feasibility of
the project. The second part presents the detailed equipment designs. From the
investigation into project feasibility, it is proposed to construct a plant that will
deliver 100000 tons per year of 60%(wt.) Nitric acid. This capacity is based on 8000
hours of operation per year, i.e. 330 days. It is envisaged that this nitric acid
production facility will be centered within a larger chemical complex to be located in
the eastern region of Saudi Arabia. Other plants on this site will include an ammonia
plant and an ammonium nitrate plant. Approximately 70% of the product acid will be
consumed in situ for the production of ammonium nitrate Fertilizer. The remaining
acid will be available to exploit the neighboring export market. The process chosen
for the nitric acid plant is the "single-pressure process" based on the technology
developed by C & I Girdler. The most important use is undoubtedly in the production
of ammonium nitrate for the fertilizer and explosives industries, which accounts for
approximately 65% of the world production of nitric acid. So we made all our
production to be used in the fertilizer.
Problem Statement
It is required to design a suitable process for the production of 100,000-ton/year of
nitric acid from ammonia (60% concentration).
Objectives
The objectives of this design project include the following:
To integrate chemical engineering knowledge in a detailed design of chemical
plants.
To design a nitric acid plant which is economically attractive, safe to workers and
society and reduce harm to the environment?
To develop oneself in the applications of all the elements of knowledge and skills
that have been accumulated throughout the undergraduate program for solving
design related problems for typical process industrial plant.
To develop the skills for working as a team and to nurture leadership qualities.
Scope of work
This project is subjected to the designing phase of the process plant. All researches
and literatures used for this project falls under the scope of the chemical
compositions, current productions of nitric acid, preliminary hazards analysis, process
design configurations and selections, and configuration of plant equipment (i.e.
reactor, separation system, heat integration, etc.). The designing phase is then
executed using manual engineering calculations .The project is aimed at achieving the
objective of the plant design process.
Chapter 1
Introduction
The chemical nature and composition of nitric acid were first determined in 1784
by the English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish (17311810). Cavendish
8
applied an electric spark to moist air and found that a new compound - nitric acid was formed. Cavendish was later able to determine the acids chemical and physical
properties and its chemical composition. The method of preparation most commonly
used for nitric acid today was one invented in 1901 by the Russian born German
chemist Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (18531932). The Ostwald process involves the
oxidation of ammonia over a catalyst of platinum or a platinum-rhodium mixture. [2]
Today, nitric acid is one of the most important chemical compounds used in
industry. It ranks number thirteen among all chemicals produced in the United States
each year. In 2005, about 6.7 million metric tons (7.4 million short tons) of the
compound were produced in the United States. [1]
lower zones is particularly important due to its effect on the oxidation and
dimerization reactions. [6]
For this process, chilled water at 7C is used and the tail-gas exit temperature is
approximately 10C. Acid from the bottom of the absorber is bleached at 1010 kPa
with partially cooled compressed air. The bleach air, containing nitrogen peroxide
stripped from the acid, is then added to the main gas stream before entering the
oxidation vessel. The cold gas is warmed by heat exchange with the hot compressed
bleached air, and then heated to the expander inlet temperature of 620C by two
exchangers in the recovery train. The expander recovers 80% of the required
compressor power. Expanded tail gas at 300C flows through an economizer,
providing heat to high-pressure boiler feed water and to low-pressure de ionized
deaerator make-up water. Subsequently tail gas is exhausted to the atmosphere at
66C and less than 1000 ppm of nitrogen oxides. [9]
The chilled water (7C) for absorption refrigeration unit, using heat, supplies the
absorber recovered from the compressor and intercooler as the energy source. Heat
for ammonia vaporization, as previously noted, is available at 35C and is recovered
from the secondary gas cooler. The system uses circulating condensate as the energy
transfer medium. [7]
compressed in an axial compressor to 350 kPa and is mixed with the superheated
ammonia vapor (1 O-l 1% ammonia by volume) prior to entering the
converter/reactor. In the converter, the gases react over the platinum/rhodium gauze
catalyst. [7]
The gases leaving the reactor at 330 kPa and 865C flow through a series of heat
exchangers for recovery of energy, either as high-pressure superheated steam or shaft
horsepower from expansion of hot tail gas. Approximately 40% of the oxidation to
nitrogen dioxide occurs in the gas as it passes through the energy recovery train and is
cooled to 135C (exit from the tail-gas preheater). After further cooling to 45C in the
medium-pressure condenser, and separation of 20% of the acid product as 30%
strength nitric acid, the gas reaches 50% oxidation to nitrogen peroxide with
approximately 20% dimerization. [7]
The gas is combined with bleach air containing additional nitrogen peroxide and is
compressed in a centrifugal nitrous-gas compressor to 1025 kPa. The exit temperature
of 224C is achieved due to the combined heat effects of the compression, the further
oxidation to 80% nitrogen peroxide, and the virtual disappearance of the dimer. The
compressed gas flows through an empty oxidation chamber, a high-pressure boiler
feed water economizer, and a low-pressure deionized water economizer, and thus is
cooled to 95C. Residence time in the system and the effect of increased pressure
result in at least 95% oxidation to nitrogen peroxide, but the dimerization is low due
to the temperature level. [10]
The gas is then cooled to the dew point (50C) for entry into the absorber. The
dimerization increases to 48%, adding significantly to the heat removed prior to the
absorber. The system uses circulating condensate as the energy transfer medium. The
absorber is essentially the same as that previously described for the single-pressure
process. [4]
Chilled water at 15C is used in the absorber and the outlet gas temperature is
18C. Refrigeration for the chilled water is provided by the ammonia vaporizer which
operates at 7C. [6]
Weak acid from the bottom of the absorber is let down to 330 kPa for bleaching
with air from the axial compressor. This air, with nitrogen peroxide stripped from the
acid, flows to the suction of the nitrous-gas compressor together with the main nitrous
gas stream from the condenser. [5]
12
The single-pressure process appears to be preferred for our project. The capital
cost advantage of this process surpasses the benefits of the superior operating cost
structure of the dual-pressure process.
catalyst and hydrolyzing agent. The most important use is undoubtedly in the
production of ammonium nitrate for the fertilizer, which accounts for approximately
65% of the world production of nitric acid. [5]
Nitric acid has a number of other industrial applications. It is used for pickling
stainless steels, steel refining, and in the manufacture of dyes, plastics and synthetic
fibres. Most of the methods used for the recovery of uranium. Such as ion exchange
and solvent extraction, use nitric acid [7].
An important point is that for most uses concerned with chemical production, the
acid must be concentrated above its azeotropic point to greater than 95%(wt).
Conversely, the commercial manufacture of ammonium nitrate uses nitric acid below
its azeotropic point in the range 50-65%(wt). If the stronger chemical grade is to be
produced, additional process equipment appropriate to super-azeotropic distillation is
required. [2] , [7] , [10]
14
Being a strong oxidizing agent, reactions of nitric acid with compounds such as
cyanides, carbides, and metallic powders can be explosive and those with many
organic compounds, such as turpentine, are violent and hypergolic (i.e. self-igniting).
Hence, it should be stored away from bases and organics. [1], [3]
16
%21
USA
%30
Poland
france
USSR
%10
UK
%7
%10
%4
Other
Estern Europe
%18
Most nitric acid is consumed captively and the merchant portion of the market
accounts for less than 10% of the total. International trade is minor and has little
impact on the nitric acid balance. Although there has been a relatively steady increase
in capacity, the world's average operating rate increased to 76% in 2010, indicating a
much stronger market balance than previously.
It is estimated that AN (and CAN) production accounted for 80% of the world
nitric acid market in 2010. The AN market is nearly three-quarters fertilizer and onequarter industrial applications. However, other nitric acidbased products such as
nitrophosphates and potassium nitrates are also used in fertilizer applications,
accounting for an additional 2.5% of total nitric acid consumption. The remaining
17.5% of nitric acid is consumed in industrial (nonfertilizer) applications. The
combined production of organic compounds, such as nitrobenzene, toluene
diisocyanate (TDI), adipic acid, and nitrochlorobenzenes accounted for nearly 10% of
total world nitric acid consumption in 2010.
Western Europe, China, the former USSR, Central Europe and the United States
dominate the market statistics. Together, these five regions accounted for 81.4% of
capacity, 82.0% of production, and 81.9% of consumption in 2010. Since 1994, the
largest increases in capacity, production and consumption have occurred in China.
One environmental problem affecting the consumption of nitric acid concerns the
use of ammonium nitrate fertilizers. The loss of nitrogen to groundwater because of
nitrification and leaching has become a significant problem and has negatively
impacted the use of nitrogen fertilizers, particularly in Western Europe. A European
Community directive has set a target of reducing nitrate levels in groundwater to a
maximum of 50 milligrams per liter. There is also concern about nitrate levels in
groundwater in the United States.
Current world production is approximately 34 million tons per annum, and over
30% is produced in the United States. Of the remaining production, about 60% is
based in Europe. The USSR (6 million tons), United Kingdom (3.3 million tons),
Poland (2.4 million tons) and France (1.5 million tons) are the main producers.
The plant should operate on a standard 8000 hour/year basis, with approximately
330 days of production. Nitric acid market price is $400 per ton can be obtained for
the product.
Ammonia market price is $500 per ton; we need to 18687.08 tons for ammonia to
produce 100000 tons of nitric acid. [9]
Component
Total Price
Ammonia
$500
$9343540
Water
$0.04
$963
Nitric acid
$400
$40000000
Figure 2 Terra's Port Neal, Iowa complex before the explosion. The ammonium nitrate plant is indicated
[2]
The Port Neal plant produced an 83 percent AN solution by reacting ammonia and
nitric acid in a vessel called a neutralizer. The original neutralizer was replaced in
1980 and a major modification and upgrade of the plant occurred in 1992. A scrubber
and new control system were also added in September 1994. In the two days prior to
the explosion, the nitric acid plant was shut down for maintenance. With the nitric
acid plant not operating, the AN facility was also shut down.
The accident occurred due to unsafe plant operations including poor maintenance
and inadequate employee training. Specifically, during the shutdown period, the pH
of the neutralizer vessel contents dropped to an unusually low level and leaks in other
equipment led to the introduction of chloride ions that catalyzed the final reaction.
Unaware that the 18,000 gallon-capacity neutralizer vessel was in a highly acidic and
contaminated condition, Terra employees injected superheated steam to try to keep
the vessel contents from freezing due to the winter cold. The energy from injected
superheated steam led to the runaway chemical reaction of the sensitized ammonium
nitrate solution and resulted in the subsequent explosive detonations. [5]
20
b) Safe Location:
The selection of suitable location is a very important decision to make when there
is new plant to build. Some of the factors that should be consider when selecting the
location for a plant is for example the availability of raw materials used, also good
transportation network, and availability of market, weather condition suitability and
the water supply. From safety aspects, few factors should be taken in consideration
before deciding whether the location is suitable. Most important is the distance from
the residential area, availability of water and power supply. [4]
c) Plant Layout:
Another inherent safety is plant layout. After deciding on the plant location the
overall plant layout, for example the processing areas, the absorber column, control
rooms, roads and storage areas and other utilities must be planned carefully taking in
consideration the future problems that might arise. Firstly and elementary layout
developed first, these shows the fundamental relationship between the operating
equipment and the storages area. Then the second step is the primary layout base of
the flow of the material, unit operational storage, and future expansion. An efficient
arrangement and coordination is very important to reduce the risk and hazards in plant
by putting the element of health and safety into the design. [9]
d) Transportation:
Transportation to and from the plant is very important. Usually if the plant is big, it
requires inside transportation and these kinds of vehicles should be ensured that it is
safe and does not bring any hazards to the workers or the plant itself. Vehicles should
be using diesel instead of petrol, as a diesel engine does not produce sparks that might
ignite fire. For nitric acid transferring process, container should be constructed from
insulating material. [9]
e) Storage:
2) Standards:
a) During any 30 days period, one-hour average NO2 concentration shall not
exceed 660-microgram/cubic meter (0.35 ppm) more than twice at any location.
b) During any 12 months period, the annual NO2 concentration shall not exceed
100-microgram/cubic meter at any location. [11]
22
Factors
JIC
Site Location
YIC
10
9
10
10
9
8
10
0
10
10
8
8
Ras Alkhair
Seaport
10
10
10
10
6
8
9
10
0
5
10
5
10
5
6
10
10
10
8
10
0
8
10
0
10
10
6
10
10
10
10
10
0
9
10
10
10
3
6
10
10
10
10
10
166
83
2
5
10
162
81
3
5
10
167
83.5
1
In these cities, there are a lot of petrochemical plants and because the raw material
(ammonia) plant is available in Ras Alkhair, we have chosen the location of our plant
to be there.
24
Chapter 2
Material Balance
26
Figure 4 Process flow sheet for nitric acid production by the single pressure process." our selected process"
28
The material balances for the all units of the plant were hand calculated. A material balance
for each unit presented below in tabulated form. The main equations used in the calculations are
shown in their relevant sections. The detailed calculations are included in Appendix (C).
The general equation for material balance is
Input Output + Generation Consumption = Accumulation
For steady state without chemical reaction
Input Output = 0
S1
S 12
S2
S 13
S 14
Component
O2
Input S1
(Kg/h)
9142.88
Input S2
(Kg/h)
-
Output S14
(Kg/h)
-
Output S12
(Kg/h)
799.19
Output S13
(Kg/h)
-
N2
34394.64
34490.82
NH3
2335.88
H2O
3007.51
646.00
5000.00
HNO3
7500.00
NO2
288.20
NO
156.70
Total
48880.91
48880.91
30
S7
S8
R-201
Component
NH3
Input S7
(Kg/h)
2335.88
Output S8
(Kg/h)
-
O2
9142.88
3756.58
N2
34394.64
34490.82
NO
3916.05
H2O
3709.93
Total
45873.4
45873.4
S9
S 10
R-202
Component
NO
Input S9
(Kg/h)
3916.05
Output S10
(Kg/h)
156.70
NO2
5764.39
O2
3756.57
1751.55
N2
34490.82
34490.82
H2O
3709.93
3709.93
Total
45873.40
45873.40
32
S 12
S 14
S 11
S 13
T-201
Component
H2O
Input S11
(Kg/h)
3709.93
Input S14
(Kg/h)
3007.51
Output S12
(Kg/h)
646.00
Output S13
(Kg/h)
5000.00
HNO3
7500.00
NO2
5764.40
288.20
NO
156.70
156.70
O2
1751.55
799.19
N2
34490.82
34490.82
Total
48880.91
48880.91
Chapter 3
Energy Balance
34
S4
S5
E-101
= 1.78 /
= 0
= 2902575.37 /
S3
S1
C-101
For S1: Air at 101 kPa and S3: Air at 1090 kPa
= 8879734.37 /
(This is the mechanical energy required by the compressor.)
36
S5
S6
E-102
For S5: NH3 at 35 oC and S6: NH3 at 177 oC
= 0
= 5.442 /
= 747758.01 /
S3
S7
S6
M-101
For S3: NH3 at 177 oC, S6: Air at 262 oC and S7: NH3+Air at ?
= 0 ()
= 250
38
S7
S8
R-201
For S7: NH3+Air at 250 oC and S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC
Component
H (Air)
H (NH3)
H (NO)
H (H2O)
= 51820729.07 /
Input S7
(kJ/mol)
6.654
8.84
-
Output S8
(kJ/mol)
19
19.744
23
S9
E-201
40
S9
R-202
S 10
Component
Input S9
(kJ/mol)
Output S10
(kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g)
1.521
3.919
H (Air)
1.312
3.37
H (NO)
1.345
3.47
H (NO2)
4.5
= 3707006.24 /
S 10
S 11
E-202
42
S 12
S 14
T-201
S 11
S 13
Component
Input S11
Input S14
Output S12
Output S13
(kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g)
1.18
0.166
H (H2O) (L)
-0.375
0.375
H (Air)
1.02
0.145
H (NO)
1.044
0.149
H (NO2)
1.32
H (HNO3)
0.55
Q= -29876241 KJ/h
Chapter 4
44
2335.88
= 0.6488 Kg/s
3600
G = 0.6488 kg/s
() =
0.6488
656.67
Q = 0.001 m3/s
Piping Specification
Atypical velocity for fluid flow is 2 m/s.
Determination of the pipe area:
Area of pipe (A) =
Area =
Velocity
0.001
2
Area= 0.0005 m2
4 0.5
Diameter of pipe (D) = [
]
=[
4 0.0005 0.5
]
D = 25 mm
This value is compared with the result achieved by applying the Economic pipe diameter
formula for stainless steel from
Optimum diameter = 226 G0.5 -0.35
Optimum diameter = 226 (0.6488)0.5 (656.67)-0.35
Optimum diameter = 19mm
Accept the larger value as a conservative estimate
Component
Mwt
NH3
Kg/Kmol
17
Kmol/h
137.404
Kg/h
2335.88
Mole fraction
Y
Mass fraction
X
Table 11: Physical properties of ammonia at Tave = 10oC and Pave = 1240 kPa
Component
Pa.s
1.531 x 10-4
Cp
KJ/kg.K
5.02
NH3
K
W/m.K
0.5135
Kg/m3
623.6318
Table 12: Physical properties of standard steam at 1 atm and T ave = 100oC = 373 K
Cpl
Cpv
KJ/Kg.K
4.24
1.888
l
0.27 x
10-3
v
Pa.s
1.295 x
10-5
v
3
Kg/m
953
0.596
kl
kv
W/ m.K
0.681
0.0251
KJ/Kg
2256.9
[7]
For steam:
Qlost = Qgain = m
[7]
msteam = 163/2256.9
msteam = 0.0722 kg/s
46
Finding Tlm:
T1 = 100 oC
T2 = 100 oC
VAPORIZER
t2 = 35 oC
t1 = -15 oC
[7]
= 87.63
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and one tube passes:
Tm = 87.63 oC
According to Table A in Appendix E, Cold fluid is Ammonia and hot fluid is condensing steam.
The following value of overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated:
U= 500 W/ m2.oC
3.72
=
25 103 2
= 24
Since the steam in the shell side is always clean, we will use triangular pitch arrangement with
Pt= 1.25do:
1
= [ ]
1
[7]
159 2.142
= 25 [
]
0.319
[7]
Db = 187.9 mm
Calculating the shell diameter Ds:
= + [7]
From Figure A in Appendix E and for split-ring floated heat type of heat exchanger we get,
clearance= 48 mm
= 187.9 + 48 = 235.64 [7]
48
= 2 = (21)2 = 346.36 2
4
4
= (
) 2 = 0.008312 2 [7]
.
4
0.64885
=
= 78.06
2 . [7]
0.008312
78.06
( ) =
=
= 0.125 [7]
623.6318
( ) =
W/m.oC
Jh = factor for heat transfer given form Figure B in Appendix E in Appendix E by (Re)
() =
1.531 104
(Turbulent Flow)
() =
0.5125
0.14
) and assume it approximately 1
w
Then:
(21 103 )
= (4 103 )(10692.57)(1.49)0.33
0.5135
hi = 1192.93 W/m2.oC
[7]
[7]
[7]
Pt = tube pitch
Pt
do
do = 25 mm
Pt = 1.25 do mm = 31.25 mm
235.9
=
= 47.18
5
5
31.25 25
= [
] = [
] (235.9)(47.18) = 2226 2
31.25
=
As = 0.002226 m2
= [
0.0722
]=[
] = 32.43 2 .
0.002226
32.43
= [ ] = [
] = 54.42
0.596
[7]
[7]
1.10 2
( 0.9172 )
1.10
[(31.25)2 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 = 0.01775
25
[7]
0.0722
=
= 1.5 103 .
24 2
[7]
50
(32.43)(0.01775)
=
= 45721.4 [7]
1.259 105
187.9
=
= 6.01
31.25
[7]
6.01
(0.27 103 )(1.5 103 )
hs = 13441.08 W/m2.oC
ln ( ) 1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ( )+
( )
2
[7]
52
Calculating the pressure drop (P) for side tube and shell tube:
1.The tube side Pt
L
m
vt2
Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] [
]
di w
2
[7]
3 )
2
623.6318 0.1252
(
) + 2.5] [
]
21 103
2
[7]
2 )
54
=
= 1.15 3
298 8314
1
3
1 = = 0.8733
Ep = 0.74
= = 29.099 .
= = 29.099 8.314 = 20.785
= 1.4
( 1)
=
= 0.386
( )
=
1
= 1.62
1
2
= 1 1
[( )
1 1
(1)
1]
The objective is to design a heat exchanger (superheater) (shell and tube) to heat Ammonia of
flow rate 2335.88 kg/hr from 350C to 177 0C using saturated steam entering at 40 bars.
Component
Mwti
kg/kmol
17
NH3
Ni
kmol/h
137.404
Mi
Kg/h
2335.88
Mole fraction
Yi
1
Mass fraction
Xi
1
Component
Cp
kJ/kg.K
2.38
NH3
i
Pa.s
1.32 x 10-4
K
W/m.K
0.0364
kg/m3
7.04
Table 15: Physical properties of standard steam at 40 bars and Tave = 250.3oC = 523.45 K
Cpv
kJ/kg.K
1.958
v
Pa.s
1.84 x 10-5
v
kg/m3
20.12
For steam:
= = [7]
= 219.28/1712.9
= 0.128 /
Finding Tlm:
kv
W/ m.K
0.0388
kJ/kg
1712.9
T1 = 250.3 oC
t2 = 177 oC
T2 = 250.3 oC
SUPERHEATER
t1 = 25oC
[7]
= 131.79 C
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and one tube passes.
According to Table A in Appendix E, Cold fluid is Ammonia and hot fluid is condensing steam.
The following value of overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated:
U= 160 W/ m2.oC
58
= =
[7]
= 10.39 2
Choosing 25 mm O.D, 21 mm I.D stainless steel tubes to resist corrosion problems. Placing
condensing steam in the shell side. Take Tube length L = 5 m
[7]
10.39
=
25 103 5
[7]
= 27
Since the gas mixture in the shell side is always clean, we will use triangular pitch arrangement
with Pt= 1.25do [7]
1
= [ ]
1
[7]
27 2.142
= 25 [
]
0.319
[7]
Db = 198.5 mm
Calculating the shell diameter Ds:
= + [7]
From Figure A in Appendix E and for split-ring floated heat type of heat exchanger we get,
clearance= 49.5 mm
= 198.5 + 49.5 = 248
= (
) 2 = 0.009351 2 [7]
.
4
0.64885
=
= 69.39
2 .
0.009351
78.06
( ) =
=
= 9.85 [7]
623.6318
( ) =
[7]
1.32 105
[7]
(Turbulent Flow)
2.38 103 1.32 105
() =
=
= 0.863
0.0364
[7]
0.14
Then:
(21 103 )
= (2.8 103 )(110320)(0.863)0.33
0.0364
hi = 510 W/m2.oC
60
[7]
Pt = tube pitch
Pt
31.25
=
As = 0.0024552 m2
Mass velocity (Gs) and liner velocity (vs):
mshell = mass flow rate of steam = 0.128 kg/sec
= [
0.128
] = [0.0024552] = 52.13
2 . [7]
52.13
= [ ] =
= 2.59 [7]
20.12
The equivalent (Hydraulic) diameter de:
=
1.10 2
( 0.9172 ) [7]
1.10
[(31.25)2 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 = 0.01775
25
1.84 105
do
[7]
[7]
[7]
0.14
) and assume it approximately 1
w
(25 103 )
= (3.2 103 )(50269.92)(0.928)0.33
0.0388
hs = 343 W/m2.oC
62
ln ( ) 1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ( )+
( )
2
[7]
Calculating the pressure drop (P) for side tube and shell tube:
[7]
5
7.04 9.852
)
+
2.5]
[
]
21 103
2
64
Ds L
vs2
0.14
Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) (
)( )
De LB
2
w
Ps = shell side pressure drop (N/m2)
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re , Found from Figure 12.30 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25
Ds = shell diameter = 248 mm
De = equivalent diameter for shell side = 17.75 mm
L = length of one tube = 5 m
vs = flow velocity in shell = 2.59 m/sec
LB = Baffle spacing = 49.5 mm
shell = 20.12 kg/m3
248
5 103 20.12 2.592
Ps = 8(2.8 102 ) (
)(
)(
)
17.75
49.5
2
Ps = 22.39 kPa (Acceptable)
[7]
1. The selected heat exchanger has one shell pass and one tube passes, in which ammonia flow
inside the tube and condensing steam flows inside the shell .
2. The selected tubes are made of stainless steel with 25 mm outside diameter, 21 mm inside
diameter, the total number of tube is 27, while the tube length is 5 m, and the triangular pitch
applied for this tube distribution is 31.25 mm.
3. The shell diameter Ds is 248 mm. and the baffles used are 25% cut, while the baffle spacing is
(49.5 mm).
4. The first estimated value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 160(W/m2 . oC) , while the
final calculated value is 163.5 (W/m2. oC).
5. The pressure drop ( Pt ) for the tube side is 2.154 kPa , while the shell side ( Ps ) is 22.39
kPa .
= 1.15
Volume of mixture:
Residence time in the mixture drum: = 1s
= 11 1 = 11 3
/ = 4
= ( ) 3
4
1
3
=( )
= 1.6
= 6.1
The direct oxidation of ammonia over platinum 10% odrhodium catalyst is the major step in
the production of nitric acid. This oxidation at temperature about 700 oC and pressure range of 59 atm. At this temperature platinum oxides are formed on the surface and some portion of it are
vaporized and carried away in the gas stream.
A suitable shape for the reactor has been found to be in the form of two frustrated square
pyramids, between the large cross-sections of which are placed the catalyst gauze. This shape
allows the walls of reactor to be kept as cool as possible.
A major issue in the design of this type of reactor is the arrangement of catalyst layer in the
form of screen supported in a manner that will ensure good distribution of flow. Because poor
distribution could cause hot spot in this exothermic reaction leading to volatilization of the
catalyst metal, and a direct reduction is also reduce the plant capacity.
Kinetic of reaction
The catalyst of ammonia oxidation is so rapid that the amount of catalyst required is very
small and heat transfer is not feasible. Typically configuration of this system is the woven wire
gauze. This reaction completely by mass transfer, and the design of screen packs has been based
on pilot plant studies and plant experience, and the reactor type is known as the shallow-bedadiabatic one. [5]
Assumption:
68
1 2
[( ) + 2 ]
0.2
(3063) 2000
= =
=
24 3600 0.96 0.09 0.027547
= 4.63 2 . = 2.1 2 .
= Porcity = 1
Superficial velocity
[5]
= 2.1
1
82.06 1209
= 2.1
= 890 = 28.3
[5]
7.8 30
mass amonia
= 85 [5]
mass catalyst
17 137.4
= 27.5
85
= 50 [5]
(1 )
= 0.5 50 + 1 + 1 = 27
=
76.8
= 1
27
70
Component
Mwt
Mixture
Kg/Kmol
28.27
Kmol/h
1622.88
Kg/h
45873.40
Mole fraction
Y
Mass fraction
X
Table 17: Physical properties of mixture at Tave = 630.5 K and Pave = 12.4 bars
Component
Mixture
Pa.s
3.03 x 10-5
Cp
KJ/kg.K
1.1538
K
W/m.K
0.0484
Kg/m3
6.4106
Component
H2O
Cp
KJ/kg.K
4.181
Pa.s
0.656 x 10-3
K
W/m.K
0.571
[7]
Kg/m3
992.25
P vap
[7]
P total
B
T+C
31.256
1064
yH2 O = 0.029
m2 =
yH2 O
(mass flow rate of mixture without H2 O)
1 y H2 O
0.029
(42163.45)
1 0.029
kg
kg
m2 = 1259.25 h = 0.35 s
m2 =
The remaining water in the exit liquid stream = H2O entering 1st cooler in stream 7 H2O exiting
vapor stream in stream 8
The remaining water = 1.03 0.35 = 0.68 kg/s
Qlost = Qgain = m1 Cpmix T + m2
[7]
= 1954.79 kJ/kg
mass of water = mwater =
Q
8453.887
kg
=
= 50.55 s
CpT 4.181 40
Finding :
T1 = 645 oC
T2 = 70 oC
COOLER
t2 = 60 oC
72
t1 = 20 oC
Tlm =
Tout Tin
T
ln Toutt
in
[7]
Tlm = 217.52 C
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and two tubes pass.
So we need a correction factor for Tlm:
Tm = Ft (Tlm)
=
1 2
= 14.375
2 1
2 1
= 0.064
1 1
[7]
[7]
According to Table A in Appendix E, Cold fluid is water and hot fluid is gas. The following
value of overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated:
U=300 W/m2.oC
Required Area for Heat transfer:
Q = U A Tm A = Q / U Tm
A= 133.56 m2
A
133.56
=
d L 25 103 5
[7]
Nt = 341 tubes
Since the gas mixture in the shell side is always clean, we will use triangular pitch arrangement
with Pt= 1.25do [7]
Nt n1
Db = do [ ]
K1
[7]
341 2.207
Db = 25 [
]
0.249
Db = 659.36 mm
Calculating the shell diameter (Ds):
Ds = Db + clearance
[7]
From Figure A in Appendix E and for split-ring floated heat type of heat exchanger we get,
clearance= 66 mm
[7]
Ds = 659.36 + 63 = 722.36 mm
Calculating the heat transfer coefficients for tube side (hi): [7]
= 2 = (21)2 = 346.36 2
4
4
74
341
=
= 170.5
.
2
= (
) 2 = 0.059 2
.
4
50.55
=
= 856.78
2 .
0.059
856.78
( ) =
=
= 1.374
623.6318
( ) =
0.656 103
(Turbulent Flow)
() =
0.571
0.14
Then:
hi (21 103 )
= (2.9 103 ) (43643.872) (4.803)0.33
0.571
hi = 5776.13 W/m2.oC
[7]
Area for cross flow of the shell side As, using Kern Method:
As = [
Pt do
] Ds LB
Pt
Pt = tube pitch
do = tube outside diameter
Pt
do
do = 25 mm
Pt = 1.25 do mm = 31.25 mm
Ds 722.36
=
= 144.47 mm
5
5
31.25 25
= [
] = [
] (722.36)(144.47) = 20871.87 2
31.25
LB =
As = 0.02087187 m2
Mass velocity (Gs) and liner velocity (vs):
mshell = mass flow rate of mixture = 12.7426 kg/sec
= [
12.7426
]=[
] = 610.52 2 .
0.02087187
610.52
= [ ] =
= 95.24
6.4106
The equivalent (Hydraulic) diameter de:
de =
1.10 2
(P 0.917d2o )
do t
1.10
[(31.25)2 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 = 0.01775
25
kg
m3
76
h =
Ws
12.7426
=
= 4.98 103
Nt L 511 5
Db 659.36
=
= 21
Pt
31.25
2
21 = 14
3
1
3
L (L v )g
hc = 0.95 k L [
]
L h
Nr
1
6
1
3
14
1
6
hc = 1264.34 W/m2 . oC
[7]
ln ( ) 1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ( )+
( )
2
Uo = overall coefficient based on outside area of the tubes
ho = outside fluid film coefficient
hi = inside fluid film coefficient
do = tube outside diameter
di = tube inside diameter
Kw = thermal conductivity of tube wall material = 50 (W/m.oC) for ''Cupro -Nickel alloys''
hod = outside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000(W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix E)
hid = inside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix E)
25 103 ln(2521)
1
1
1
1
25
1 25
=
+
+
+
( )+
( )
5776.13 3000
2 50
1264.34 21
3000 21
Uo = 529.53 W/m2 .oC
The value of 529.53 W/m2.oC is well above the estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC. Hence, the
present design satisfactory OK
Calculating the pressure drop (P) for side tube and shell tube: [7]
1.The tube side Pt
78
L
m
vt2
Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] [
]
di w
2
Pt = tube side pressure drop (N/m2)
Np = Number of tube passes
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re ' Found from Figure 12.30 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25
L = length of one tube = 5 m
vt = flow velocity inside the tube
m = exponent value depending on type of flow
at laminar (Re<2100) m = 0.25
at Turblent (R>10000) m = 0.14
Now,
5
992.25 0.7582
Pt = 2 [8(3.5 103 ) (
)
+
2.5]
[
]
21 103
2
Pt = 5226.02 Pa = 5.22602 kPa (Acceptable)
Ds L
vs2
0.14
Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) (
)( )
De LB
2
w
Ps = shell side pressure drop (N/m2)
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re , Found from Figure 12.30 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25 = 2.8 x 10-2
Ds = shell diameter = 522.64 mm
De = equivalent diameter for shell side = 17.75 mm
L = length of one tube = 5 m
vs = flow velocity in shell = 100.88 m/sec
LB = Baffle spacing = 104.53 mm
shell = 11.56 kg/m3
857.99 5 103 6.4106 67.512
Ps = 8(2.8 102 ) (
)(
)(
)
17.75
171.59
2
Ps = 4609.086 kPa (Too high!)
This value for Ps is high, so we will decrease vs by quadrupling the baffle spacing, which will
reduce the velocity in the shell by a factor of (1/3)
i.e. new vs new = 0.333 vs old
Ps vs2
Ps new (0.333)2 Ps old
Ps new = (0.333)2 (4609.086) = 511.09 kPa
But this effect of using half vs old will affect the hs as follows
hs Re0.8
hs now = ( 0.333 )0.8 hs old
hs now = ( 0.333)0.8 (5776.13) = 2396.58 W/m2.oC
The new value for the overall heat transfer coefficient will be Uo = 468.91 W/m2.oC which is still
above the initial estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC then this trial for reducing Ps is satisfactory.
1. The selected heat exchanger has one shell pass and two tubes pass, in which cooling
water flow inside the tube and mixture flows inside the shell .
2. The selected tubes are made of Capper - Nickel alloy with 25 mm outside diameter, 21
mm inside diameter, the total number of tube is 341, while the tube length is 5 m, and the
triangular pitch applied for this tube distribution is 31.25 mm.
3. The shell diameter Ds is 722.36 mm. and the baffles used are 25% cut, while the baffle
spacing is (63 mm).
4. The first estimated value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 529.53 (W/m2. oC) ,
while the final calculated value is 468.91 (W/m2. oC).
5. The pressure drop ( Pt ) for the tube side is 6.20309 kPa , while the shell side ( Ps ) is
511.09 kPa .
2993
11.323 = 2.529 103 1 [14]
(2 () (2 ))
[14]
2.529 103
=
((80.047)2 (71.94))
8.314(343)
= 0.408
130 1000
3600
5.2 1000
=
3600
=
= 84.8 3
82
The objective is to design a heat exchanger (shell and tube) to cool vapor mixture of flow rate
45873.40 kg/h from 140 0C to 60 0C. Cooling water will be used as the coolant fluid entering at
250C and exiting at 400C.
Component
Mwt
Mixture
Kg/Kmol
28.27
Kmol/h
1622.88
Kg/h
45873.40
Mole fraction
Y
Mass fraction
X
Table 20: Physical properties of mixture at Tave = 373 K and Pave = 12.4 bars
Component
Mixture
Cp
KJ/kg.K
1.1085
Pa.s
2.051 x 10-5
K
W/m.K
0.0603
Kg/m3
11.56
Component
H2O
Cp
KJ/kg.K
4.183
Pa.s
0.771 x 10-3
Finding :
K
W/m.K
0.616
Kg/m3
995.5
T1 = 140 oC
T2 = 60 oC
COOLER
t2 = 40 oC
t1 = 25 oC
[7]
= 61.92
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and two tubes pass.
So we need a correction factor for Tlm:
Tm = Ft (Tlm) [7]
=
1 2
= 5.333 [7]
2 1
2 1
= 0.130 [7]
1 1
U= 300 W/m2.oC
Required Area for Heat transfer:
Q = U A Tm A = Q / U Tm [7]
A= 62.08 m2
Choosing 25 mm OD, 21 mm ID Cupro-Nickel tubes to resist corrosion problems. Placing
cooling water in the tube side since it is more corrosive. Take Tube length L=5 m
Calculation of number of tubes:
=
62.08
=
25 103 5
= 159
Since the gas mixture in the shell side is always clean, we will use triangular pitch arrangement
with Pt= 1.25do [7]
Calculation of bundle diameter Db: [7]
1
1
= [ ]
1
K1, n1 are constants given in Table C: [7]
K1 = 0.249
n1 = 2.207
1
159 2.207
= 25 [
]
0.249
Db = 466.64 mm
Calculating the shell diameter Ds: [7]
= +
From Figure A in Appendix E and for split-ring floated heat type of heat exchanger we get,
clearance= 56 mm [7]
= 466.64 + 56 = 522.64
Calculating the heat transfer coefficients for tube side (hi): [7]
= 2 = (21)2 = 346.36 2
4
4
159
=
= 79.5
.
2
= (
) 2 = 0.028 2
.
4
18.01
=
= 643.21
2 .
0.028
643.21
( ) =
=
= 0.646
995.5
( ) =
0.771 103
(Turbulent Flow)
4.181 103 0.771 103
() =
=
= 5.233
0.616
From Figure B in Appendix E at Re=17516.15
Jh = 3.8 x10-3
From (eq. hi) and neglecting (
0.14
) and assume it approximately 1
w
Then:
hi (21 103 )
= (3.8 103 ) (17516.15 ) (5.233)0.33
0.616
hi = 3371.09 W/m2.oC
86
= [
Pt = tube pitch
do = tube outside diameter
Ds = shell inside diameter
Pt
31.25
=
As = 0.01092631 m2
Mass velocity (Gs) and liner velocity (vs):
mshell = mass flow rate of mixture = 12.7426 kg/sec
= [
12.7426
]=[
] = 1166.23 2 .
0.01092631
1166.23
= [ ] =
= 100.88
11.56
The equivalent (Hydraulic) diameter de:
=
1.10 2
( 0.9172 )
1.10
[(31.25)2 0.917(25)2 ] = 17.75 = 0.01775
25
2.051 105
do
1
0.14
= 3 ( )
From Figure B in Appendix E at 25% assumed design value for baffle cut and Re:
Jh = 6.2x10-4
0.14
)
Assumed to be approximately 1. We get
w
(25 103 )
= 6.2 104 1009242.67 0.3770.33
0.0603
hs = 1093.85 W/m2.oC
ln ( ) 1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ( )+
( )
2
Uo = overall coefficient based on outside area of the tubes
ho = outside fluid film coefficient
hi = inside fluid film coefficient
do = tube outside diameter
di = tube inside diameter
Kw = thermal conductivity of tube wall material = 50 (W/m.oC) for ''Cupro -Nickel alloys''
hod = outside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000(W/m2.oC) (From Table B)
hid = inside dirt " fouling " coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B)
25 103 ln(2521)
1
1
1
1
25
1 25
=
+
+
+
( )+
( )
3371.09 3000
2(50)
1093.85 21
3000 21
Uo = 463.24 W/2 .oC
The value of 463.24 W/m2.oC is well above the estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC. Hence, the
present design satisfactory OK
Calculating the pressure drop (P) for side tube and shell tube: [7]
1.The tube side Pt
L
m
vt2
Pt = NP [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] [
]
di w
2
Pt = tube side pressure drop (N/m2)
Np = Number of tube passes
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re ' Found from Figure 12.30 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25
L = length of one tube = 5 m
vt = flow velocity inside the tube
m = exponent value depending on type of flow
at laminar (Re<2100) m = 0.25
at Turblent (R>10000) m = 0.14
Now,
5
995.5 0.6462
Pt = 2 [8(4.2 103 ) (
)
+
2.5]
[
]
21 103
2
Pt = 4362.09 Pa =4.36209 kPa (Acceptable)
90
Ds L
vs2
0.14
Ps = 8jf ( ) ( ) (
)( )
De LB
2
w
Ps = shell side pressure drop (N/m2)
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re , Found from Figure 12.30 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25 = 2.5 x 10-2
Ds = shell diameter = 522.64 mm
De = equivalent diameter for shell side = 17.75 mm
L = length of one tube = 5 m
vs = flow velocity in shell = 100.88 m/sec
LB = Baffle spacing = 104.53 mm
shell = 11.56 kg/m3
522.64 5 103 11.56 100.882
Ps = 8(2.5 102 ) (
)(
)(
)
17.75
104.53
2
Ps = 16569.19 kPa (Too high!)
This value for Ps is high, so we will decrease vs by quadrupling the baffle spacing, which will
reduce the velocity in the shell by a factor of (1/3)
i.e. new vs new = 0.333 vs old
Ps vs2
Ps new (0.333)2 Ps old
Ps new = (0.333)2 (16569.19) = 1837.34 kPa
But this effect of using half vs old will affect the hs as follows
hs Re0.8
hs now = ( 0.333 )0.8 hs old
hs now = ( 0.333)0.8 (3371.09) = 1398.70 W/m2.oC
The new value for the overall heat transfer coefficient will be Uo = 388.04 W/m2.oC which is still
above the initial estimated value of 300 W/m2.oC then this trial for reducing Ps is satisfactory.
1. The selected heat exchanger has one shell pass and two tubes pass, in which cooling
water flow inside the tube and mixture flows inside the shell .
2. The selected tubes are made of Capper - Nickel alloy with 25 mm outside diameter, 21
mm inside diameter, the total number of tube is 159, while the tube length is 5 m, and
the triangular pitch applied for this tube distribution is 31.25 mm.
3. The shell diameter Ds is 522.64 mm. and the baffles used are 25% cut, while the baffle
spacing is (56 mm).
4. The first estimated value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 463.24 (W/m2 . oC) ,
while the final calculated value is 388.04 (W/m2. oC).
5. The pressure drop ( Pt ) for the tube side is 4.36209 kPa , while the shell side ( Ps ) is
1837.34 kPa .
Introduction
The most important step of manufacturing nitric acid is Absorption of NOx When it is compared
to other absorptions operation. Absorption of NOx is the most complex. This is for several
reasons:
The objective
To design an absorption tower to absorb NO2 from the mixer gas stream using water to form
nitric acid with 60% weight.
Absorber design calculation
Tail Gases 30 C
Y2 = 0.0048
Water 20 C
X2 = 0
Gases 60 C
Y1 = 0.0884
Nitric Acid 30 C
X1 = 0.3
Component
NO2
NO
O2
N2
Mole fraction
0.0884
0.0037
0.0386
0.869
Molecular weight
46
30
32
28
94
()
= (46 0.0884) + (30 0.0037) + (32 0.0386) + (0.869 28)
= 29.74
( ) = =
1200000 29.74
=
8314.34 333
= 12.89 /3
T=60 C = 333 K
P= 1200000 Pa
R= 8314.34 3 /
0.5
[7]
Lt=plat spacing=0.9 m
= (0.171
(0.9)2
[7]
4 11.71
= 1.96 2
3.14 12.98 0.3
Design 1
Assumptions
1. N2O4 (2NO2) is the only species, which dissolved in the Liquid.
2. Neglect the reactions occurs in the column.
3. Isothermal Operation and the temperature is 45oC.
4. The design of the column is trays absorption column.
Height of Absorber
Equilibrium line can be specified:
=
From Raoult's law
[18]
[7]
= 20.5324
4141.29
= 7.6572
318 + 45
282.01
= 0.234
1200
96
ln[(1 ) (1 2 ) + ]
2
2
= =
ln( )
[19]
m = 0.235
Gm = 1417.09 kmol/hr
Lm = 373.191 Kmol/hr
Y1 = 0.0048
Y2 = 0.0884
X2 = 0
0.0884 0
ln [(1 0.893) (0.0048 0) + 0.893]
1
ln (0.893)
= 9.3 10
= = = 10 0.9 = 9
Design 2:
Assumptions:
1. N2O4 (2NO2) is the only species, which dissolved in the Liquid.
2. The reaction occurs in the column.
3. 2NO2 + H2O + O2 2HNO3
4. Isothermal Operation and the temperature is 45oC.
5. The design of the column is trays absorption column.
Height of Absorber:
From fuller equation, the diffusivity of N2O4 in water:
A = N2O4
B= H2O
VA= 33.5
VB=14.7
MA= 92
MB=18
T=45 C =318 K
1
1 0.5
1 107 1.75 ( + )
=
[17]
0.33
0.33 )2
( +
1
1 0.5
1 107 3181.75 (92 + 18)
11.843(33.50.33 + 14.70.33 )2
= 1.6535 106 2 /
Mass transfer Coefficient can be calculated from the following Equation:
0.33
( )
0.42 0.5
=
[
]
2
= =
[17]
2.3 105
=
= 13.3
1 1.6535 106
[3]
= 2 4 = 2.2 105 /.
= 12.89 /3
= 998.23 /3
= 1.0 /3
= 13.3
= = 9.8 / 2
3
R= = 8.2 102
98
2 4
1
1
+ 1
[4]
1 = 0.0166
3
= 700 2
1 700
=
= 1.6
1
1
+
2.6484 103 0.0166
1
() =
[7]
+
3
3
0.0019
3
=
=
2.05
10
3
3
0.0019 + 0.91
0.3936
=
= 0.1253 2
2
2
4
2 4 = 0.7
2 4 = 1.3 101
0.1253
0.7
ln (
) = 27.7 28
3
11.843 2.05 10 1.6
1.3 104
100
( 0.5 1)
0.5
= ( ) ( 1) = ( ) [
]
2
2
0.5
[7]
Where:
t = wall thickness (mm)
Di = tank inside diameter (mm)
D0 = tank outside diameter (mm)
Z = (FE + P)/ (FE - P)
F = design tensile strength of material (MPa)
E = joint efficiency
P = internal pressure (MPa)
The internal pressure is equivalent to the head of liquid inside the tank. This maximum head of
10.7 m represents a pressure of 142 kPa. The recommended wall thickness is:
=
=
( + )
[7]
( )
[(108 0.8) + 0.142]
[(108 0.8) 0.142]
= 1.003
15200
= (
) (1 .0030.5 1) = 11
Adding a corrosion allowance of 5 mm, the final recommendation is for 16 mm plating for the
tank shell based on circumferential stress. Minimum thickness based upon longitudinal stress
(circumferential joints) Formula as given above for circumferential stress, except that:
= [
] + 1 [7]
] + 1
0.140
= [
] + 1
108 0.8
= [
= 1.0016
= (
15200
) (1.00160.5 1) = 6
2
This indicates that circumferential stresses are more important, and they determine the minimum
shell thickness for this tank. The BHP steel plate available and closest to this specification is 16
mm thickness.
Weight stress =
Weight stress =
93.6 x 9.8
4
0.140 {15.2 + (2 0.016)}
4 1 0.016
0.5
1.44 103 4
[
]
= 40mm
The nearest commercial pipe size is a nominal pipe size of 1.5, schedule number 40s (with inside
diameter of 41 mm and a wall thickness of 4 mm).
The outlet flowrate is calculated based upon the need to fill a standard 30 tonne tanker in 15
minutes. This corresponds to a volumetric flowrate of 2.5 x 10-2 m3/s
Area of pipe = Volumetric flowrate/Velocity
= 2.5 10-2/ 2
= 1.23 10-2
Diameter of pipe = [
4 0.5
]
0.5
1.44 103 4
[
]
= 40mm
The nearest commercial pipe size is a nominal pipe size of 6, schedule number 120 (with an
inside diameter of 140 mm and a wall thickness of 14 mm).
104
Chapter 5
Control Loop
5.1 Introduction
Control is crucial because it provides a proper control of the process variables so that the whole
plant operation is within the specification limit for safety purposes. Besides, it has direct impacts
on the plant economics, environment and the product specifications. According to Seborg
(2004), without process control, it is impossible to operate most modern processes safely and
profitably, while satisfying plant quality standards.
The three most important considerations that make plant control necessary are:
To make sure the temperature and pressure at the desired level for reactor and columns
To detect danger as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic shutdown systems
To achieve the design product output composition specification for outlet stream of
reactor according to the literature specification
To maintain the desired purity especially for ethyl acetate and acetic acid
3. Cost Operation
To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other Objectives
To minimize the usage of heating and cooling utility, and thus reducing the utility cost
The types of basic control strategies that is implemented under the scope of this project are:
Feedback control
Feedforward control
Cascade control
Ratio control
106
Symbol
Definition
Control Valve
Normally Closed Gate Valve
LC
Level Control
TC
Temperature Control
FC
Flow Control
TT
Temperature Transmitter
AC
Analyzer Control
PC
Pressure Control
PT
Pressure Transmitter
108
Feedback control
Control Objective
Controlled Variables
Output temperature
Measured Variables
Output temperature
Manipulated Variables
Disturbances
Set Points
Feedback control
Control Objective
Output temperature
Reactor pressure
Output temperature
Reactor pressure
Controlled Variables
Measured Variables
Manipulated Variables
reactor
Disturbances
Set Points
110
Feedback control
Control Objective
Output temperature
Absorber pressure
Output temperature
Absorber pressure
Controlled Variables
Measured Variables
Manipulated Variables
Absorber
Disturbances
Set Points
absorber
30 C product temperature
Chapter 6
Economic Analysis
112
PEC
0.47 PEC
0.18 PEC
Piping (Installed)
0.66 PEC
Electrical (Installed)
0.11 PEC
0.18 PEC
Yard improvements
0.10 PEC
Land
3.4 PEC
*INDIRECT COSTS
Engineering and supervision
0.33 PEC
Construction expenses
0.41 PEC
4.14 PEC
Contractor fee
0.207 PEC
Contingency
0.414 PEC
4.761 PEC
0.84 PEC
5.601 PEC
Material
Purchase Cost $
Compressor
SS
1,700,000
Vaporizer
SS
38,760
Superheater
SS
78,702
Reactor
SS
227,587
Cooler 1
Cuppro-Nickel
286,868
Oxidation
SS
115,838
Cooler 2
Cuppro-Nickel
212,937
Absorption Column
SS
187,384
SS
1,396,861
Cost $
4,244,937
114
$9343520
2) Operating labor
0.1TPC
3) Direct Supervisory
0.11TPC
4) Utilities
0.1 TPC
5) Maintenance
0.05FCI
6) Operating Supplies
0.005FCI
7) Liberty Charges
0.1TPC
B) Fixed Charges
1) Deprecation
0.1FCI
2) Taxes
3) Insurance
0.005FCI
4) Rent
0.05TPC
2) General Costs
a) Administration
0.02TPC
b) Distribution
0.05TPC
0.05TPC
d) Financing
116
Chapter 7
Process Integration
and
enhancement
Resource
conservation,
Pollution
prevention,
safety,
Debottlenecking.
Designing a process in such a way that it makes optimum use of energy that is available
within the process itself
Optimizing energy exchange with neighboring plants and energy recovery with the view
to optimize energy and capital cost
However, our aim was to use the steam, which occurred when the reactor cooled down by water,
which leaded us to use the steam to vaporize the ammonia.
Stripping
Based on our project, we avoid using the stripping due to the problems, which can be caused,
by stripping such as increasing the purity of nitric acid, which can be ended up by killing the
plant. Also, this project had designed to use the nitric acid (60% purity) under specific conditions
on other words. If we use the nitric acid more than 60% purity we can use it as bombs, and if we
use it as 60% purity we can use it as fertilizer.
118
Chapter 8
120
To maximize safety
122
Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide is considered an environmental pollutant. It oxidizes readily to form nitrogen
dioxide, which, in turn, reacts with moisture in the air to form nitric acid, a component of acid
rain. Acid rain is thought to be responsible for a number of environmental problems, including
damage to buildings, destruction of trees, and the death of aquatic life. The nitrogen dioxide
produced from nitric oxide is also a primary component of photochemical smog, a hazardous
haze created by a mixture of pollutants in the presence of sunlight.
Even though it is toxic in the environment, nitric oxide plays several important roles in the
human body. Nitric oxide is involved in the process by which messages are transmitted from one
nerve cell to the next. It also regulates blood flow by triggering the smooth muscles surrounding
blood vessels to relax. This action increases blood flow and lowers blood pressure. Nitric oxide
also prevents the formation of blood clots, which can break off and travel to the heart or brain,
increasing the risk of heart attack or stroke.
Finally, nitric oxide plays a role in memory and learning. A deficiency of the compound
appears to be related to the development of learning problems. On the other hand, an excess of
nitric oxide has been implicated in the development of certain diseases, such as Huntingtons
chorea, an inherited disorder characterized by unusual body movements and memory loss, and
Alzheimers disease, a progressive disorder that results in memory loss.
When used to treat a medical condition, nitric oxide is usually administered in the form of a
solid or liquid medicine that decomposes in the body, releasing the compound. For example, the
drug nitroglycerin is used to treat heart problems. When it enters the bloodstream, nitroglycerin
begins to break down, releasing nitric oxide. The nitric oxide causes smooth muscle cells in the
heart to relax, relieving the symptoms of angina, chest pain caused by an inadequate flow of
blood to the heart. Other types of drugs produce nitric oxide to inhibit the buildup of fatty
deposits in blood vessels, which can lead to heart attack and stroke. Patients with pulmonary
hypertension, a condition in which the vessels that supply blood to the lungs are constricted,
preventing normal oxygen flow, are sometimes given an inhaler with a mixture of nitric oxide
and air to open blood vessels to the lungs.
In spite of its many benefits, nitric oxide may also be a health hazard. If inhaled in excessive
amounts, it may replace oxygen in the lungs, leading to asphyxia, suffocation resulting from an
insufficient supply of oxygen. Research suggests that exposure to low concentrations of the gas
over long periods of time may result in lung disease, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis. [15]
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide poses both safety and health hazards. As a strong oxidizing agent, it reacts
readily with combustible materials, such as paper, cloth, and other organic matter to produce
fires or explosions. It is also a toxic material, producing some biological effects at relatively low
concentrations in the air. These effects include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat; coughing;
congestion; chest pain; and breathing difficulties. The gas is sometimes referred to as an
insidious agent because its effects may go unnoticed for several hours or days, during which time
more serious damage may have occurred. This damage may include pulmonary edema, a
condition in which the lungs begin to fill with fluid; cyanosis, a condition in which the lips and
mucous membranes turn blue because of lack of oxygen; and a variety of heart problems. Longterm exposure to nitrogen dioxide may result in chronic health problems, such as hemorrhaging
(blood loss), lung damage, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and eventually death. [15]
124
Nitric acid
Nitric acid is a highly toxic material. It attacks and destroys skin and other tissues, leaving a
distinctive yellow scar caused by the destruction of proteins in the skin or tissue. If swallowed,
inhaled, or spilled on the skin, it can cause a number of effects, including severe corrosive burns
to the mouth, throat, and stomach; severe irritation or burning of the upper respiratory system,
including nose, mouth, and throat; damage to the lungs; severe breathing problems; and burns to
the eye surface, conjunctivitis, and blindness. In the most severe cases, the acid can cause death.
[15] (For more information, see appendix A)
126
Node 1:
Node No. 1:
Intention:
Guide
word
Deviation
None No flow
Less
Causes
Flow control valve failure
(closed, seat of plug broken,
electrical signal fails)
Pipeline rupture
Less
Temperature
Less Pressure
Cold weather
Temperature controller
malfunctioning
Pressure controller
malfunctioning
Pipe leakage
Less Flow
Consequences
No flow into the
Oxidation unit
No reaction
Explosion
Process stops
Action requires
Install low flow alarm
Install flow indicator and flow control
valve
Plant emergency shutdown procedure
Check regularly (maintain), check
signal of control valve, operates bypass line
Install low flow alarm
Contd Node 1
Guide
word
More
Deviation
More Flow
Causes
Consequences
Valve opened at full rate
More
Temperature
More
Pressure
Hold weather
Temperature controller
malfunctioning
Pressure controller
malfunctioning
Partial blockage of line due to
partially closed valve
Relief valve fails closed
Action requires
Change in product
quality
Some of gas exit without
reaction
Increase pressure
upstream
Excess pressure (may
cause explosion)
128
Node 2:
Node No. 2:
Intention:
Guide
word
Deviation
None No flow
Less
Less Flow
Less
Temperature
Causes
Flow control valve failure
(closed, seat of plug broken,
electrical signal fails)
Pipeline rupture
Cold weather
Temperature controller
malfunctioning
Less flow temperature from
oxidation unit
Pressure controller
malfunctioning
Pipe leakage
Less Pressure
Consequences
No product
Process stops
Action requires
Install low flow alarm
Install flow indicator and flow control
valve
Check regularly (maintain), check
signal of control valve, operates bypass line
Contd Node 2
Guide
word
Deviation
More Flow
Causes
Process rate changes
More
Temperature
Consequences
Reduce Heat transfer
efficiency
Process fails
Action requires
Install high level alarm
Install flow indicator and flow control
valve
Hot weather
Fire near the stream
Temperature controller
malfunctioning
High flow temperature from the
oxidation unit
Fails process
Pressure controller
malfunctioning
Partial blockage of line due to
partially closed valve
Relief valve fails closed
Increase pressure
upstream
cooler fails
More
More
Pressure
130
Node 3:
Node No. 3:
Intention:
Guide
word
Deviation
None No flow
Less
Less Flow
Less
Temperature
Causes
Flow control valve failure
(closed, seat of plug broken,
electrical signal fails)
Pipeline rupture
Less Pressure
Consequences
No Absorption in the
column
Entire process stops as
tail-gas row stops
Action requires
Install low flow alarm
Plant emergency shutdown procedure.
Check signal of control valve, operates
by-pass line
Increased dissolved
NOx
Concentration of the
product will be higher
Less efficiency of NOx
absorbed
Contd Node 3
Guide
word
Deviation
More More Flow
Causes
Valve opened at full rate
More
Temperature
More
Pressure
Pressure controller
malfunctioning
Flooding
Relief valve fails closed
Consequences
Possible reduction in
absorption efficiency
May cause flooding
Reduce absorption
efficiency
Action requires
Install high level alarm
Install flow indicator and flow control
valve
132
Chapter 9
Waste Treatment
What Is NOx?
Most of the worlds nitrogen occurs naturally in the atmosphere as an inert gas
contained in air, which consists of approximately 78% N2 by volume. NOx refers to
oxides of nitrogen. These generally include nitrogen monoxide, also known as nitric
oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). They may also include nitrous oxide (N2O),
also known as laughing gas, as well as other less common combinations of nitrogen and
oxygen, such as nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and nitrogen pent oxide (N2O5).
The EPA defines nitrogen oxides as all oxides of nitrogen except nitrous oxide.1
In most high-temperature heating applications; the majority of the NOx exiting the
exhaust stack is in the form of nitric oxide (NO).
What is Wrong with NOx?
Health hazards: NO is poisonous to humans and can cause irritation of the eyes and
throat, tightness of the chest, nausea, headache, and gradual loss of strength. Prolonged
exposure to NO can cause violent coughing, difficulty in breathing, and cyanosis; it
could be fatal. NO2 is a reddish-brown, highly reactive gas that has a suffocating odor
and is a strong oxidizing agent. It is highly toxic and hazardous because of its ability to
cause delayed chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary edema. NO2 vapors are a strong
irritant to the pulmonary tract.
Ground level ozone: Ozone (O3) is present in the upper atmosphere and is desirable as
it shields the earth against high-intensity ultraviolet rays from the sun. However, ozone
in the lower atmosphere is undesirable. There, NO reacts with oxygen to form ozone, in
addition to NO2:
NO + HC + O2 + sunlight NO2 + O3
Ozone is also a health hazard that can cause respiratory problems in humans. It is an
irritant to the eye, nose, and throat. Ozone can cause damage to plants including crops
and deterioration of textiles and other materials.
Acid rain: Rain is effective at removing NO2 from the atmosphere. However, NO2
decomposes on contact with water to produce nitrous acid (HNO2) and nitric acid
(HNO3), which are highly corrosive . NO is the predominant form of NOx produced in
industrial combustion processes. It reacts with O2 in the atmosphere to form NO2.
When NO2 forms in the atmosphere and comes into contact with water in the form of
134
rain, nitric acid is formed. Acid rain is destructive to anything it contacts, including
plants, trees, and man-made structures like buildings, bridges, and the like.
Smog: Another problem with NO2 is its contribution to smog. Smog is the combination
of smoke and fog and occurs where there are high concentrations of pollutants
combined with fog. Smog impairs visibility through the atmosphere. When sunlight
contacts a mixture of NO2 and unburned hydrocarbons in the atmosphere,
photochemical smog is produced.
Figure K: Smog
The nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 which make up NOx have long been known as
precursors of acid rain and smog. While ever more stringent emission limits apply in
many countries there are still a large number of nitric acid plants, which have no NOx
abatement equipment installed. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas being
about 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Even though nitric acid plants
represent the largest single industrial process source of this gas, most countries have not
yet imposed emission limits on N2O, although steps in this direction are being made, for
example, in the European Union. As nitric acid plants are point sources for N2O and
NOx emissions they make good candidates for the implementation of cost effective
greenhouse gas and NOx emission reduction technologies.
Uhde Technologies for NOx and N2O Abatement
1. Uhde DeNOx process: NOx reduction with ammonia:
It was found that one of the iron zeolites materials tested was a very efficient catalyst
for the selective reduction of NOx (NO and NO2) with ammonia. This catalyst has the
advantage that it can be used over a large range of temperatures, from ~200C to over
500C, while classical vanadium-pent oxide-based SCR catalysts for nitric acid plants
generally cannot be used at temperatures much above ~400C. A further advantage is
that it generates no N2O, again in contrast to vanadium pent oxide, which is reported to
produced N2O at temperatures above 350C (Jouannic etal.1984).
This is the basis of the Uhde DeNOx process, which has a similar ammonia
consumption to classical SCR/DeNOx processes, is applicable over a wider range of
temperatures and, in contrast to frequently used classical SRC/DeNOx catalyst
materials, contains no environmentally hazardous substances, thus simplifying handling
and disposal. The Uhde DeNOx process can be very conveniently combined with N2O
abatement as described below
2. EnviNOx process variant 1: N2O decomposition with NOX reduction:
The iron zeolite catalysts investigated decompose N2O into its elements. An
important phenomenon is that the rate of decomposition is greatly enhanced when NOx
is present in the waste gas stream. This fact, combined with the NOx reducing
136
properties of the iron zeolite catalysts, is exploited in the EnviNOx process variant 1,
which is illustrated in Figure 13.
The EnviNOx reactor is typically located in the tail gas stream on the inlet side of
the tail gas turbine where the tail gas temperature is at its highest. Because of the high
NOx concentration in the tail gas entering the reactor, a very large proportion of the
incoming N2O is catalytically decomposed to nitrogen and oxygen in the first bed.
Ammonia is mixed with the tail gas between the beds, the ammonia distribution and
mixing equipment being incorporated into the reactor. In the second bed the NOX is
reduced to the level required for emission to atmosphere and some further
decomposition of N2O also takes place.
Figure 13 EnviNOx process variant 1: Combined N2O and NOX abatement for nitric acid plants
using N2O decomposition and NOX reduction with ammonia
EnviNOx process variant 1 is currently suitable for tail gas temperatures between
about 425C and 520C. High rates of N2O removal are possible with 98% typically
achieved in commercial installations and NOX emissions can be reduced to low levels
depending on the amount of ammonia supplied, with 5 40 ppmv being usual. As with
the Uhde DeNOx process ammonia consumption is similar to that of classical
SCR/DeNOx processes.
3. EnviNOx process variant 2: N2O & NOX reduction by hydrocarbons & NH3
There are, of course, a great many nitric acid plants with tail gas temperatures below
425C. The solution for a large number of these plants is the EnviNOx process variant
2, which relies on another significant phenomenon, which was intensively investigated
during development work. While N2O in nitric acid tail gas can be reduced by reaction
with a hydrocarbon over certain iron zeolite catalysts, the effectiveness of the reduction
is greatly enhanced if the NOx is removed almost entirely from the tail gas. Even a few
ppm of NOx is sufficient to cause strong inhibition of the reactions of hydrocarbons
with N2O. This property combined with the NOX reducing properties of the iron zeolite
catalysts with ammonia leads to the EnviNOx process variant 2, depicted in Figure 14.
Figure 14 EnviNOx process variant 2: Combined N2O and NOX abatement for nitricacid plants
using N2O reduction with hydrocarbons and NOX reduction with ammonia
Ammonia is mixed with the tail gas entering the EnviNOx reactor in such an
amount that NOx is completely reduced in the first DeNOx bed. The virtually NOx free
tail gas is then mixed with a hydrocarbon and passed over the second catalyst bed where
the N2O is reduced to a very low level by reaction with the hydrocarbon. Tail gas with
nearly no NOx and a very low concentration of N2O leaves the reactor. It is important to
recognize that the hydrocarbon acts as a chemical reagent and is not used as a fuel to
138
raise the temperature of the catalyst to a level at which high rates of N 2O decomposition
can occur. Because of their favourable costs and availability the hydrocarbons of choice
are natural gas or propane. Consumptions of both ammonia and hydrocarbon are quite
moderate. The EnviNOx process variant 2 works best at temperatures between about
340C and ~520C.
4. Uhde DeN2O process: N2O decomposition without NOX abatement
Conclusion
The EnviNOx process for the combined abatement of NOx and N2O emissions
from nitric acid plants has proven itself in installations around the world which are now
operating at temperatures between 340C and 510C. Typically, N2O emissions are
reduced by ~98% 99% while NOX emission levels of 1 to ~25 ppmv are achieved,
depending on the process variant.
The EnviNOx process can be applied in nitric acid plants with tail gas temperatures
between about 340C and 600C covering an estimated 70% 80% of all nitric acid
production worldwide. For many of the nitric acid plants with tail gas temperatures
outside this range, relatively simple plant modifications are possible to enable a nitrous
oxide abatement system to be installed.
The EnviNOx process can thus make a useful contribution to lowering greenhouse gas
emissions.
EnviNOx is an operator friendly technology since the EnviNOx catalysts are easy
to handle, environmentally uncontroversial materials with a long operating lifetime.
Furthermore as an end-of-pipe process EnviNOx does not interact in any way with the
plant product or its precursors.
Conclusion
In conclusion, setting up 100000 tons per year of nitric acid production plant in
Saudi Arabia is very feasible and attractive in order to meet high demand of ammonia in
this region. Ras Alkhair industrial city is identified as the most ideal location for the
new petrochemical plant. All the desired criteria for the construction of the plant in Ras
Alkhair are met and the necessary facilities for plant expansion are also available.
In order to produce the required capacity 100000 tons per year of nitric acid while
the amount of ammonia required 2335.88 kg/hr while the amount of air needed
43537.52 kg/hr.
Designing and sizing for equipment used are prepared in Equipment Specification
Sheet which provide the design and size estimation for chosen equipment.
A highly integrated process control system is also included to the proposed plant.
Control systems are essential to ensure the plant operates in safe manner and achieves
the desired production. The control system proposed are all feedback and cascade
model, which can correct the error continuously to serve better control objectives. All
equipment has been covered and proper control strategy and design have been proposed.
In designing the proposed plant, various safety factors and procedures such as
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP), plant start up and shut down procedures,
maintenance and inspection of each equipment as well as control system design were
taken into consideration. However, it is recommended that further studies in this area is
needed unceasingly to ensure operational safety of the plant. Safety aspects are also
been considered in recommending the plant layout.
In responding to the environmental obligation, the plant has been designed to achieve
the target of waste minimization while achieving cost minimization at the same time.
From our economic and cost estimation analysis, the expected payback period is
(3.43) years. The economic analysis of the process flowsheet indicated that the ROI is
about 20.5%. The project is worth investing.
140
Finally, it can be concluded that the construction of a 100,000 tons per year of nitric
acid production plant in Ras Alkhair is technically feasible and economically attractive.
Encouragement from the Saudi government investment with various incentives offered
serves as another factor that contribute to the feasibility of the plant.
References
1- Krick Othmer, "Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology", VoL.15, 3th Edition, Jonh Wiley,1982
2- George Charles Lowrison,"Fertilizer Technology",Eillis Horwood Limited,1989
3- R. Perry and C. Chilton,"Perry's Chemical Engineer's Hand Book", 7th Ed.,Mcgra W-Hill, 1997
4- Vincent Sauchelli, "Fertilizer Nitrogen its Chemistry and Technology", Rinhold Publishing
Corporation", 1964.
5- Howard F. Rase, "Chemical Reactor Design For Process Plants",Vol. one & two, John Wiley, 1977
6- Octave Leven Spiel," Chemical Reaction Engineering", 2nd Ed.,John Wiley, 1972
7- J. M. Coulson J. Richardson, "Chemical Engineering Design", Vol.6, 3rd Ed., Pergamon Press,1983
8- P.J.C. Kaasenbrood, "Chemical Reaction Engineering", Pergamon Press, 1968
9- Richard Turton, Richard C. Bailie, Wallace B. Whiting, Joseph A. Shaeiwitz, " Analysis, Synthesis,
and Design of Chemical Processes ",3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2009
10- W. Dekker, E. Snoeck and H. Kramers, "Chemical Engineering Science", 1959
11- (2012, january 15). Retrieved december 1, 2013, from Saudi Presidency of Meteorology and
Enviroment: Http://www.pme.gov.sa
12- (2009, may 27). Retrieved December 1, 2013, from Vermont Safty Information Resources, Inc. :
Http://www.siri.org
13- Richard M. Felder, Ronald W. Rousseau, " Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes ", Third
edition,2005
14- Fritz Ullmann, Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry ,John Wiley and Sons, 1999
15- Neil S. Chlager, Jayne Weisblatt, and David E. Newton, Chemical Compounds, 2001
16- Max. S. Peters, Klans D. Timmerhans, "Plan Design and Econmics for chemical Engineering 3-rd
Ed, McGraw-Hill, 1990.
17- Christie J. Geankoplis, Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles , 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2003
18- J. M. Smith, H. C. Van Ness, M. M. Abbott, "Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics", 7th Edition, McCraw-Hill,2005
19- W. S. Norman, "Absorption, Distillation and Cooling Tower", Longmans,1962
142
Appendix A (12)
(Material Safety Data)
144
146
148
150
Appendix B
(13)
152
154
156
158
160
Appendix C
(Detailed Mass Balance Calculation)
162
HNO3:
=
7500
= 119.048 /
63
NH3:
= 137.405
1
(119.048) = 18.357 /
1
O2:
0 = 2 (119.048) => 238.096 =
Excess 20 %
= 285.715 /
= 285.715 238.096 = 47.619/
N2:
=
285.715 32 0.79
= 1228.38 /
28 0.21
H2O:
1
0.05 + 277.778 = + (119.048)
1
= 167.084 /
164
166
Appendix D
(Detailed Energy Balance Calculation)
Energy Balance
S4
S5
E-101
Tref = -15 oC
=
= 0
= [
+ +
1133.642
17) + 0.07232]
1000
= = 2902575.37 /
15
= 0
15
168
S3
S1
C-101
For S1: Air at 101 kPa and S3: Air at 1090 kPa
= 1 1 ln
2
1
2
1
36000
1090
= 101 (
) ln
1.178
101
= 1 () ln
= 8879734.37 kJ/h
= 8879734.37 kJ/h (This is the mechanical energy required by the compressor)
S5
S6
E-102
For S5: NH3 at 35 oC and S6: NH3 at 177 oC
=
2
=
1
2
Tref = 35 C
=
= 137.405 1000 5.442 = 747758.01 /
= = 747758.01 /
170
S3
S7
S6
M-101
For S3: NH3 at 177 oC, S6: Air at 262 oC and S7: NH3+Air at ?
= 0 ()
Energy required to heat ammonia = Energy lost by air
( ) = ( )
(3 ) = 2.38 /.
() = 1.05 /.
2335.88 2.38 ( 177) = 43537.52 1.05 (262 )
= 250
S7
S8
R-201
For S7: NH3+Air at 250 oC and S8: Air+NO+H2O at 645 oC
= + (1) 1 + (2) 2
=
1
172
Tref = 25oC
Component
H (Air)
H (NH3)
H (NO)
H (H2O)
Input S7
(kJ/mol)
6.654
8.84
-
= 21192906.91 + (). 1 + (2 ). 2
= 51820729.07 /
Output S8
(kJ/mol)
19
19.744
23
S8
S9
E-201
= (2 1 ) +
70
(2 12 ) + (23 13 ) + (24 14 )
2
3
4
For air
645
0.4147 105
)(6452 702 )
2
0.3191 108
1.965 1012
(6453 703 )
(6454 704 ) = 17.693
3
4
For No:
645
= = 18.400
70
For H2O:
645
= = 21.173
70
174
S9
R-202
S 10
= 113.14 /
Based on (NO2):
= 113.14/2 = 56.57 /
= () () +
2
=
1
2
Tref = 25oC
Component
Input S9
(kJ/mol)
Output S10
(kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g)
1.521
3.919
H (Air)
1.312
3.37
H (NO)
1.345
3.47
H (NO2)
4.5
= 3707006.24 /
S 10
S 11
E-202
For S10: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 140 oC and S11: Air+NO+H2O+NO2 at 60 oC
Tref =60oC
= () ()
2
=
1
2
() =
Input:
For H2O
140
= = 2.737 kJ/mol
60
For air
140
= = 2.350 kJ/mol
60
176
For NO
140
= 2.4230/
60
For NO2
140
= = 3.1796 kJ/mol
60
= 3911927.94 /
S 12
S 14
T-201
S 11
S 13
3NO2+H2O + 2 O2 2HNO3
Conversion =95%
= () ()
= 435.6 /
Based on (HNO3):
= 435.6/2 = 217.8 /
= () () +
2
=
1
= + 2 + 3 + 4
2
3
4
178
Tref = 25oC
Component
Input S11
Input S14
Output S12
Output S13
(kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol)
(kJ/mol)
H (H2O) (g)
1.18
0.166
H (H2O) (L)
-0.375
0.375
H (Air)
1.02
0.145
H (NO)
1.044
0.149
H (NO2)
1.32
H (HNO3)
0.55
= 29876241 /
Appendix E
(Equipment Design References)
180
Hot fluid
Heat exchanger
Water
Organic solvents
Light oils
Heavy oils
Gases
Coolers
Organic solvents
Light oils
Heavy oils
Gases
Organic solvents
Water
Gases
Heaters
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Steam
Dowtherm
Dowtherm
Flue gases
Flue
Condensers
Aqueous vapors
Organic vapors
Organic (some noncondensable)
Vacuum condensers
Vaporizers
Steam
Steam
Steam
U (W/m2.oC)
Water
Organic solvents
Light oils
Heavy oils
Gases
800-1500
100-300
100-400
50-300
10-50
Water
Water
Water
Water
Brine
Brine
Brine
250-750
350-900
60-300
20-300
150-500
600-1200
15-250
Water
Organic solvents
Light oils
Heavy oils
Gases
Heavy oils
Gases
Steam
Hydrocarbon vapor
1500-4000
500-1000
300-900
60-450
30-300
50-300
20-300
30-100
30-100
Water
Water
1000-1500
700-1000
Water
Water
500-700
200-500
Aqueous solutions
Light organics
Heavy organics
1000-1500
900-1200
600-900
Fluid
River water
Sea water
Cooling water (towers)
Towns water (soft)
Towns water (hard)
Steam condensate
Steam (oil free)
Steam (oil traces)
Refrigerated brine
Air and industrial gases
Flue gases
Organic vapors
Organic liquids
Light hydrocarbons
Heavy hydrocarbons
Boiling organics
Condensing organics
Heat transfer fluids
Aqueous salt solutions
Coefficient (W/m2.oC)
3000-12000
1000-3000
3000-6000
3000-5000
1000-2000
1500-5000
4000-10000
2000-5000
3000-5000
5000-10000
2000-5000
5000
5000
5000
2000
2500
5000
5000
3000-5000
No.
Passes
K1
n1
1
0.319
2.142
0.175
2.285
0.0743
2.499
0.0365
2.675
182
184
Appendix F
(Computer Simulation by CHEMCAD)
CHEMCAD 5.1.3
Job Name: nitric acid
Stream No.
Name
- - Overall - Molar flow kmol/h
Mass flow kg/h
Temp C
Pres kPa
Vapor mole fraction
Enth kcal/h
Tc C
Pc kPa
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1
Std. sp gr. air = 1
Degree API
Average mol wt
Actual dens kg/m3
Actual vol m3/h
Std liq m3/h
Std vap 0 C m3/h
- - Vapor only - Molar flow kmol/h
Mass flow kg/h
Average mol wt
Actual dens kg/m3
Actual vol m3/h
Std liq m3/h
Std vap 0 C m3/h
Cp kcal/kmol-C
Z factor
Visc Pa-sec
Th cond kcal/h-m-C
Page 1
Date: 12/21/2013
Time: 17:03:43
1513.4900
43537.5214
25.0000
101.3000
1.000
-2407.9
-142.3629
3580.9491
0.860
0.993
33.0631
28.7663
1.1758
37026.8361
50.6795
33922.8318
1513.4900
43537.5214
426.6417
1240.0000
1.000
4.3619E+006
-142.3629
3580.9491
0.860
0.993
33.0631
28.7663
6.1004
7136.8696
50.6795
33922.8318
137.1546
2335.8798
177.0000
1240.0000
1.000
-1.3266E+006
132.5000
11278.4833
0.619
0.588
96.9616
17.0310
5.7967
402.9700
3.7749
3074.1346
1650.6446
45873.3981
397.9546
1060.0000
1.000
3.0352E+006
-122.8054
3657.0015
0.843
0.960
36.3168
27.7912
5.2582
8724.1045
54.4544
36996.9653
1513.4900
43537.5214
28.7663
1.1758
37026.8361
50.6795
33922.8318
7.0023
0.9999
1.826e-005
0.0219
1513.4900
43537.5214
28.7663
6.1004
7136.8696
50.6795
33922.8318
7.4548
1.0051
3.386e-005
0.0447
137.1546
2335.8798
17.0310
5.7967
402.9700
3.7749
3074.1346
9.9937
0.9735
1.580e-005
0.0398
1650.6446
45873.3981
27.7912
5.2582
8724.1045
54.4544
36996.9653
7.7200
1.0042
3.227e-005
0.0460
CHEMCAD 5.1.3
Job Name: nitric acid
Stream No.
Name
- - Overall - Molar flow kmol/h
Mass flow kg/h
Temp C
Pres kPa
Vapor mole fraction
Enth kcal/h
Tc C
Pc kPa
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1
Std. sp gr. air = 1
Degree API
Average mol wt
Actual dens kg/m3
Actual vol m3/h
Std liq m3/h
Std vap 0 C m3/h
- - Vapor only - Molar flow kmol/h
Mass flow kg/h
Average mol wt
Actual dens kg/m3
Actual vol m3/h
Std liq m3/h
Std vap 0 C m3/h
Cp kcal/kmol-C
Z factor
Visc Pa-sec
Th cond kcal/h-m-C
- - Liquid only - Molar flow kmol/h
Mass flow kg/h
Average mol wt
Actual dens kg/m3
Actual vol m3/h
Std liq m3/h
Std vap 0 C m3/h
Cp kcal/kmol-C
Z factor
Visc Pa-sec
Th cond kcal/h-m-C
Surf tens N/m
Page 2
Date: 12/21/2013
Time: 17:03:43
1684.9333
45873.2316
957.1419
1060.0000
1.000
3.0352E+006
-93.0223
2905.8708
0.847
0.940
35.5966
27.2255
2.8143
16299.9875
54.2205
37765.5022
1684.9333
45873.2316
70.0000
1060.0000
0.9050
-1.0178E+007
-93.0223
2905.8708
0.847
0.940
35.5966
27.2255
11.1596
4110.6495
54.2205
37765.5022
1622.3906
45873.1642
104.1766
1060.0000
0.9819
-1.0178E+007
-73.2175
3100.2549
0.882
0.976
28.9246
28.2750
9.7690
4695.7688
52.0554
36363.6909
1622.3907
45873.1678
60.0000
1060.0000
0.8902
-1.2225E+007
-73.2175
3100.2545
0.882
0.976
28.9247
28.2750
12.1854
3764.5903
52.0554
36363.6944
1684.9333
45873.2316
27.2255
2.8143
16299.9875
54.2205
37765.5022
8.3271
1.0026
4.840e-005
0.0745
1524.9087
42990.3889
28.1921
10.4658
4107.7002
51.3372
34178.7630
7.1471
1.0009
1.986e-005
0.0250
1593.0640
45344.8463
28.4639
9.6577
4695.2154
51.5270
35706.3755
7.5261
0.9960
2.043e-005
0.0523
1444.2333
42654.5080
29.5344
11.3403
3761.3197
48.8410
32370.5377
7.3563
0.9968
1.911e-005
0.0406
160.0246
2882.8427
18.0150
977.4477
2.9494
2.8833
3586.7355
18.0725
0.0091
0.0004115
0.5648
0.0642
29.3266
528.3180
18.0150
954.7504
0.5534
0.5284
657.3158
18.2167
0.0086
0.0002687
0.5833
0.0578
178.1574
3218.6598
18.0664
984.0946
3.2707
3.2144
3993.1563
18.0877
0.0094
0.0004782
0.5542
0.0657
188
CHEMCAD 5.1.3
Job Name: nitric acid
Page 3
Date: 12/21/2013
Stream No.
9
Name
- - Overall - Molar flow kmol/h
1533.2676
Mass flow kg/h
45873.2493
Temp C
83.4790
Pres kPa
1060.0000
Vapor mole fraction
0.9504
Enth kcal/h
-1.2225E+007
Tc C
-61.2340
Pc kPa
6126.5270
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1
0.894
Std. sp gr. air = 1
1.033
Degree API
26.6962
Average mol wt
29.9186
Actual dens kg/m3
11.3094
Actual vol m3/h
4056.2009
Std liq m3/h
51.3324
Std vap 0 C m3/h
34366.1179
- - Vapor only - Molar flow kmol/h
1457.2828
Mass flow kg/h
44273.8775
Average mol wt
30.3810
Actual dens kg/m3
10.9193
Actual vol m3/h
4054.6525
Std liq m3/h
49.8439
Std vap 0 C m3/h
32663.1003
Cp kcal/kmol-C
7.7917
Z factor
0.9948
Visc Pa-sec
1.851e-005
Th cond kcal/h-m-C
0.0249
- - Liquid only - Molar flow kmol/h
75.9847
Mass flow kg/h
1599.3718
Average mol wt
21.0496
Actual dens kg/m3
1032.9471
Actual vol m3/h
1.5484
Std liq m3/h
1.4886
Std vap 0 C m3/h
1703.0165
Cp kcal/kmol-C
19.3733
Z factor
0.0099
Visc Pa-sec
0.0003485
Th cond kcal/h-m-C
0.5132
Surf tens N/m
0.0560
Time: 17:03:43
10
11
12
166.9448
3007.5101
25.0000
101.3000
0.0000
-1.1412E+007
374.2000
22118.2302
1.001
0.622
9.8949
18.0150
996.7087
3.0174
3.0080
3741.8412
1700.2124
48880.7581
81.9617
1060.0000
0.8481
-2.3638E+007
-30.2339
5555.8245
0.900
0.993
25.6625
28.7498
12.2125
4002.5238
54.3404
38107.9591
1274.8711
35693.1056
-168.2483
1060.0000
0.0000
-4.0263E+006
-142.3805
3356.5915
0.815
0.967
42.0561
27.9974
665.4294
53.6392
43.8188
28574.5104
1442.0068
43542.4315
30.1956
10.8929
3997.3251
49.3320
32320.7496
7.7344
0.9953
1.858e-005
0.0249
166.9448
3007.5101
18.0150
996.7087
3.0174
3.0080
3741.8412
18.0248
0.0010
0.0009227
0.5215
0.0721
258.2056
5338.3266
20.6751
1026.8606
5.1987
5.0084
5787.2082
19.2078
0.0098
0.0003542
0.5190
0.0569
1274.8711
35693.1056
27.9974
665.4294
53.6392
43.8188
28574.5104
18.6700
0.0511
0.0001005
0.0777
0.0033
CHEMCAD 5.1.3
Job Name: nitric acid
Page 4
Date: 12/21/2013
Stream No.
13
Name
- - Overall - Molar flow kmol/h
425.3410
Mass flow kg/h
13187.6533
Temp C
95.7593
Pres kPa
1060.0000
Vapor mole fraction
0.0000
Enth kcal/h
-2.4990E+007
Tc C
311.1441
Pc kPa
12082.3953
Std. sp gr. wtr = 1
1.255
Std. sp gr. air = 1
1.071
Degree API
-18.7077
Average mol wt
31.0049
Actual dens kg/m3
1164.9129
Actual vol m3/h
11.3207
Std liq m3/h
10.5216
Std vap 0 C m3/h
9533.4425
- - Vapor only - Molar flow kmol/h
Mass flow kg/h
Average mol wt
Actual dens kg/m3
Actual vol m3/h
Std liq m3/h
Std vap 0 C m3/h
Cp kcal/kmol-C
Z factor
Visc Pa-sec
Th cond kcal/h-m-C
- - Liquid only - Molar flow kmol/h
425.3410
Mass flow kg/h
13187.6533
Average mol wt
31.0049
Actual dens kg/m3
1164.9129
Actual vol m3/h
11.3207
Std liq m3/h
10.5216
Std vap 0 C m3/h
9533.4425
Cp kcal/kmol-C
23.8315
Z factor
0.0131
Visc Pa-sec
0.0003193
Th cond kcal/h-m-C
0.3885
Surf tens N/m
0.0415
Time: 17:03:43
14
15
137.1546
2335.8798
-15.0000
1240.0000
0.0000
-2.3156E+006
132.5000
11278.4833
0.619
0.588
96.9616
17.0310
656.6747
3.5571
3.7749
3074.1346
137.1546
2335.8798
35.0000
1240.0000
1.000
-1.5163E+006
132.5000
11278.4833
0.619
0.588
96.9616
17.0310
9.1153
256.2590
3.7749
3074.1346
137.1546
2335.8798
17.0310
9.1153
256.2590
3.7749
3074.1346
9.6843
0.9044
1.072e-005
0.0240
137.1546
2335.8798
17.0310
656.6747
3.5571
3.7749
3074.1346
19.5609
0.0190
0.0002027
0.4913
0.0299
190