Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Una Revisin:
Implicancia de la intensidad luminosa solar y la P.I. 44.321 en
los salmnidos, cultivados intensivamente
en balsas jaulas.
1.- Abstracto
1
La malla Raschel filtra hasta un 95% la luz solar, siendo flexible, liviana, no absorbe agua, soporta muy bien
el sol, los rayos UV y la interperie, y las de color verde poseen muy buena durabilidad. En:
www.plasticord.cl.
2.-Indice de contenidos
Pginas
1- Abstracto .....................................................................................
2-3
4-5
6-15
16
17
6- Introduccin ................................................................................
18-20
21
22-26
27-43
44-65
66-79
80-101
102-116
117-126
127-134
135-136
137-149
150-174
175-189
190-192
193-196
197
198
199-366
367-368
3.-Lista de Figuras
Pginas
Figura N1: Cambios en la intensidad luminosa ambiental durante el alba y
al crepsculo con cielo claro o nublado, medido desde la sombra de los
rboles o sin sombra ..................................................................................................
21
Figura N2: Irradiacin relativa de cada tipo de luz del espectro total (300850 nm) ......................................................................................................................
24
25
26
26
30
31
32
32
33
33
37
38
39
39
Figura N16: Ingesta de alimento (Kg) relativa en truchas arco iris de 1250
(Grs), cultivadas a densidad media (15(Kg/Mtr3)) en sus respectivas balsas
jaulas (A1, A2, B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7) y en distintos das (A, B),
durante las maanas soleadas en comparacin con las tardes sombreadas, y
sus correspondientes rectas de los mnimos cuadrados ............................................
44
45
45
46
Figura N20: Balsas jaulas cuadradas con sombra durante la tarde, gracias a
los cerros o fiordos presentes en la zona de cultivo ................................................
46
48
50
51
53
54
55
56
56
57
59
60
68
69
71
Figura N35: Cantidad de truchas arco iris capturadas con una combinacin
de redes en el Lago Roosevelt, en Junio, Agosto y Octubre del ao 1999 ............
72
Figura N36: Cantidad de truchas arco iris capturadas con una combinacin
de redes en el Lago Roosevelt, en Agosto y Octubre del ao 2001 .......................
73
Figura N37: Cantidad de truchas arco iris capturadas con una combinacin
de redes en el Lago Roosevelt, en Agosto y Octubre del ao 2005 .......................
73
75
77
Figura N40: Cantidad (%) de truchas arco iris y salmones coho capturados
con redes de capturas situadas en diversas locaciones, entre Abril de 1964 y
Junio de 1965 en el ro Cowlitz .............................................................................
78
82
82-83
Figura N43: Juveniles de truchas arco iris expuestos a la radiacin Uv-B ....
85-86
Figura N44: Porcentaje de truchas arco iris infectadas con hongos, despus
de ser irradiadas durante 7 das por 5 horas con Uv-B baja o alta ........................
87
87
88
idnticas condiciones zootcnicas, pero con truchas arco iris sin (A) o con
(B) radiacin Uv-B previa por 15 minutos, y una subsecuente exposicin
de 30 minutos en ambos casos .............................................................................
89
Figura N48: Peso del salmn Atlntico juvenil en Exp. 1 y Exp. 2, despus
de ser expuestos a diversos tratamientos espectrales: radiacin solar sin
Uv-B, radiacin solar normal y radiacin solar con Uv-B aumentada ................
91
92
92-93
94
99
104
105
105
106
106
10
107
107
108
108
Figura N62: Peso promedio (Grs.) del salmn Atlntico con cataratas
graves y sin dao ocular en primavera en Noruega ..............................................
109
109
Figura N64: Truchas arco iris con problemas oculares debido al dao
mecnico ................................................................................................................
110
114
Figura N66: Ojos con cataratas 10% del dimetro del lente (Escala 1) ..........
114
Figura N67: Ojos con cataratas en el 10-50% del dimetro del lente (Escala
2) ............................................................................................................................
114
Figura N68: Ojos con cataratas en el 50-75% del dimetro del lente (Escala
3) .............................................................................................................................
115
Figura N69: Ojos con cataratas 75% del dimetro del lente (Escala 4) ...........
115
116
116
119
11
122
123
123-124
125
126
Figura N78: Efecto de los niveles de turbidez (NTU) sobre los rangos de
ingesta de presas vivas en la trucha arco iris juvenil .............................................
128
128
134
134
147
147
148
148
12
149
154
Figura N88: Tamao de la racin ingerida por truchas arco iris en tanques,
nutridas con alimentadores automticos con pulsos altos o bajos ........................
154
156
157
157
158
165
Figura N94: Valor del comportamiento de los juveniles de truchas arco iris,
tratadas con cortisol y sin tratar, confinadas en grupos de pares de distinto
tamao durante 5 das ...........................................................................................
166
166
167
Figura N97: Factor de condicin final (CFf = 100x gr/cm3) de las truchas
arco iris, tratadas con cortisol y con cortisol+RU486, confinadas en grupos
de pares de igual tamao durante 5 das ...............................................................
167
168
13
168
169
173
173
174
174
176
180
186
187
14
187
189
189
192
Figura N113: Actividad de la trucha arco iris medida con radio transmisores
antes, durante y despus (da 1 y 2) del transporte, en un tanque comercial de
barco trasladado por camin 50 min. ...................................................................
195
367
Figura N115: Balsa jaula circular con P.I. 44.321 desplegada ..........................
367
Figura N116: Balsa jaula circular con P.I. 44.321 replegada ............................
367
368
15
368
4.-Lista de Tablas
Pginas
Tabla N1: Costos aproximados por balsa jaula cuadrada de 20(Mtrs.) de largo, de
los materiales utilizados en el sistema vinculado a la P.I. 44.321 en el ao 2009 ...........
345
16
345
5.-Lista de Anexos
Pginas
Anexo N1 .......................................................................................................
17
369-370
6.- Introduccin:
Crepsculo es considerado en ste estudio como las ltimas horas de la tarde y las primeras de la noche
(sunset o atardecer). Perodos crepsculares = alba y atardecer.
18
Se han tratado de colocar diferentes medios para lograr inhibir el ingreso de luz a la zona de cultivo. Sin
embargo, estas soluciones son muy bsicas y poco prcticas, careciendo adems de mecanismo de despliegue
y repliegue de malla sombreadora, no permitiendo su aplicacin de manera masiva o comercial al cultivo
industrial de salmnidos, las cuales desde el ao 2006, luego de la publicacin en el diario oficial del sistema
relacionado con la P.I. 44.321, pasaran a ser ilegales.
4
Ver sistema relacionado con la P.I. 44.321 en Anexo N1, pginas 369-370.
20
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0.001
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
21
mucho mayor que los calculados para los lagos ultraoligotrficos (Smith et al.,
1973), discrepancias esencialmente debidas a las concentraciones de
fitoplancton, materia orgnica disuelta, partculas orgnicas e inorgnicas
(Pearsall & Ullyott, 1933; Lythgoe, 1975; Heinerman & Ali, 1988; NovalesFlamarique et al., 1992), adems de las variaciones en la magnitud y la
composicin espectral de la luz, dependientes de la direccin, profundidad de
observacin y hora del da (McFarland & Munz, 1975; Jerlov, 1976; Wheeler,
1982; Novales-Flamarique et al., 1992), en donde las pequeas partculas
esparcen y/o dispersan fuertemente las longitudes de ondas de luz Uv y cortas,
mientras que las molculas de agua poseen bandas de absorcin en las partes
Uv y de longitudes de ondas largas del espectro (Hecht & Zajac, 1974),
aunque stas molculas al igual que las pequeas partculas, pueden
preferencialmente tambin esparcir y/o dispersar las longitudes de ondas
cortas y Uv del espectro (Rayleigh, 1889). A diferencia del agua dulce, medio
que favorece los fotones de longitudes de ondas largas del espectro, el agua de
mar preferencia el traspaso de las longitudes de ondas cortas de luz del
espectro (Pearsall & Ullyott, 1933; Bridges & Delisle, 1974; Alexander et al.,
1994), con las aguas meso-eutrficas durante los perodos crepsculares,
mostrando proporcionalmente ms fotones de longitudes de ondas cortas
contribuyendo al espectro total (Novales-Flamarique & Hawryshyn, 1997).
23
24
25
14
Uv
12
Corta
10
Media
8
Larga
6
4
2
0
1.5
4.5
7.5
10.5
13.5
16.5
Lineal
(Uv)
Lineal
(Corta)
Lineal
(Larga)
Lineal
(Media)
Profundidad
Figura N5: Coeficiente de extincin de la luz (multiplicadas por 10) para las
longitudes de ondas Uv, cortas, medias y largas acumuladas de la parte del
espectro y para la irradiacin total, con su respectivas regresiones lneales
(Novales-Flamarique et al., 1992).
26
Los conos y bastones son dos tipos de fotorreceptores de la retina. Los conos se activan cuando los niveles
de iluminacin son suficientemente elevados, pero si son demasiado altos o bajos se reduce su capacidad de
resolver detalles. Los bastones se activan cuando la intensidad luminosa es baja y tambin contribuyen a las
respuestas ON, pero no es posible una discriminacin del color, por lo que actan eficazmente en la visin
nocturna o escotpica de los salmnidos, dando al observador la sensacin de "ver ms y mejor" (Allen &
Munz, 1983; Hawryshyn et al., 1989; Beaudet et al., 1993; Parkyn & Hawryshyn, 1993; Coughlin &
Hawryshyn, 1994a, 1995; Novales Flamarique & Hawryshyn, 1996, 1997; Parkyn, 1998; Parkyn &
Hawryshyn, 2000).
27
29
Figura N6: Conos fotorreceptores del mosaico celular en la retina ventral, de la trucha
arco iris parr sin tratar (A) y tratadas por 20 minutos a 10-6 (mol/Ltr-1) con cido
retinoico despus de 6 semanas (B), de las smolt sin tratar (C) y de las smolt tratadas
por 20 minutos a 10-6 (mol/Ltr-1) con cido retinoico despus de 6 semanas (D) (Las
flechas rojas sealan mltiples conos nicos). Nota: a, conos accesorios en las esquinas
(Tienen mxima sensibilidad en la luz Uv; La sensibilidad Uv deriva de stos conos); d,
conos dobles; s, cono central nico (Browman & Hawryshyn, 1994a).
30
Figura N7: Sensibilidad espectral de la trucha arco iris parr en la retina ventral
(C, D) y dorsal (A, B), despus de 2 semanas sin (A, C) o con tratamientos con
tiroxina (B, D). Las curvas pigmentadas de absorptancia, para los mecanismos
de los conos ultravioleta (lneas rosadas) y de las longitudes de ondas cortas6
(lneas azules), fueron ajustadas sobre las curvas de sensibilidad espectral, lo
que determina la presencia o ausencia de conos Uv sensibles, es decir, ste
mtodo de examinacin de los datos y de las curvas ajustadas de pigmentos, son
un buen indicador de cual cono contribuye a la funcin sensitiva espectral.
Luego de esto, se aplico un modelo lineal adicional para los mecanismos de los
conos Uv y de longitudes de onda corta, la resultante es representada por la
lnea negra, permitiendo ste modelo un mejor ajuste para la sensibilidad en las
longitudes de ondas intermedias para los mecanismos ya mencionados, aunque
ambos tipos de anlisis conducen a similares conclusiones, considerando la
sensibilidad Uv y la presencia de mecanismos de conos Uv. KU= Es el
coeficiente del peso del cono ultravioleta, su magnitud es directamente
proporcional a la sensiblidad Uv (Deutschlander et al., 2001).
6
Los conos o fotorreceptores de ondas cortas juegan un rol potencial en la deteccin de ambientes iluminados
(Douglas & Hawryshyn, 1990), aunque en un estado fotpico todos los tipos de conos estn bajo un grado de
adaptacin (Parkyn & Hawryshyn, 2000).
31
32
El vector elctrico (e-vector): Es el plano en el cual el pez detecta la luz polarizada y la utiliza para
Adems de la intensidad (irradiacin) y color (longitud de las ondas), la luz tiene otro atributo fsico,
denominado polarizacin, la que es una medida del grado al cual los fotones comprimidos vibran en un
mismo plano, siendo la luz 100% lnealmente polarizada, cuando todos sus fotones vibran en el mismo plano,
mientras que la luz no polarizada o 0% polarizada, se relaciona con una cantidad de fotones vibrando en
cualquier direccin (Shurcliff, 1962).
34
36
37
38
Munz (1983), con Tsin & Beatty (1977), notando que menores temperaturas
(6C v/s 16C) favorecen una mayor proporcin de porfiropsina en la trucha
arco iris, sin importar las condiciones luminosas. As, un incremento gradual
en la intensidad luminosa y de la temperatura del agua, declina la cantidad
relativa de porfiropsina en la retina de la trucha arco iris y del salmn kokanee
(Oncorhynchus nerka)9 (Beatty, 1966; Allen et al., 1973; Allen, 1977; Munz
& McFarland, 1977; Tsin, 1979), con el balance de stos 2 pigmentos visuales
en las retinas de la trucha cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarkii) cambiando con el
acceso de la luz y con las estaciones (Allen et al., 1973). No obstante, los
niveles de tiroxina influencian tambin las proporciones de porfiropsina y
rodopsina en la retina de los salmnidos (Beatty, 1966, 1969; Jacquest &
Beatty, 1972; Cristy, 1974; Allen, 1977; McFarland & Allen, 1977; Allen &
Munz, 1983; Beatty, 1984; Alexander et al., 1994, 1998; Deutschlander et al.,
2001), pero cantidades bajas de tiroxina permiten a la retina responder ms
directamente a otros factores, que pueden afectar la composicin de pigmentos
visuales, por ejemplo la luz (Allen, 1971), la temperatura (Allen &
McFarland, 1973; Allen, 1977) o la hormona prolactina (Cristy, 1974), aunque
Beatty (1966), indica que el adulto maduro salmn coho, king (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)10, pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum (Oncorhynchus keta),
y sockeye durante la migracin de desove, experimentaron un primer
progresivo incremento de retinene1 (VP 5031; la rodopsina se forma de
retinene1 unido por la base de Schiff a la opsina) en la retina, para luego pasar
a una preponderancia de retinene2 (VP 5272; la porfiropsina es la
combinacin de retinene2 con la opsina), a excepcin del adulto maduro
9
Es la misma especie que el salmn sockeye, pero se denomina a veces salmn kokanee cuando se encuentra
en agua dulce.
10
Es uno de los nombres comnes del salmn chinook. En:
http://www.fishbase.org/comnames/CommonNamesList.php?ID=244&GenusName=Oncorhynchus&Species
Name=tshawytscha&StockCode=258
42
43
Ingestadealimento(Kg) entruchasarcoirisconysinsombra.
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
A2
B1
A1
A1
B7
B2
B3
B5
B6
B4 B5 B6
B1
B7
B4
Ingestaalimentosinsombra
Ingestaalimentoconsombra
Lineal (Ingestaalimentoconsombra)
Lineal (Ingestaalimentosinsombra)
A2
B2
B3
Figura N16: Ingesta de alimento (Kg) relativa en truchas arco iris de 1250
(Grs), cultivadas a densidad media (15(Kg/Mtr3)) en sus respectivas balsas
jaulas (A1, A2, B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7) y en distintos das (A, B), durante
las maanas soleadas en comparacin con las tardes sombreadas, y sus
correspondientes rectas de los mnimos cuadrados (Ver figuras N17, 18, 19 y
20) (Elaboracin propia).
44
Figura N20: Balsas jaulas cuadradas con sombra durante la tarde, gracias a los cerros o
fiordos presentes en la zona de cultivo.
46
11
La cantidad de alimento que un pez individual puede ingerir est relacionado con el nivel de actividad
natatoria y la temperatura del agua (Brett, 1969; Alanr, 1994; Jobling, 1994; Tang & Boisclair, 1995). En
acuicultura, una menor actividad natatoria puede afectar los rangos de ingesta y entrega de alimento (Bailey,
2003).
47
3,5
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
:0
0
18
:0
0
17
:0
0
16
:0
0
15
14
:0
0
:0
0
13
12
:0
0
:0
0
11
:0
0
10
9:
00
8:
00
7:
00
Actividad alimenticia (n
demanda/60min.)
horas
48
49
Figura N22: Porcentaje de alimento ingerido por el salmn del Atlntico, durante las
diferentes horas del da (Airaksinen et al., 2003).
51
% de peces alimentandose
100
90
R = 0,905
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0.01
0.1
0.21
10
100
600
(basado en
53
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.01
0.08
0.2
5
Nivel de luz (Lux)
80
460
54
55
56
57
Alimento ingerido
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2
10
14
18
22
Horas del da
Figura N30: Cantidad de presas ingeridas en diferentes horas del
da por el salmn Atlntico, en ambiente natural en un ro de
Canad (Mookerji et al., 1997).
2.5
% peso cuerpo
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
15:00
19:00
23:00
03:00
07:00
11:00
15:00
Horas del da
60
61
La actividad de las presas de salmnidos (invertebrados) en los arroyos, es generalmente mayor durante la
noche a travs del mundo (Flecker, 1992; Schabetsberger et al., 2003).
62
Chisnall, 1995; Ryer & Olla, 1995; Jobling & Koskela, 1996; Paspatis &
Boujard, 1996; Ryer & Olla, 1996; Jobling et al., 1998; Giannico & Healey et
al., 1999; Kreivi et al., 1999; Metcalfe et al., 1999; Nakano et al., 1999;
Steinhart & Wurtsbaugh, 1999; Stockwell & Johnson, 1999; Amundsen et al.,
2000; Boujard & Auprin, 2000; Schabetsberger et al., 2003; Koval, 2006a;
Johnson et al., 2007; Karpenko & Koval, 2007; Volkov & Kosenok, 2007), el
riesgo de depredacin (McDonald, 1960; Narver, 1970; Patten, 1971; Ginetz
& Larkin, 1976; Eggers, 1978; Mace, 1983; Gaudin & Caillere, 1985; Levy,
1987; Clark & Levy, 1988; Levy, 1990b; Ryer & Olla, 1991; Bevelhimer &
Adams, 1993; Bardonnet & Heland, 1994; Fraser et al., 1994; Mikheev et al.,
1994; Tabor et al., 1998; Metcalfe et al., 1999; Stockwell & Johnson, 1999;
Scheuerell & Schindler, 2001; Griffiths et al., 2004; Johnston et al., 2004), la
eficiencia de captura (Ware, 1973; Tippets & Moyle, 1978; Muntz & Mouat,
1984; Rowe, 1984; Browman & Marcotte, 1986; Bowmaker & Kunz, 1987;
Browman & Marcotte, 1987b; Novales-Flamarique et al., 1992; NovalesFlamarique & Hawryshyn, 1993; Alexander et al., 1994; Browman et al.,
1994; Coughlin & Hawryshyn, 1994a; Metcalfe et al., 1999; Boujard &
Auprin, 2000), la competencia (Metcalfe, 1986; McCarthy et al., 1992a;
Mikheev et al., 1994; Jobling & Koskela, 1996; Kadri et al., 1996; Ryer &
Olla, 1996; Fraser & Metcalfe, 1997; Kadri et al., 1997b; Jobling et al., 1998;
Alanr et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2001; Harwood et al., 2001; Maclean &
Metcalfe, 2001; Elliott, 2002; Griffiths & Armstrong, 2002b; Railsback et al.,
2004), la caracterstica hereditaria (Leggatt et al., 2003; Kolstad et al., 2004;
Neira et al., 2006; Boujard et al., 2007; Neely et al., 2008), el estado
fisiolgico del pez (Munz & Beatty, 1965; Beatty, 1966, 1969; Munz &
McFarland, 1977; Eggers, 1978; Allen & Munz, 1983; Muntz & Mouat, 1984;
Metcalfe, 1986; Bowmaker & Kunz, 1987; Browman & Marcotte, 1987b;
63
& Wurtsbaugh, 1999; Harwood et al., 2000; Sunde et al., 2000; Tabata et al.,
2000; Alanr et al., 2001; Bolliet et al., 2001; Bradford & Higgins, 2001;
Harwood et al., 2001; Mambrini et al., 2001; Scheuerell & Schindler, 2001;
Johnston et al., 2002; Airaksinen et al., 2003; Bailey, 2003; Schabetsberger et
al., 2003; Shima et al., 2003; Bieber, 2004; Mookerji et al., 2004; Noble et al.,
2005; Johansson et al., 2006; Karpenko & Koval, 2006; Koval, 2006a,b;
Orpwood et al., 2006; Pavlov & Maslova, 2006; Karpenko & Koval, 2007;
Noble et al., 2007b,d; Volkov & Kosenok, 2007; Holtby & Bothwell, 2008),
el ciclo de las mareas (Kadri et al., 1991; Bieber, 2004), la velocidad del
viento (Noble et al., 2007b), los niveles de oxgeno (Rowe & Chisnall, 1995;
Johansson et al., 2006; Swales, 2006), la salinidad (Johansson et al., 2006) y
la temperatura (Gray & Setna, 1930; Lake, 1957; Horak & Tanner, 1964; Fish,
1968; Brett, 1971; Overholtz et al., 1977; Gibson, 1978; May & Gloss, 1979;
Spigarelli & Thommes, 1979; Rowe, 1984; Levy, 1990b; Bevelhimer &
Adams 1993; Fraser et al., 1993, 1995; Rowe & Chisnall, 1995; Koskela et
al., 1997a,b; Stockwell & Johnson 1997; Metcalfe et al., 1999; Stockwell &
Johnson, 1999; Talbot et al., 1999; Alanr et al., 2001; Bailey & Alanr,
2001; Bendiksen et al., 2001, 2002, 2003; Railsback et al., 2004; Bailey &
Alanr, 2006; Johansson et al., 2006; Gunther et al., 2007; NIFES, 2007;
Noble et al., 2007b; Valdimarsson et al., 1997; Noble et al., 2008).
65
66
68
69
71
Nmero de peces
capturados
Junio
Agosto
Octubre
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Profundidad (Mtrs.)
72
Nmero de peces
capturados
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Profundidad (Mtrs.)
90 100
Agosto
Octubre
Nmero de peces
20
30
40
50
60
Profundidad (Mtrs.)
70
80
90
100
Agosto
Octubre
73
74
90
80
Ngapouri
70
Okaro
60
Rotoehu
50
Okataina
40
30
20
10
Jul 64 B
Jul 64 A
Jul 63 B
Jul 63 A
Jul 62 B
Jul 62 A
Jun 64 B
Jun 64 A
Jun 63 B
Jun 63 A
Jun 62 B
Jun 62 A
Mar 63 B
Mar 62 B
Marz 63 A
Mar 62 A
Marz 61 B
Feb 63 B
Mar 61 A
Feb 63 A
Feb 62 B
Feb 62 A
Figura N38: Cantidad de truchas arco iris capturadas con redes en la superficie (A)
o cerca del fondo (B) en los lagos de la Regin de Rotorua (Fish, 1968).
75
76
77
100
80
60
40
20
0
0-3,7 3,7-7,3 7,3-11 11-14,6 14,618,3
Salmn Coho
Trucha arco iris
18,321,9
21,925,6
Profundidad (Mtrs.)
PAR,
muy
decresidas con
UVR.
Para
todos los
79
La radiacin Uv-A es la menos nociva y la que llega en mayor cantidad a la Tierra. La radiacin Uv-B
puede ser muy nociva, pero es absorbida por la capa de ozono y la radiacin Uv-C, es la ms letal de todas
debido a su gran energa, siendo absorbida por el oxgeno y el ozono de la estratosfera.
16
En Direccin Meteorolgica de Chile; www.meteochile.cl.
80
17
En: http://www.mundoacuicola.cl/noticias/noticiasleer.php?noticia=2216
81
82
83
Browman et al., 2003; Markkula et al., 2005, 2006; Bancroft et al., 2007;
Hder et al., 2007). En la trucha arco iris la exposicin a la luz Uv-B (Figura
N43) afecta o modula directamente el sistema inmune y la resistencia en
contra de las enfermedades (Fabacher et al., 1994; Little & Fabacher, 1994;
Fabacher & Little, 1996; Markkula et al., 2006), incrementando su
susceptibilidad a las infecciones fungales, bacterianas o por parsitos despus
de elevadas o moderadas dosis de rayos Uv-B (Figura N44) (Fabacher et al.,
1994; Little & Fabacher, 1994; Fabacher & Little, 1996; Markkula et al.,
2007), induciendo grandes peaks en el espectro de absorcin de la luz Uv
visible en la zona dorsal de la piel por compuestos desconocidos (absorcin
mxima alrededor de los 292 nm), que probablemente sea gadusol o algn
smil
3,5,6-trihidroxi-5-(hidroximetil)-2-metoxi-2-ciclohexeno-l-uno,
85
86
% truchas
infectadas
Figura N44: Porcentaje de truchas arco iris infectadas con hongos, despus
de ser irradiadas durante 7 das por 5 horas con Uv-B baja (4,3 W/CM2) o
Unidades de absorcin/mg
peso hmedo piel
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Capa externa dorsal de Capa interna dorsal de
la piel
la piel
87
% truchas con
quemaduras en la piel
Das de exposicin
Figura N46: Porcentaje de truchas arco iris con quemaduras en la piel, despus
de 7 das de exposicin por 5 horas a irradiacin Uv-B, similar a la emitida por
el sol en latitudes medias en Verano (Fabacher & Little, 1996).
88
89
Figura N48: Peso del salmn Atlntico juvenil en Exp. 1 y Exp. 2, despus
de ser expuestos a diversos tratamientos espectrales: radiacin solar sin Uv-B
(Barras blancas), radiacin solar normal (barras grises) y radiacin solar con
Uv-B aumentada (barras negras) (Jokinen et al., 2008).
91
92
93
94
evidencindose
la
carencia
de
clulas
mucosas,
como
95
96
97
20
El aumento de la temperatura incrementa
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/T0700S/T0700S03.htm).
21
Mantenida a altas densidades.
98
la
velocidad
de
las
reacciones
(En:
1.4
Contenido (%)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
DHA
EPA
0
Salmn Atlntico
cultivado
Salmn chinook
Salmn chum
Salmn coho
silvestre
Salmn coho
cultivado
Salmn rosado
Salmn sockeye
99
101
1982; Walton et al., 1982; Poston & Rumsey, 1983; Hughes, 1985; Cowey et
al., 1992; Kim et al., 1992; NRC, 1993; Cowey, 1994; Scott, 1998; European
Commission, 2004), riboflavina (Poston et al., 1977; Hughes et al., 1981;
Barash et al., 1982; Hughes, 1985), triptfano (Poston & Rumsey, 1983;
Hughes, 1985), hierro (Breck et al., 2003; Waagb et al., 2003; Breck et al.,
2005), tiamina (Hughes, 1985), calcio, fsforo (Figura N 53-55 y 57) (Ketola,
1979; Richardson et al., 1985; Satoh, 1991), sodio, potasio (Figura N 11-13)
(Ketola, 1979), cido ftico (Figura N57) (Richardson et al., 1985),
manganeso (Figura N56) (Satoh, 1983; Waagb et al., 2003), vitamina C,
astaxantina (Waagb et al., 2003), magnesio (Figura N 56) (Satoh, 1983) e
histidina (Breck et al., 2002, 2003; Bjerks et al., 2003a; Bjerks & Sveier,
2004; Breck, 2004; European Commission, 2004; EFSA, 2005; Breck et al.,
2005) en la dieta, la concentracin de glucosa en el plasma (Waagb et al.,
2003), la substitucin del aceite de pez por el aceite vegetal en el alimento
(Figura N 59) (RAFOA, 2000; FORM, 2006), dietas con hgado de caballo
(Allison, 1951) o con bazo de cerdo (Hess, 1937), el crecimiento rpido
(Figura N 60-62) (Kincaid & Elrod, 1991; Bjerks et al., 1996; Waagb et
al., 1996; Bjerks et al., 2001; Ersdal et al., 2001), aumento o fluctuacin en
la temperatura del agua (Loewenstein & Bettelheim, 1979; Hargis, 1991;
Bruno & Raynard, 1994; Bjerks & Bjrnestad, 1999; Bjerks et al., 2001;
Menzies et al., 2002; Bjerks & Sveier, 2004; European Commission, 2004),
oscilacin o incremento en la salinidad del agua (Iwata et al., 1987; Hargis,
1991; Waagb et al., 1996; Breck & Sveier, 2001; Wegener et al., 2001;
Bjerks et al., 2003b; Bjerks & Sveier, 2004), la radiacin Uv (Allison, 1963;
Cullen & Monteith-McMaster, 1993; Cullen et al., 1994), gentico (Kincaid &
Elrod, 1991; Wall & Richards, 1992; Wall, 1998; Menzies et al., 2002; Breck
et al., 2003; European Commission, 2004; Breck et al., 2005), inhibidores de
103
120
Porcentaje
100
98
87
80
75
60
57
Peso cuerpo
ganado
(gr/pez)
40
20
0
Incidencia
cataratas
00
3.8
Harina de
arenque
3.3
Harina de
pescado
blanco
(WFM)
0 4
WFM +
Mezcla
minerales B
00
3.5
WFM +
Na2EDTA
1.9
WFM + Ca,
P, Na y K
Dieta experimental 1
104
30
28
25
23
Porcentaje
20
18
15
15
10
11
10
10
12
11
7.5
7.3
0 0
Harina de
arenque
0 0
0 0
0 0
Harina de
WFM + WFM - Mn W FM - Fe WFM - Cu WFM - Zn
pescado
Mezcla
blanco minerales B
Severidad cataratas
(W FM)
WFM Resto de
mezcla B
Incidencia cataratas
Dieta experimental 2
63
33
9.2
3 0
er
al
es
Zn
m
in
+
M
ez
cl
a
W
FM
a,
P,
N
9.7
3
(2
x)
3.8
W
FM
+
W
FM
W
FM
M
ez
cl
a
m
in
W
FM
er
al
es
Zn
K
y
a
N
+
W
FM
bl
a,
P,
an
co
ar
en
de
sc
ad
10
0 0
0 0
(W
FM
)
pe
de
12
5.9
6.5
0
12
H
ar
in
63
51
a
ar
in
H
75
73
qu
e
Porcentaje
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Severidad cataratas
Incidencia cataratas
Dietas experimental 3
105
Porcentaje
120
100
100 %
80
60
40
14%
20
0
Harina de pescado
blanco (WFM) + Zn
WFM - Zn
Dietas
60
50
Ca
40
30
Zn x 10
34%
Acido Ftico
25%
Incidencia
catarata
20
10
0%
0%
0
1
Dietas
106
200
180
160
140
Ingesta alimento (Gr)
120
100
FCR x 10
80
Cataratas (%)
60
40
Lineal (Ingesta
alimento (Gr))
20
0
0.31 0.68 0.91 1.02 1.35 1.58
Seis dietas con distintos niveles de metionina.
60
Porcentajes
50
40
30
20
10
0
FO (100%)
VO+FO (75%+25%)
VO (100%)
Dietas
107
18
Porcentaje de peces
16
14
12
10
Primavera
Otoo
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Nivel de catara
3500
3000
2500
Primavera
2000
Otoo
1500
Lineal (Otoo)
1000
Lineal (Primavera)
500
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Nivel de catarata
22
108
60
Porcentaje
50
48%
48%
40
30
20
10
28%
15%
0
Control
Dosis baja
de BE
Dosis media
de BE
Dosis alta
de BE
109
N truchas arco
iris
Cataratas
7%
2%
Opacidades del
lente
Opacidad corneal
2%
82%
Erpsin de la
cornea
Sangramiento
ocular
Se sabe que los ojos son rganos delicados y uno de los primeros en ser
afectados por enfermedades o situaciones de estrs23(Lymbery, 2002). Los
mecanismos fisiolgicos envueltos en la formacin de cataratas son tanto
celular, intercelular y de naturaleza capsular, y varan segn el o los factores
que los causan (Figura N 65-69) (Scott, 1998). La distancia de reaccin para
localizar el alimento, es mayor sobre el plano visual horizontal y delante del
plano visual transversal en el salmn coho24 (Dunbrack & Dill, 1984), pero las
cataratas provocan una visin debilitada y hasta ceguera, lo que obviamente
disminuye sta capacidad, considerando que confan casi totalmente en la
vista para detectar el alimento (Brett & Groot, 1963; Ware, 1973; Eggers,
1975; Ahlbert, 1976; Vinyard & OBrien, 1976; Eggers, 1977; Fraser &
23
En: www.wspafarmwatch.org/resources/WSPA%20CIWF%20Fish%20Farming%20Report%202007.pdfSe cree que sta adaptacin resulta en una ms eficiente alimentacin en la superficie del agua (Rowe,
1984).
24
110
Metcalfe, 1997; Valente et al., 2000; Volkov & Kosenok, 2007), conduciendo
a un retardo del crecimiento (aumentara la dispersin de tallas), una pobre
conversin del alimento (Figura N 53-55, 58, 61 y 62) (Kennedy, 1974;
Ghittino, 1975; Evans et al., 1976; Palmieri et al., 1976a,b; Ketola, 1979;
Scott, 1998; Breck & Sveier 2001; Ersdal et al., 2001; Menzies et al., 2002) y
mortalidades con generalmente bajos rangos de sobrevivencia, adems, genera
cambios en el comportamiento, tales como inadaptacin e indiferencia,
produciendo lesiones cutneas, debido a contactos casuales con las redes y
determina la proximidad entre peces (Kennedy, 1974; Orme & Lem, 1974;
Ghittino, 1975; Evans et al., 1976; Palmieri et al., 1976a,b; Page, 1978; Speed
& Pauley, 1985; Bjerks et al., 1996; Semenas, 1996; Scott, 1998; Raverty,
1999; Bjerks et al., 2000; Ersdal et al., 2001; Breck & Sveier 2001; Menzies
et al., 2002; Breck et al., 2003; Bjerks et al., 2003a,b; European
Commission, 2004; Hstein, 2004), siendo tambin menos atractivos para los
consumidores (Hughes, 1985) en la presentacin entero fresco o congelado,
por lo que la visin debilitada del salmn con cataratas severas es ms que un
tema de bienestar, es un impedimento financiero en la produccin de
salmnidos (Wall & Richards, 1992). Menzies et al (2002), estimaron que el
costo directo de las cataratas con una incidencia baja-alta en los cultivos de
salmn Atlntico en Noruega, debido a mortalidad y prdidas de peso,
oscilaba entre 747.000-54.983.000 Euros/ao, lo que sugiere que las cataratas
en los cultivos de salmn meritan investigaciones prioritarias a nivel nacional
y Europeo.
En contraste con Europa, en donde los salmones desarrollan cataratas
durante la etapa de smoltificacin, generalmente debido a fluctuaciones o
aumentos en la salinidad del agua, en la costa oeste los casos ocurren al
aproximarse el peso de cosecha (Raverty, 1999). Los componentes ms
111
113
114
115
mol/Ltr
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Proteina total*
Acido ascrbico
cido Urico
Triptfano
Tirosina
Salmn cultivado
Salmn salvaje
116
La visin fotpica es la visin que tiene lugar con buenas condiciones de iluminacin (a plena luz del da) .
Esta visin posibilita la correcta interpretacin del color por el ojo. La visin escotpica es aquella percepcin
visual que se produce con niveles muy bajos de iluminacin. La agudeza visual es baja y la recepcin de luz
es principalmente con los bastones de la retina. Es una visin monocromtica
117
extremas
(Figura
N72),
el
pez
puede
sufrir
fallas
118
por los leucocitos en la sangre, pero durante el desafo con dicho ectoparsito
la actividad lisosmica fue gradualmente reducida y la produccin de ROS
incrementada.
Segn Christopher Hamilton-West, durante su exposicin en la VII Conferencia Internacional del Sea Lice
(Noticia publicada el 01/04/2008 en www.aqua.cl).
119
121
puede
ser
controlado
mejorando
la
economa
1400
N promedio
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Perxido de
Hidrgeno
Dichlorvos
Cipermetrina(1) Cipermetrina(14)
Tratamientos
Huevos
Nauplios
Coppodos
122
70
60
% huevos
50
40
30
20
10
0
Perxido de Hidrgeno
Dichlorvos
Cipermetrina(1)
Tratamientos
Cipermetrina(14)
Cafe oscuro
Cafe claro
Blanco opaco
123
124
son:
17
21:18
h=1,79x1019;
16
22:05
h=4,34x1018;
22:40
15
126
Daphnia spp.
Deleatidium spp. x 10
5
4
Larvas de Chironomid
x 10
Lineal (Larvas de
Chironomid x 10)
Lineal (Deleatidium
spp. x 10)
0
0
10
20
40
80
160
320
Turbidez (NTU)
Figura N78: Efecto de los niveles de turbidez (NTU) sobre los rangos de
ingesta de presas vivas en la trucha arco iris juvenil (Rowe et al., 2003).
larvas/trucha
S in luz
128
desarrollo de los huesos (Cardinali et al., 2003). Aunque es bien sabido que
entre todos los factores o parmetros posibles que interactan en el cultivo de
salmnidos (i.e. temperatura, fotoperodo, etc.), el alimento es el que posee
una mayor influencia sobre el crecimiento (Davis & Olla, 1987; Storebakken
& Austreng, 1987a,b; Pankhurst & Montgomery, 1994; Ryer & Olla, 1996;
Glineau et al., 1998; Chen & Tabata, 2003; Evans & Browman, 2004;
Oppedal et al., 2006; Noble et al., 2007c,d; Noble et al., 2008; Stefansson et
al., 2009; Varas et al., 2007). Este proceso de repliegue de la malla
sombreadora, tampoco afectara los niveles de vitamina D en los salmnidos,
ya que sta se origina a partir de la accin de la luz Uv natural, estimulando
principalmente la absorcin de calcio y de fsforo en el intestino delgado,
influyendo positivamente en la mineralizacin de los huesos (Steffens, 1995).
No obstante, si la intensidad luminosa es elevada durante varias horas del da,
especialmente en Verano, se podra emplear ms tiempo (especialmente en las
horas con mayor intensidad luminosa durante la poca estival; 11:00-16:00
Hrs.), de manera de evitar los nocivos rayos Uv-B y/o cuando los niveles de
oxgeno estuvieran por debajo de los crticos 6 (mg/Ltr) (Ashley, 2006), a
travs del sistema ya mencionado o bajando la malla a la altura de las barreras
presentes en las balsas jaulas cuadradas, o de la parte superior de las balsas
jaulas circulares, aumentando la vida til de los elementos filtrantes de la
intensidad luminosa, en caso de que el viento aumente. De sta manera, los
peces se mantendran en zonas cercanas a la superficie (Fern et al., 1995), en
donde existe mayor oferta de O229 y menores niveles de NH4+ y talvz de
NH3, en particular en la poca estival cuando aumenta la estratificacin
termal, adems, los consumos de oxgeno podran disminuir, ya que S. salar
29
130
(densidad
baja
densidad
131
densidad, que afecta el bienestar de la trucha arco iris (Ellis et al., 2002). De
similar manera, North et al (2006), no encontraron que la densidad de 10, 40 o
80 (kg/Mtr.3) afectara el crecimiento y sobrevivencia de la trucha arco iris
cultivada en tanques, pero los peces mantenidos a 10 (kg/ Mtr.3) tuvieron
significativamente menor factor de condicin y una mayor dispersin de
tallas. Recientemente, Turnbull et al (2005), desarrollaron un estudio para
determinar el efecto de la densidad sobre el bienestar del salmn Atlntico,
criados en balsas jaulas en condiciones de cultivo intensivo en agua de mar, la
cual se ve afectada a densidades superiores a los 22 (kg/ Mtr.3), concluyendo
que otros factores combinados con la densidad afectan el bienestar de S. salar
y que stos factores, pueden variar de lugar en lugar y quizs con el tiempo. El
bienestar de los peces cultivados es un asunto importante para la industria, que
ha estado sujeto a un inters creciente, no solo por la percepcin pblica,
marketing y aceptacin del producto, sino adems, porque influye tambin en
trminos de calidad, cantidad y eficiencia de la produccin (Broom, 1998;
Southgate & Wall, 2001; FSBI, 2002; North et al., 2006).
133
134
135
136
33
En Chile el SRS genera perdidas de $120 millones anuales en fase marina (Alvial, 2009b) y de MUS$500
al ao en el mundo (Silva & Alvial, 2009).
140
En Chile el 25 de Julio del 2007, se produjo el primer brote oficial de la enfermedad en salmn Atlntico,
en un centro de cultivo ubicado en la isla Lemuy en Chilo central (Sernapesca, 2008).
35
Virus similar a la familia Orthomyxoviridae, pero probablemente sea una sub-familia o una nueva distinta
famila (Krossy et al., 1999; Cunningham & Snow, 2000; Ritchie et al., 2001).
36
Noticia publicada el 23/03/09 en www.aqua.cl.
37
Descrita inicialmente como Sndrome Hemorrgico del Rion (HKS).
38
Confirmada como ISAv en el ao 1997.
141
142
ISA
acelerando
la
recuperacin
de
la
industria41,
pero
144
en
investigacin
gentica,
sta
informacin
mejora
los
146
Trigo
12%
Otros
4%
Harina de
pescado
23%
Aceite de soya
5%
Gluten de maz y
trigo
13%
Harina de soya
12%
Aceite de pescado
16%
Otras harinas
15%
147
El Golfo
1,4%
Salmones Maulln
1,4%
Salmones Antrtica
Granja Marina
S.A.
Tornagaleones
1,4%
1,4%
Salmones Friosur
1,4%
Ca. Pesquera
Camanchaca S.A.
4%
Fiordo Blanco
5,4%
Salmones Pacific
Star Ltda..
5,4%
Empresas Aquachile
Cultivos Marinos
S.A.
Chilo S.A.
6,8%
8%
Mainstream Chile
S.A.
9,5%
Salmones
Multiexport S.A.
5,4%
% mortalidad acumulada
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85
Sa lm one s
A tl ntic os sin
ISA v a l inic o,
c oha bita ndo
c on pe c e s
ISA v +
D as po s t-infe ccin
15%
20%
2%
20%
25%
3%
Faltas al PSGL
15%
149
153
SGR
1.5
1
0.5
0
Pulso alto
Pulso bajo
Kg alimento/tanque
Pulso bajo
154
SGR
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Alimentado a saciedad
Sub-alimentado
156
157
En el salmn coho las raciones dietarias bajas (1% peso hmedo del
cuerpo/da) conducieron a un mayor decline del crecimiento en comparacin a
los nutridos con altas raciones (3% peso hmedo del cuerpo/da), en donde
stos ltimos tuvieron un mayor peso promedio, sin registrarse diferencias en
la frecuencia de persecuciones entre las raciones dietarias, aunque los peces
dominantes alimentados en un principio con dietas espacialmente localizadas
(no dispersadas, focalizadas), defendieron las posiciones cercanas en donde el
alimento ingresaba al tanque, obteniendo mayores accesos para alimentarse
que los subordinados, mientras que aquellos O. kisutch dominantes con
entrega de alimento dispersada, no lograron grandes accesos para alimentarse,
a pesar de que defendieron reas particulares. Estos resultados demuestran que
si bien la metodologa de alimentacin puede no directamente influenciar la
frecuencia de las interacciones agresivas, los mtodos de alimentacin
facilitan la monopolizacin de la dieta por los dominantes, acelerando su
158
2002a,b; Sloman & Armstrong, 2002; Sloman et al., 2002a,b,c, 2003b, 2004;
DiBattista et al., 2005a,b; Gilmour et al., 2005; Trenzado et al., 2006) e
incrementa la mortalidad (Strange et al., 1978; Pickering & Duston, 1983;
Laidley & Leatherland, 1988; Pickering & Pottinger, 1989; McCarthy et al.,
1992a; Pickering, 1993; Elliott, 1994; Kadri et al., 1996; Gregory & Wood,
1999; Gilmour et al., 2005). No obstante, el estrs prolongado o crnico de
mediana intensidad, puede inhibir la agresividad en la trucha arco iris
(Winberg & Nilsson, 1993; verli et al., 2002b). El comportamiento agresivo,
est envuelto en costos energticos (Movimientos de ataque y escape),
elevados rangos metablicos y prdida de oportunidades para alimentarse
tanto de los individuos dominantes como subdominantes (Li & Brocksen,
1977; Sloman et al., 2000c), por lo que el costo de la agresin (aumento
metablico) puede ser un importante componente del desplazamiento
energtico del salmn juvenil (Puckett & Dill, 1985; Nicieza & Metcalfe,
1999). La trucha arco iris perseguida dos veces al da hasta el agotamiento por
5 das, altero el almacenamiento y liberacin de catecolaminas (Reid et al.,
1994), las cuales preparan al cuerpo para la actividad fsica (lucha y huda),
siendo efectos tpicos el incremento en los latidos del corazn, presin
sangunea, niveles de glucosa en la sangre y una reaccin general del sistema
nervioso simptico. En una lucha territorial sostenida entre pares de salmones
Atlnticos, un pez puede repentina y usualmente oscurecer el color de la piel
de su cuerpo y la estructura externa del ojo para indicar sumisin a su
oponente, causando la inmediata reduccin del ataque y minimizando el riesgo
potencial de injuras, durante luchas innecesariamente prolongadas por parte
del vencedor, el cual mantiene su coloracin normal (O'Connor et al., 1999),
con Suter & Huntingford (2002), notando que la coloracin de la parte ms
externa del ojo, se torna ms oscura con el aumento de la agresin, cambiando
161
con
una
hormona
corticosteroide,
el
cortisol47,
aumentan
162
Trucha marrn
165
comportamiento
Valor del
0 .7
0 .5
0 .3
0 .1
-0 .1
-0 .3
-0 .5
-0 .7
Truc ha grande
C o n tro l
C o rtiso l
Truc ha c hic a
Figura N94: Valor del comportamiento* de los juveniles de truchas arco iris, tratadas
con cortisol y sin tratar, confinadas en grupos de pares de distinto tamao durante 5
das. * Los valores altos del comportamiento de la trucha arco iris reflejan una mejor
posicin en el tanque, iniciacin ms que recepcin de actos agresivos, acceso
preferencial al alimento y menor dao en las aletas, lo que fue identificado como los
peces dominantes (Gilmour et al., 2005).
0.7
SGR
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-0.3
-0.76
-1.05
-1.5
Dominante
Subordinado
Control
Cortisol
Figura N95: Rango especfico de crecimiento de las truchas arco iris, tratadas con
cortisol y sin tratar, confinadas en grupos de pares de distinto tamao durante 5 das
(DiBattista et al., 2005b).
166
0.4
0.25
0.2
0
SGR
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.58
-0.8
-1
-1.01
-1.2
-1.16
-1.4
Dominante
C o rtis o l
Subor dinado
C o rtiso l+R U 48 6
Figura N96: Rango especfico de crecimiento de las truchas arco iris, tratadas con
cortisol y con cortisol+RU486, confinadas en grupos de pares de igual tamao
durante 5 das (DiBattista et al., 2005b).
Factor de condicin final de las truchas arco iris tratadas
con cortisol y cortisol+RU486
1.1
1.09
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.05
CFf
1.04
Dominante
1.02
1
Subordinado
0.99
0.98
0.96
0.94
Cortisol
Cortisol+RU486
Figura N97: Factor de condicin final (CFf = 100x gr/cm3) de las truchas
arco iris, tratadas con cortisol y con cortisol+RU486, confinadas en grupos
de pares de igual tamao durante 5 das (DiBattista et al., 2005b).
167
1.5
SGR; CF
1
0.5
Dominante
cortisol+RU486(SGR)
Subordinado
cortisol+RU486(SGR)
Dominante cortisol (CF)
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
O. mykiss tratadas
Dominante
cortisol+RU486(CF)
Subordinado
cortisol+RU486(CF)
Cortisol(A) Cortisol+RU486(A)
Control(B)
Cortisol(B)
Dominante
Subordinado
de
monoaminas
(5-hidroxitriptamina
(5-HT)
5-
hidroxitriptamina; dopamina (DA)) y de sus mayores metabolitos (cido 5hidroxiindolactico (5-HIAA); cido 3,4-dihidroxifenilactico (DOPAC)) en
el telencfalo (excluyendo el bulbo olfatorio) y el hipotlamo (excluyendo la
glndula pituitaria), logrando un significativo incremento en la actividad
serotonrgica (proporcin [5-HIAA]/[5-HT]) en el telencfalo de las truchas
tratadas con cortisol (P=0,008) a diferencia de las no tratadas (control), un
169
sobre
el
comportamiento,
mediado
travs
del
sistema
DA. Tiersch & Griffith (1988) y Winberg & Nilsson (1993), sugieren que el
incremento de la actividad 5-HT o serotonrgica en el cerebro, es asociada con
la inhibicin de la agresin y el comportamiento del pez subordinado o
estresado, mientras el ascenso de la actividad DA registrada en los peces
cabeza, est ligada con el comportamiento agresivo y dominancia. As, el
aumento en la dieta por 7 das del amino cido precursor 5-HT, L-triptfano,
ha demostrado suprimir la agresividad en juveniles de trucha arco iris,
mediado por una elevacin de la actividad serotonrgica en el cerebro, sin
afectar los rangos de ingesta de alimento o los niveles de plasma cortisol
(Winberg et al., 2001). Lepage et al (2002), entregando por 7 das altos
niveles de L-triptfano en la dieta del juvenil estresado de dicha especie,
disminuyo las elevadas concentraciones de cortisol en el plasma (Figura
N103), sin afectar tampoco los rangos de ingesta de alimento. La
suplementacin del alimento con L-triptfano puede ser una promisoria
estrategia para la administracin salmonicultora, no solo haciendo a los peces
ms resistentes al estrs, sino tambin decreciendo el comportamiento
agresivo y la tendencia a formar fuertes dominancias jerrquicas, lo que
resulta en un mayor rango de dispersin de tallas y estrs, con la subsecuente
aminorada resistencia a las enfermedades (Winberg et al., 2001; Lepage et al.,
2002). Por otra parte, Johnston et al (1992), entregando dietas a O. mykiss con
un 5% de p-clorofenilalanina o con un 7% de triptfano, disminuyo o
incremento respectivamente la actividad serotonrgica en el cerebro, aunque
los rangos de ingesta de alimento decrecieron en stos peces nutridos con
dietas ricas en carbohidratos, lo que no ocurri con las dietas altas en
protenas. Winberg et al (1997), demostraron que el tratamiento con 8-OHDPAT, un receptor especfico antagonista de 5-HT1A, incremento el cortisol en
el plasma de O. mykiss. Dentro de un grupo de salmones Atlnticos parr 0+, la
171
172
Proporcin
2.5
2
5-HIAA/5-HT
1.5
DOPAC/DA
1
0.5
0
Control
Cortisol
Cortisol+RU486
Control
Cortisol
Cortisol+RU486
ng/mg-1 protena
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5-HT
5-HIAA
DA
DOPAC
173
Cortisol (ng/ml)
25
20
15
10
5
0
x1
x2
x4
x8
100
80
60
40
20
0
Salmn Atlntico
Trucha marrn
174
175
Estudios en trucha arco iris, han demostrado que las grandes en tamao
tienden a sobrevivir mejor que las pequeas (Ward & Slaney, 1988; Ward et
al., 1989), lo que tambin sucede en el salmn coho, chinook, chum, pink y
sockeye (Parker, 1971; Hagar & Noble, 1976; Kobayashi, 1980; Bilton et al.,
1982; Bilton, 1984; Hargreaves & Le Brasseur, 1986; Macdonald et al., 1987;
Martin & Wertheimer, 1989; Henderson & Cass, 1991; Molly, 2003), por lo
que la sobrevivencia se incrementa con el tamao corporal (Miller et al., 1988;
Zabel & Williams, 2002). Thompson et al (1996), examinaron la influencia de
niveles altos y bajos de AGPI ((n-3)/(n-6)=5,2 y (n-3)/(n-6)=0,3,
respectivamente) en la dieta del salmn Atlntico sobre su sistema inmune y
sin vacunar. El grupo rico en n-6 sucumbi al desafo con Aeromonas
salmonicida y Vibrio anguillarum antes que el grupo alimentado con una alta
cantidad de n-3, por lo que dietas con una baja proporcin de AGPI (n-3)/(n-6)
puede disminuir su resistencia a las infecciones, en comparacin a aquellos
nutridos con una dieta elevada en proporcin de AGPI (n-3)/(n-6). Ruyter et al
(2000a), alimentando al alevn de salmn Atlntico de 4(Grs.) con una dieta
deficiente en AGPI de la serie n-3 y n-6 por 4 meses, disminuyo su
crecimiento y aumento la mortalidad, con Ruyter et al (2000b), bajo similares
condiciones experimentales, demostrando lo contrario con la inclusin de
stos cidos grasos esenciales.
En relacin a la acumulacin de astaxantina, la cual es considerada la
prctica de administracin ms importante para el mercado del salmn
cultivado (Moe, 1990), la P.I. 44.321 retardara su deposito en la carne blanca,
ya que se ha demostrado que los peces de crecimiento lento o intermedio
presentan un rpido incremento en el contenido de carotenoides, a diferencia
de los peces con un rpido crecimiento (Ytrestoyl et al., 2006), debido a que la
masa muscular a pigmentar es mayor, aunque los peces de mayor tamao,
177
(573
865(mg
-tocoferol
acetato/Kg
dieta)),
obtuvieron
180
al., 2002; Quillet et al., 2007), salmn Atlntico (Hemre & Sandnes, 1999;
Torstensen et al., 2001; Grisdale-Helland et al., 2007) y en S. trutta
(Gabaudan et al., 1989; Arzel et al., 1994), y minimizando la actividad de
enzimas envueltas en la sntesis de lpidos en el salmn coho (Lin et al.,
1977), S. salar (Arnesen et al., 1993) y trucha arco iris (Alvarez et al., 1998),
lo cual puede ser benfico para la calidad del sabor y olor de los filetes de
salmn ahumado (Einen & Skrede, 1998), y para mejorar significativamente el
disfrute de la carne del salmn cocido (Sylvia et al., 1995), incrementando la
ceniza (P < 0.05) y aminorando la hmedad (P < 0.05) en la presentacin
ahumado en caliente en el filete de O. mykiss (Rasmussen et al., 2000), y por
el nfasis dado al color por el consumidor (Hatano et al., 1987; Torrissen &
Nvdal, 1988; Gormley, 1992; Rounds et al., 1992; Sigurgisladottir et al.,
1994; Christiansen et al., 1995a; Sylvia et al., 1996; Sigurgisladottir et al.,
1997; Skonberg et al., 1998; Bjerkeng, 2000; Buttle, 2001), pero no para la
textura del filete de S. salar (Young et al., 2005), aunque en la trucha arco iris
Weatherley et al (1979), encontraron que el dimetro promedio de las fibras
en el msculo blanco fue menor en aquellas alimentadas ad libitum que las
nutridas en raciones reducidas, lo que fue interpretado como un incremento en
la contribucin a la produccin de nuevas fibras para el crecimiento. En
concordancia, Hurling et al (1996), obtuvieron para la firmeza de la carne
cocida de 7 especies de peces marinos, una correlacin negativa con el
rea/dimetro seccional-cruzada promedio de las fibras musculares, por lo que
los peces con menores promedios de reas seccional-cruzada lograron la
mayor firmeza. Hatae et al (1990), tambin observaron una relacin entre el
tamao de las fibras musculares y la firmeza de la carne, sugiriendo que las
fibras de dimetro estrecho tienen un mayor esfuerzo o tensin intrnseco
debido a un efecto escalonado. La adicin de carotenoides a las dietas son
182
responsables del 15-20% del costo total del alimento, o del 6-8% del costo
total de produccin del salmn Atlntico (Torrissen, 1995), y usualmente la
retencin de los carotenoides de la dieta por los tejidos musculares, varan de
2-22% en las especies de salmnidos (Torrissen et al., 1989; Storebakken &
No, 1992), lo que puede ser explicado por una pobre toma desde el tracto
intestinal (las fecas pierden normalmente alrededor del 30-70% de la
astaxantina de la dieta), la que demora entre 18-30 horas (March et al., 1990;
Choubert et al., 1994) y por una baja retencin de la astaxantina absorbida
(Bjerkeng et al., 1997a; Bjerkeng, 2000), siendo la parte caudal del pez la que
contiene ms carotenoides (30-40%) que la espalda o el cuello (McCallum et
al., 1987; No & Storebakken, 1991; Refsgaard et al., 1998). No obstante,
como Einen & Roem (1997) han indicado, los efectos positivos de los
mayores niveles de lpidos en la dieta pueden desaparecer, cuando los niveles
de astaxantina en el salmn son cercanos a los 8 (mg/Kg del msculo)48, lo
que corresponde a la saturacin de los receptores musculares para los
carotenoides (actomiosina), y de la capacidad de absorcin y/o transporte de
estos pigmentos hacia los tejidos. Torrissen et al (1995), demostraron tambin
que el aumento de los niveles de astaxantina sobre los 60 (mg/Kg alimento
seco), no afecta significativamente los rangos de deposicin de dicho
pigmento en el filete del salmn Atlntico. La trucha arco iris nutrida con
diferentes raciones (RL50, RL75, RL100 y RL200), administradas como un
porcentaje del tamao de la racin necesaria para aspirar al mximo
crecimiento (RL100), fueron muestreadas a 1,4, otros a 2 y algunos finalmente
a 2,4 aos de edad. La cantidad de alimento entregado desde las raciones 75%
(RL75) hacia delante, no tuvieron efecto sobre la intensidad del olor fresco o
cualquier otra caracterstica sensorial del sabor o consistencia del pez,
48
183
Entre las especies de salmnidos (Trucha arco iris, salmn chinook y salmn Atlntico), la astaxantina es
menos eficientemente utilizada por el salmn Atlntico (March & MacMillan, 1996).
184
http://www.marineharvest.com/related-items/salmon-lifecycle.html
www.aquatron.dal.ca/page/Salmon.html
51
SalmonChile, 2006b.
185
US$/Kg FOB
8
6
4
7US/Kg
6US/Kg
2
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
20
09
20
11
20
13
20
15
20
17
20
19
20
21
20
23
Aos
Figura N107: Precio (US$/Kg FOB) promedio del filete de salmn
Atlntico 1995-1999; 2000-2008 y su proyeccin entre 2009-2023
(www.salmonchile.cl52).
52
La proyeccin de precios desde el ao 2009-2023 (duracin de consecin de P.I. 44.321 en Chile) no esta
basada en modelos economtricos, solo se contino con el precio promedio aproximado registrado entre el
perodo 2000-2008.
186
Ton netas
2000000
1600000
1200000
800000
400000
crecimiento
09-11= 6,5%
12-23 = 9,5%
crecimiento
95-08=9,3%
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
20
09
20
11
20
13
20
15
20
17
20
19
20
21
20
23
Aos
Produccin (Ton netas) sin P.I. 44.321
Produccin (Ton netas) con P.I. 44.321
Figura N108: Produccin (Ton. netas) durante 1995-2008 (tasa
anualizada de crecimiento (tac)=9,3%) y su proyeccin entre 20092011 con Crisis del salmn (tac= 6,5%) y entre 2012 - 2023 (tac=
9,5%; sin crisis del salmn) (www.salmonchile.cl; Medina, 2009).
Ventas (MUS$) de salmnidos entre 1994-2008 y su
proyeccin entre 2009-2023, con y sin P.I. 44.321.
12000
10000
MUS$
8000
84.801MUS$
74.189MUS$=
10.612MUS$
6000
4000
2000
19
94
19
96
19
98
20
00
20
02
20
04
20
06
20
08
20
10
20
12
20
14
20
16
20
18
20
20
20
22
Aos
187
Materiales
Fierros (Ancho
3
5
478.500
75x75x3 (mm);
Largo 3(Mtrs.)).
Malla
400 (Mtr2)
990 ($/ Mtr2) 1
15
5.940.000
sombreadora (95%
filtra la luz solar)
Cuerda
132 (Mts.)
450 $/ Mtr
3
5
297.000
Poleas
6 Unidades
$10.000
3
5
300.000
Total(en 2009)
7.015.500
Tabla N1: Costos aproximados por balsa jaula cuadrada de 20(Mtrs.) de largo, de los materiales
utilizados en el sistema vinculado a la P.I. 44.321 en el ao 2009.
Materiales
Fierros (Ancho
75x75x3 (mm);
Largo 3(Mtrs.)).
Malla
2.991.600
sombreadora (95% (Mtr2)
filtra la luz solar)
Cuerda
987.228
(Mts.)
Poleas
33.656
Unidades
Total(en 2009)
Tabla N2: Costos53 aproximados a
2.683.986.250
15
44.425.260.000
450 $/ Mtr
2.221.263.000
$10.000
1.682.775.000
51.013.284.250
nivel de industria de los materiales utilizados en el sistema
53
Para el clculo se consideraron solo balsas jaulas cuadradas de 20 (mtrs) de largo y 18 (Mtrs) de
profundidad, con una densidad de peces de 18(Kg/Mtrs3), con peso de cosecha 3,5 (Kg), junto con la
produccin promedio proyectada entre el perodo 2009-2023 con la P.I. 44.321.
188
94 (0,88%)
Rentabilidad
Costo
10.518
Marine Harve s t
Chile S .A.
98 9 (9%)
Otro s
e xpo rtado re s
4.3 65 (4 2%)
Ve ntis que ro s
S .A.
16 8 (2%)
Inv e rte c P e s q.
Mar de Chilo
Ltda.
Cultiv o s Yadra n
24 2 (2%)
S .A.
27 3 (3%)
Trus al S .A.
30 5 (3%)
Mains tre am
Chile S .A.
61 0 (6%)
C a . P e s que ra
Ca ma nc ha c a
S .A.
5 47 (5%)
S a lmo ne s
Multie xpo rt S .A.
5 26 (5 %)
Cultivo s
Marino s Chilo
S .A.
32 6 (3%)
P e s que ra Lo s
Fio rdo s Ltda .
5 15 (5%)
S almo ne s
Antrtic a S .A.
3 68 (4 %)
189
GWP es medido en emisin real (en un intervalo de tiempo especfico) de CO2, ms el equivalente CO2 en
el cual el valor resultante se compara en una escala o sentido relativo, para determinar en que grado
contribuye al calentamiento global por intermedio de los gases (o efecto) de invernadero. GWP es
dependiente de la absorcin por la radiacin infraroja dada por el tipo de gas, por la locacin espectral de sus
longitudes de ondas de luz absorbentes y por el tiempo de vida en la atmsfera de la especie de gas, en donde
ste ltimo factor no es precisamente sabido, y por lo tanto, su valor no es considerado exacto, es por ello que
los reguladores utilizan una referencia arbitraria para ste clculo, la que comnmente es de un horizonte de
190
tiempo de 100 aos (e.g., the California Air Resources Board) (En: www.wikipedia.com; www.aqua.cl;
www.skretting.com).
55
191
Salmn
Pollo
Vaca
56
La contaminacin visual, es un tipo de contaminacin que parte de todo aquello que afecte o perturbe la
192
21.- Despliegue del sistema protegido por la P.I. 44.321, durante los
procesos de traslado o cosecha, y su efecto como camuflador de
salmnidos:
Indice de actividad
20
15
10
5
0
P re - tra ns po rte
T ra n s po rt e
P o s t- tra ns po rte
(d a 1 )
P o s t - t ra n s po rt e
(d a 2 )
-5
Figura N113: Actividad de la trucha arco iris medida con radio
transmisores antes, durante y despus (da 1 y 2) del transporte, en un tanque
comercial de barco trasladado por camin 50 min. La actividad del pez
durante el traslado puede ser descrita como elevada o baja, en barra azul y
naranja respectivamente (Chandroo et al., 2005).
195
58
En el salmn Atlntico el nmero de fibras en el msculo blanco por mitomo, es alrededor de la eclosin
de 5.000, en la esmoltificacin de 180.000 y superior a 1.000.000 en los 4(Kg) (Johnston, 1999).
196
22.- Conclusin
197
23.- Agradecimientos
198
24.-Bibliografa
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25.-Anexo N1
Figura N115: Balsa jaula circular con P.I. 44.321 desplegada. Note la
diferencia de tamao entre las barras que sustentan el elemento filtrante o
inhibidor de la intensidad luminosa o radiacin solar (Semi-circulo rojo) y
las barras del cerco perimetral (Semi-circulo azul).
367
Figura N118: Balsas jaulas cuadradas con P.I. 44.321 replegada y desplegada.
368
369