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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
The analysis of dynamically loaded structures has received a continuous
but varying level of attention over the past 50 years. Due to the infinite
number of permutations of structural parameters and due to the costs of
performing tests on such structures, the amount of available experimental
data, while broad, is also scant relative to any particular combination of
structure and dynamic load.
The finite element method has been applied with great success to
geometrical and material nonlinearities in continuum and structural
problems. The geometric nonlinearities is modeled by well known
formulations, the total or updated Lagrangian, while success in modeling
the material nonlinearities depends on the validity of the constitutive
models used. Although adequate models exit for the nonlinear behavior of
steel, the development of an accurate and reliable model for the nonlinear
response of plain concrete is still an active area of interest in the civil
engineering community.
In this chapter a review of studies on reinforced concrete stiffened
shells is presented for static analysis. A review on stiffened shells for
dynamic analysis is presented. A review on reinforced concrete structures
for nonlinear dynamic analysis is also presented.
2.2 Reinforced Concrete Stiffened Shells
Several works on the analysis of reinforced concrete stiffened shell have
been studied for static analysis [1,13,20]. Arnesen [1]studied the behavior
of reinforced concrete cylindrical shells strengthened with edge beam,
which was tested by Bouma [1]. The same problem was also studied by
Ram and Kompfner [13]. Both studies modeled the cylindrical shell as

well as the edge beam by the shell elements, and unsatisfactory results
were obtained.
Arnesen used endochronic theory for material nonlinearity and
large deformation formulation with small strain applied for geometric
nonlinearity. The edge beam was modeled as being connected to midheight to the shell whereas in reality it is connected to the top. The results
obtained were very good compared to the test results at the initial and
intermediate stage of the response, near the failure this agreement no
longer exists. The rising (upward displacements) of the center of the shell
observed in the test was not predicted in the analysis and on the contrary
downward deflection was obtained.
Arnesen had clearly stated the difficulties as:
It was difficult by the present element to model correctly at the
same time both the geometrical and bending properties of the beam. It is
therefore desirable to include an eccentric beam element in the
computational model in order to get the correct representation of
eccentric stiffeners and edge beams.
Ram and Kompfner [13] modeled the material nonlinearities by
layers throughout the thickness of the element. The concrete is modeled
with biaxial formulation that acts in the shell surface and includes
cracking, nonlinear stress-strain relationship in compression, compression
failure and tension stiffening. The reinforcements were represented by
smeared layers.
Modeling of the edge beam by shell element was again ineffective.
Different responses were produced in this analysis depending on the way
in which the beam was connected to the shell. Stiff results were obtained
when the shell is connected at the top of beam and soft results were
obtained when the shell is connected at the mid-height of the beam. Ram
and Kompfner investigated in-between distance (between the top of the

beam and at the mid-height of the beam) to produce good results, but
downward deflection was also obtained at the longitudinal centerline of
the shell.
Thannon [20] developed a nonlinear finite element analysis for
reinforced concrete stiffened shells through layers based on linear work
of Jirousek [7]. The degenerated three dimensional isoparametric shell
element, with independent rotational and translational degrees of freedom
was employed. The stiffeners were modeled by three dimensional
degenerated beam elements. Elastic-plastic model was used for concrete
in compression. Layered formulation was adopted to represent the steel
reinforcement and to simulate progressive concrete cracking and concrete
yielding through the thickness.
The connection between the shell and the beam represents the real
case in nature. The drawback in the previous studies does no longer exist.
The upward deflection is obtained as in the test. The deflection gives
good agreement with test results without using any modification in
geometry.
2.3 Dynamic Analysis of Stiffened Shells
The published work on the analysis of stiffened shells under dynamic
loads is restricted to isotropic and anistrotopic materials as far as our
knowledge and there is no work on reinforced concrete stiffened plates
and shells or on T-beam structures. In this section a brief review for
dynamic analysis of stiffened shells is presented.
Jiang and Olson [6] and Olson [12] modeled the stiffened plate and
shell by the finite strip method. Nonlinear transient behavior of isotropic
stiffened plates and stiffened cylindrical shells is investigated under blast
load. The plasticity theory of Von Mises yield criterion was used with
associated flow rule, which assumes isotropic hardening of the material.

The numerical results were compared with test and other studies and gave
good agreement.
Sinha and Mukhopadhyay [16,17,18] analyzed stiffened shells with
arbitrary shapes under dynamic loads using the shallow finite element
method. Triangular elements were used to represent the shell and the
stiffeners were represented by beam elements. These stiffeners are related
to the natural coordinate of the shell elements, which must be transformed
finally to global axes. Only elastic analysis is employed in this study. The
numerical results were compared with published results and gave good
agreement.
Liao and Cheng [8] studied the dynamic stability of laminated
composite stiffened plates and shells subjected to in-plane pulsating
forces. A three dimensional degenerated shell element and three
dimensional degenerated curved beam element are used to model
plates/shells and stiffeners, respectively. The characteristic equations to
find the natural frequencies, buckling loads and their corresponding mode
shapes are obtained from the finite element equation of motion.
Numerical results are presented to demonstrate the effect of in-plane
forces on dynamic stability of stiffened and non-stiffened plates and
shells.
For more information about this section the reader can return to
reference [17].
2.4 Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Members
Rebora et al [14] analyzed reinforced concrete plates and shells under
dynamic transient loading. The isoparametric three dimensional elements
of twenty-node brick element have been used to simulate the concrete and
the one dimensional bar element with three nodes for the steel
reinforcement. In compression, a three dimensional non-linear elastic
constitutive law is introduced for the concrete, and triaxial failure surface

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expressed in the stress invariant is used, determining crushing and


cracking. Two and three cracking surfaces in which no component of
stress is transmitted are accounted for. For steel a yield criterion is
selected. The ultimate load is reached when the algorithm does not
converge. Several examples were analyzed which showed good
agreement with published results.
Freiman and Trop [3] analyzed a reinforced concrete beam under
impact load using the finite element method. The concrete is modeled by
brick elements and the reinforcement is modeled by smeared approach.
The nonlinear dynamic response has been carried out with an explicit
central difference time integration algorithm. Yielding, cracking of
concrete and yielding of steel were taken into account for modeling the
material nonlinearities. The numerical results gave good agreement with
the published experimental results.
Liu and Owen [9] analyzed reinforced concrete plates and shells
under dynamic transient loading. A layered thick shell finite element
procedure is considered for determining the dynamic transient nonlinear
response of plates and shells. The degenerated three dimensional
isoparametric shell element, with independent rotational and translational
degrees of freedom, is employed. Layered formulation is adopted to
represent the steel reinforcement and to simulate progressive concrete
cracking through the thickness. To include the dynamic feature for
material nonlinearities, strain rate was included which effects the
dynamic yielding function of concrete. The dynamic yielding function is
assumed to be a function of current strain rate, in addition to being total
plastic strain or work dependent. The concrete model also simulates both
the compressive crushing and the tensile cracking behavior and implicit
Newmark algorithm is employed for time integration of the equation of

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motion. Several numerical examples were presented and the result gave
good agreement with other sources.
Hinton [4] analyzed reinforced concrete plates and shells under
transient dynamic loading. The three dimensional isoparametric element
with 20 nodes is used to simulate the concrete. The smeared approach is
used to represent the reinforcement in the elements. A viscoplastic model
is used to simulate the concrete in compression with two surfaces, the
failure surface which indicates the initiation of degradation of material,
and the yield surface which indicates the initiation of yielding state.
Cracking and crushing of concrete are taken into account. The nonlinear
behavior of steel is simulated by a simple visco-plastic formula. Several
examples were analyzed with different loading conditions. The obtained
results gave good agreement with other sources.
Steven et al [19] analyzed two shallow buried reinforced concrete
arches under blast loading using explosive generated pressure applied to
soil surface. A hybrid numerical approach, which combines the finite
difference technique and the finite element method, coupled with a nonlocal continuum damage /plasticity model for plain concrete, a ratedependent cap model for soil and an elastic /strain hardening plasticity
model for steel. The comparison between the predicted results and the test
results were shown to agree well overall.
Shimazaki and Wada [15] analyzed reinforced concrete shear wall
structures considering strain rate effect. In this model a strut and tie with
three element Maxwell model is used. This model consisted of two spring
elements and a damper element for reinforced concrete. Some
modifications of material properties are needed to accommodate this
model. The strain rate is included in the model, which fits the

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experimental data test on strain rate. The results of dynamic response


showed very good agreement with test results.
Inoue et al [5] analyzed reinforced concrete shear wall structures
subjected to earthquake motions. A shear wall is modeled as a quasi-three
dimensional structure which is composed of plane elements considering
the in-plane stiffness of orthogonal flange panels. The proposed
constitutive model is based on the nonlinearity of reinforcement and
concrete in which tension stiffening in tension and the degradation of
stiffness and strength in compression of concrete after cracking are
considered. Explicit procedure is employed to solve the nonlinear
dynamic equations. The damping effect is considered by assuming
equivalent viscous damping which can give good cyclic behavior of
inertia force vs. displacement relationships. This numerical method was
applied to a test specimen of a reinforced concrete shear wall with Hshape section which was vibrated up to failure by using a large scale
shaking table with high-performance. The test was performed as one of
the dynamic model tests for evaluation of seismic behavior of nuclear
reactor buildings. The calculations were performed sequentially from the
elastic range to failure. The comparison with the test results showed that
this approach produces good accuracy.
Lopez Cela et al [10] analyzed a thin reinforced concrete shell
subjected to impact load. A Drucker-Prager elastic-plastic criterion is
used for concrete and a visco-plastic regularization technique is applied in
order to prevent appearance of unphysical strain localizations. Numerical
examples were presented to show the effectiveness of the proposed
technique.
Thabet and Haldane [21] applied the triaxial failure criterion with
the theory of plasticity to model the behavior of reinforced concrete
structure subjected to impact loading. The concrete nonlinearity, the

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cracking in the elements, and the loading and unloading were simulated
by using elastic-plastic fracture model. The influence of loading rate of
concrete can be readily introduced by modifying the level of yield and
loading surfaces. In tension, smeared cracked model was used with a
tension softening model for retained postcracking stresses. The
reinforcing bars were represented by tensile stiffeners that were smeared
in the appropriate direction over the element cross section. Verification of
the numerical procedure was carried out using published results from
scale model test on reinforced concrete beam and portal frame, as well as
from a test on a full scale reinforced concrete beam. It was found that the
maximum impact load, the propagation of the crack, and the failure
modes, can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using the proposed
approach.
Miyamoto et al [11] used a triaxial failure criterion with nonassociative flow theory of plasticity for modeling the concrete in
reinforced concrete slabs subjected to impulsive loads. Four-node
Mindlin type rectangular element with reduced integration scheme is
used. A provision for material nonlinearity, cracking in concrete elements
and loading and unloading phenomena are adopted in the study. Implicit
Newmark algorithm is employed for time integration of the equation of
motion. Verification of the analytical procedure is carried out by means of
comparison with the test results on a full scale reinforced concrete slab. It
is found that the ultimate behavior, the post-failure behavior as well as the
failure modes, can be predicted accurately by using the proposed
procedure.

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References
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Arnesen, A. (1979). "Analysis of reinforced concrete shells

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2.

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3.

Freiman, M., and Trop, R. (1984). "Analysis of a reinforced

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Hinton, E. (1988). "Numerical methods and software for

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5.

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16.

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