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Calibration
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Calibrationinmeasurementtechnologyandmetrologyisthecomparisonof
measurementvaluesdeliveredbyadeviceundertestwiththoseofacalibrationstandard
ofknownaccuracy.Suchastandardcouldbeanothermeasurementdeviceofknown
accuracy,adevicegeneratingthequantitytobemeasuredsuchasavoltage,oraphysical
artefact,suchasametreruler.
Theoutcomeofthecomparisoncanresultinnosignificanterrorbeingnotedonthe
deviceundertest,asignificanterrorbeingnotedbutnoadjustmentmade,oran
adjustmentmadetocorrecttheerrortoanacceptablelevel.Strictly,thetermcalibration
meansjusttheactofcomparison,anddoesnotincludeanysubsequentadjustment.
ThecalibrationstandardisnormallytraceabletoanationalstandardheldbyaNational
MetrologicalInstitute.

Contents
1 BIPMDefinition
2 Moderncalibrationprocesses
2.1 Quality
3 Instrumentcalibrationprompts
4 Basiccalibrationprocess
4.1 Purposeandscope
4.2 Frequency
4.3 Standardsrequiredandaccuracy
4.4 Manualandautomaticcalibrations
4.4.1 Manual
4.4.2 Automaticcalibration
4.5 Processdescriptionanddocumentation
5 Historicaldevelopment
5.1 Origins
5.2 Calibrationofweightsanddistances(c.1100CE)
5.3 TheIndustrialRevolutionandthecalibrationofpressure
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Externallinks

BIPMDefinition
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TheformaldefinitionofcalibrationbytheInternationalBureauofWeightsandMeasures
(BIPM)isthefollowing:"Operationthat,underspecifiedconditions,inafirststep,
establishesarelationbetweenthequantityvalueswithmeasurementuncertainties
providedbymeasurementstandardsandcorrespondingindicationswithassociated
measurementuncertainties(ofthecalibratedinstrumentorsecondarystandard)and,ina
secondstep,usesthisinformationtoestablisharelationforobtainingameasurement
resultfromanindication."[1]
Thisdefinitionstatesthatthecalibrationprocessispurelyacomparison,butintroduces
theconceptofMeasurementuncertaintyinrelatingtheaccuraciesofthedeviceunder
testandthestandard.

Moderncalibrationprocesses
Theincreasingneedforknownaccuracyanduncertaintyandtheneedtohaveconsistent
andcomparablestandardsinternationallyhasledtotheestablishmentofNational
laboratories.InmanycountriesaNationalMetrologyInstitute(NMI)willexistwhich
willmaintainprimarystandardsofmeasurement(themainSIunitsplusanumberof
derivedunits)whichwillbeusedtoprovidetraceabilitytocustomer'sinstrumentsby
calibration.
TheNMIsupportsthemetrologicalinfrastructureinthatcountry(andoftenothers)by
establishinganunbrokenchain,fromthetoplevelofstandardstoaninstrumentusedfor
measurement.ExamplesofNationalMetrologyInstitutesareNPLintheUK,NISTin
theUnitedStates,PTBinGermanyandmanyothers.SincetheMutualRecognition
Agreementwassigneditisnowstraightforwardtotaketraceabilityfromany
participatingNMIanditisnolongernecessaryforacompanytoobtaintraceabilityfor
measurementsfromtheNMIofthecountryinwhichitissituated.,suchastheNational
PhysicalLaboratoryintheUK

Quality
Toimprovethequalityofthecalibrationandhavetheresultsacceptedbyoutside
organizationsitisdesirableforthecalibrationandsubsequentmeasurementstobe
"traceable"totheinternationallydefinedmeasurementunits.Establishingtraceabilityis
accomplishedbyaformalcomparisontoastandardwhichisdirectlyorindirectlyrelated
tonationalstandards(suchasNISTintheUSA),internationalstandards,orcertified
referencematerials.Thismaybedonebynationalstandardslaboratoriesoperatedbythe
governmentorbyprivatefirmsofferingmetrologyservices.

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Qualitymanagementsystemscallforaneffectivemetrologysystemwhichincludes
formal,periodic,anddocumentedcalibrationofallmeasuringinstruments.ISO9000[2]
andISO17025[3]standardsrequirethatthesetraceableactionsaretoahighlevelandset
outhowtheycanbequantified.
Tocommunicatethequalityofacalibrationthecalibrationvalueisoftenaccompaniedby
atraceableuncertaintystatementtoastatedconfidencelevel.Thisisevaluatedthrough
carefuluncertaintyanalysis.SometimesaDFS(DepartureFromSpec)isrequiredto
operatemachineryinadegradedstate.Wheneverthisdoeshappen,itmustbeinwriting
andauthorizedbyamanagerwiththetechnicalassistanceofacalibrationtechnician.
Measuringdevicesandinstrumentsarecategorizedaccordingtothephysicalquantities
theyaredesignedtomeasure.Thesevaryinternationally,e.g.,NIST1502Ginthe
U.S.[4]andNABL141inIndia.[5]Together,thesestandardscoverinstrumentsthat
measurevariousphysicalquantitiessuchaselectromagneticradiation(RFprobes),time
andfrequency(intervalometer),ionizingradiation(Geigercounter),light(lightmeter),
mechanicalquantities(limitswitch,pressuregauge,pressureswitch),and,
thermodynamicorthermalproperties(thermometer,temperaturecontroller).The
standardinstrumentforeachtestdevicevariesaccordingly,e.g.,adeadweighttesterfor
pressuregaugecalibrationandadryblocktemperaturetesterfortemperaturegauge
calibration.

Instrumentcalibrationprompts
Calibrationmayberequiredcalledforthefollowingreasons:
anewinstrument
afteraninstrumenthasbeenrepairedormodified
whenaspecifiedtimeperiodhaselapsed
whenaspecifiedusage(operatinghours)haselapsed
beforeand/orafteracriticalmeasurement
afteranevent,forexample
afteraninstrumenthasbeenexposedtoashock,vibration,orphysicaldamage,
whichmightpotentiallyhavecompromisedtheintegrityofitscalibration
suddenchangesinweather
wheneverobservationsappearquestionableorinstrumentindicationsdonotmatch
theoutputofsurrogateinstruments
asspecifiedbyarequirement,e.g.,customerspecification,instrumentmanufacturer
recommendation.
Ingeneraluse,calibrationisoftenregardedasincludingtheprocessofadjustingthe
outputorindicationonameasurementinstrumenttoagreewithvalueoftheapplied
standard,withinaspecifiedaccuracy.Forexample,athermometercouldbecalibratedso
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theerrorofindicationorthecorrectionisdetermined,andadjusted(e.g.viacalibration
constants)sothatitshowsthetruetemperatureinCelsiusatspecificpointsonthescale.
Thisistheperceptionoftheinstrument'senduser.However,veryfewinstrumentscanbe
adjustedtoexactlymatchthestandardstheyarecomparedto.Forthevastmajorityof
calibrations,thecalibrationprocessisactuallythecomparisonofanunknowntoaknown
andrecordingtheresults.

Basiccalibrationprocess
Purposeandscope
Thecalibrationprocessbeginswiththedesignofthemeasuringinstrumentthatneedsto
becalibrated.Thedesignhastobeableto"holdacalibration"throughitscalibration
interval.Inotherwords,thedesignhastobecapableofmeasurementsthatare"within
engineeringtolerance"whenusedwithinthestatedenvironmentalconditionsoversome
reasonableperiodoftime.[6]Havingadesignwiththesecharacteristicsincreasesthe
likelihoodoftheactualmeasuringinstrumentsperformingasexpected.Basically,the
purposeofcalibrationisformaintainingthequalityofmeasurementaswellastoensure
theproperworkingofparticularinstrument.

Frequency
Theexactmechanismforassigningtolerancevaluesvariesbycountryandindustrytype.
Themeasuringequipmentmanufacturergenerallyassignsthemeasurementtolerance,
suggestsacalibrationinterval(CI)andspecifiestheenvironmentalrangeofuseand
storage.Theusingorganizationgenerallyassignstheactualcalibrationinterval,whichis
dependentonthisspecificmeasuringequipment'slikelyusagelevel.Theassignmentof
calibrationintervalscanbeaformalprocessbasedontheresultsofpreviouscalibrations.
ThestandardsthemselvesarenotclearonrecommendedCIvalues:[7]
ISO17025[3]
"Acalibrationcertificate(orcalibrationlabel)shallnotcontainany
recommendationonthecalibrationintervalexceptwherethishasbeenagreed
withthecustomer.Thisrequirementmaybesupersededbylegalregulations.
ANSI/NCSLZ540[8]
"...shallbecalibratedorverifiedatperiodicintervalsestablishedand
maintainedtoassureacceptablereliability..."
ISO9001[2]
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"Wherenecessarytoensurevalidresults,measuringequipmentshall...be
calibratedorverifiedatspecifiedintervals,orpriortouse...
MILSTD45662A[9]
"...shallbecalibratedatperiodicintervalsestablishedandmaintainedtoassure
acceptableaccuracyandreliability...Intervalsshallbeshortenedormaybe
lengthened,bythecontractor,whentheresultsofpreviouscalibrationsindicate
thatsuchactionisappropriatetomaintainacceptablereliability."

Standardsrequiredandaccuracy
Thenextstepisdefiningthecalibrationprocess.Theselectionofastandardorstandards
isthemostvisiblepartofthecalibrationprocess.Ideally,thestandardhaslessthan1/4of
themeasurementuncertaintyofthedevicebeingcalibrated.Whenthisgoalismet,the
accumulatedmeasurementuncertaintyofallofthestandardsinvolvedisconsideredtobe
insignificantwhenthefinalmeasurementisalsomadewiththe4:1ratio.[10]Thisratio
wasprobablyfirstformalizedinHandbook52thataccompaniedMILSTD45662A,an
earlyUSDepartmentofDefensemetrologyprogramspecification.Itwas10:1fromits
inceptioninthe1950suntilthe1970s,whenadvancingtechnologymade10:1impossible
formostelectronicmeasurements.[11]
Maintaininga4:1accuracyratiowithmodernequipmentisdifficult.Thetestequipment
beingcalibratedcanbejustasaccurateastheworkingstandard.[10]Iftheaccuracyratio
islessthan4:1,thenthecalibrationtolerancecanbereducedtocompensate.When1:1is
reached,onlyanexactmatchbetweenthestandardandthedevicebeingcalibratedisa
completelycorrectcalibration.Anothercommonmethodfordealingwiththiscapability
mismatchistoreducetheaccuracyofthedevicebeingcalibrated.
Forexample,agagewith3%manufacturerstatedaccuracycanbechangedto4%sothat
a1%accuracystandardcanbeusedat4:1.Ifthegageisusedinanapplicationrequiring
16%accuracy,havingthegageaccuracyreducedto4%willnotaffecttheaccuracyofthe
finalmeasurements.Thisiscalledalimitedcalibration.Butifthefinalmeasurement
requires10%accuracy,thenthe3%gagenevercanbebetterthan3.3:1.Thenperhaps
adjustingthecalibrationtoleranceforthegagewouldbeabettersolution.Ifthe
calibrationisperformedat100units,the1%standardwouldactuallybeanywhere
between99and101units.Theacceptablevaluesofcalibrationswherethetestequipment
isatthe4:1ratiowouldbe96to104units,inclusive.Changingtheacceptablerangeto
97to103unitswouldremovethepotentialcontributionofallofthestandardsand
preservea3.3:1ratio.Continuing,afurtherchangetotheacceptablerangeto98to102
restoresmorethana4:1finalratio.
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Thisisasimplifiedexample.Themathematicsoftheexamplecanbechallenged.Itis
importantthatwhateverthinkingguidedthisprocessinanactualcalibrationberecorded
andaccessible.Informalitycontributestotolerancestacksandotherdifficulttodiagnose
postcalibrationproblems.
Alsointheexampleabove,ideallythecalibrationvalueof100unitswouldbethebest
pointinthegage'srangetoperformasinglepointcalibration.Itmaybethe
manufacturer'srecommendationoritmaybethewaysimilardevicesarealreadybeing
calibrated.Multiplepointcalibrationsarealsoused.Dependingonthedevice,azerounit
state,theabsenceofthephenomenonbeingmeasured,mayalsobeacalibrationpoint.Or
zeromayberesettablebytheuserthereareseveralvariationspossible.Again,thepoints
touseduringcalibrationshouldberecorded.
Theremaybespecificconnectiontechniquesbetweenthestandardandthedevicebeing
calibratedthatmayinfluencethecalibration.Forexample,inelectroniccalibrations
involvinganalogphenomena,theimpedanceofthecableconnectionscandirectly
influencetheresult.

Manualandautomaticcalibrations
Calibrationmethodsformoderndevicescanbebothmanualandautomatic,depending
onwhatkindofdeviceisbeingcalibrated.
Manual
ThefirstpictureshowsaU.S.NavyAirmanperformingamanualcalibrationprocedure
onapressuretestgauge.Theprocedureiscomplex,[12]butoverallitinvolvesthe
following:(i)depressurizingthesystem,andturningthescrew,ifnecessary,toensure
thattheneedlereadszero,(ii)fullypressurizingthesystemandensuringthattheneedle
readsmaximum,withinacceptabletolerances,(iii)replacingthegaugeiftheerrorinthe
calibrationprocessisbeyondtolerance,asthismayindicatesignsoffailuresuchas
corrosionormaterialfatigue.
Automaticcalibration
Thesecondpictureshowstheuseofa3666Cautomaticpressurecalibrator,[13]whichisa
devicethatconsistsofacontrolunithousingtheelectronicsthatdrivethesystem,a
pressureintensifierusedtocompressagassuchasNitrogen,apressuretransducerused
todetectdesiredlevelsinahydraulicaccumulator,andaccessoriessuchasliquidtraps
andgaugefittings.

Processdescriptionanddocumentation
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Alloftheinformationaboveiscollectedinacalibration
procedure,whichisaspecifictestmethod.These
procedurescaptureallofthestepsneededtoperforma
successfulcalibration.Themanufacturermayprovide
oneortheorganizationmayprepareonethatalso
capturesalloftheorganization'sotherrequirements.
Thereareclearinghousesforcalibrationproceduressuch
astheGovernmentIndustryDataExchangeProgram
(GIDEP)intheUnitedStates.
Thisexactprocessisrepeatedforeachofthestandards
useduntiltransferstandards,certifiedreferencematerials
and/ornaturalphysicalconstants,themeasurement
standardswiththeleastuncertaintyinthelaboratory,are
reached.Thisestablishesthetraceabilityofthe
calibration.
SeeMetrologyforotherfactorsthatareconsidered
duringcalibrationprocessdevelopment.
Afterallofthis,individualinstrumentsofthespecific
typediscussedabovecanfinallybecalibrated.The
processgenerallybeginswithabasicdamagecheck.
Someorganizationssuchasnuclearpowerplantscollect
"asfound"calibrationdatabeforeanyroutine
maintenanceisperformed.Afterroutinemaintenance
anddeficienciesdetectedduringcalibrationare
addressed,an"asleft"calibrationisperformed.

ManualcalibrationUS
servicemancalibratinga
temperaturegauge.The
deviceundertestisonhisleft
andtheteststandardonhis
right.

Morecommonly,acalibrationtechnicianisentrusted
AutomaticcalibrationA
withtheentireprocessandsignsthecalibration
U.S.servicemanusinga
certificate,whichdocumentsthecompletionofa
3666Cautopressure
successfulcalibration.Thebasicprocessoutlinedabove
calibrator
isadifficultandexpensivechallenge.Thecostfor
ordinaryequipmentsupportisgenerallyabout10%of
theoriginalpurchasepriceonayearlybasis,asacommonlyacceptedruleofthumb.
Exoticdevicessuchasscanningelectronmicroscopes,gaschromatographsystemsand
laserinterferometerdevicescanbeevenmorecostlytomaintain.
The'singlemeasurement'deviceusedinthebasiccalibrationprocessdescriptionabove
doesexist.But,dependingontheorganization,themajorityofthedevicesthatneed
calibrationcanhaveseveralrangesandmanyfunctionalitiesinasingleinstrument.A

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goodexampleisacommonmodernoscilloscope.Thereeasilycouldbe200,000
combinationsofsettingstocompletelycalibrateandlimitationsonhowmuchofanall
inclusivecalibrationcanbeautomated.
Topreventunauthorisedaccesstotoaninstrument
tamperproofsealsareusuallyappliedaftercalibration.
Thepictureoftheoscilloscoperackshowsthese,and
provethattheinstrumenthasnotbeenremovedsinceit
waslastcalibratedastheywillpossibleunauthorisedto
theadjustingelementsoftheinstrument.Therealsoare
labelsshowingthedateofthelastcalibrationandwhen
thecalibrationintervaldictateswhenthenextoneis
needed.Someorganizationsalsoassignunique
identificationtoeachinstrumenttostandardizethe
recordkeepingandkeeptrackofaccessoriesthatare
integraltoaspecificcalibrationcondition.

Aninstrumentrackwith
tamperindicatingseals

Whentheinstrumentsbeingcalibratedareintegratedwithcomputers,theintegrated
computerprogramsandanycalibrationcorrectionsarealsoundercontrol.

Historicaldevelopment
Origins
Thewords"calibrate"and"calibration"enteredtheEnglishlanguageasrecentlyasthe
AmericanCivilWar,[14]indescriptionsofartillery,thoughttobederivedfroma
measurementofthecalibreofagun.
Someoftheearliestknownsystemsofmeasurementandcalibrationseemtohavebeen
createdbetweentheancientcivilizationsofEgypt,MesopotamiaandtheIndusValley,
withexcavationsrevealingtheuseofangulargradationsforconstruction.[15]Theterm
"calibration"waslikelyfirstassociatedwiththeprecisedivisionoflineardistanceand
anglesusingadividingengineandthemeasurementofgravitationalmassusinga
weighingscale.Thesetwoformsofmeasurementaloneandtheirdirectderivatives
supportednearlyallcommerceandtechnologydevelopmentfromtheearliest
civilizationsuntilaboutAD1800.[16]

Calibrationofweightsanddistances(c.1100CE)
Earlymeasurementdevicesweredirect,i.e.theyhadthesameunitsasthequantitybeing
measured.Examplesincludelengthusingayardstickandmassusingaweighingscale.
Atthebeginningofthetwelfthcentury,duringthereignofHenryI(11001135),itwas
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decreedthatayardbe"thedistancefromthetipoftheKing's
nosetotheendofhisoutstretchedthumb."[17]However,it
wasn'tuntilthereignofRichardI(1197)thatwefind
documentedevidence.[18]
AssizeofMeasures
"Throughouttherealmthereshallbethesameyardofthe
samesizeanditshouldbeofiron."
Otherstandardizationattemptsfollowed,suchastheMagna
Carta(1225)forliquidmeasures,untiltheMtredesArchives
fromFranceandtheestablishmentoftheMetricsystem.

TheIndustrialRevolutionandthecalibrationof
pressure

Anexampleofa
weighingscalewitha
ouncecalibration
erroratzero.Thisisa
"zeroingerror"which
isinherentlyindicated,
andcannormallybe
adjustedbytheuser,
butmaybeduetothe
stringandrubberband
inthiscase

Oneoftheearliestpressuremeasurementdeviceswasthe
Mercurybarometer,creditedtoTorricelli(1643),[19]which
readatmosphericpressureusingMercury.Soonafter,
hydrostaticmanometersweredesigned,withalinear
calibrationformeasuringlowerpressuresranges.The
IndustrialRevolution(c.1760CEc.1840CE)saw
widespreaduseofindirectmeasuringdevices,inwhichthe
quantitybeingmeasuredwasderivedfunctionallybasedon
directmeasurementsofdependentquantities.[20]Duringthistime,
scientistsdiscoveredtheenergystoredincompressedsteamandother
gases,leadingtothedevelopmentofgaugesmorepracticalthan
hydrostaticmanometersatmeasuringhigherpressures.[21]Onesuch
inventionwasEugeneBourdon'sindirectdesignBourdontube.
Inthedirectreadinghydrostaticmanometerdesignontheleft,an
unknownappliedpressurePapushestheliquiddowntherightsideof

themanometerUtube,whilealengthscalenexttothetubemeasures
thepressure,referencedtotheother,openendofthemanometeronthe
leftsideoftheUtube(P0).Theresultingheightdifference"H"isa
directmeasurementofthepressureorvacuumwithrespectto
atmosphericpressure.Theabsenceofpressureorvacuumwouldmake
H=0.Theselfappliedcalibrationwouldonlyrequirethelengthscaleto
besettozeroatthatsamepoint.

Direct
reading
designofa
Utube
manometer

Thisdirectmeasurementofpressureasaheightdifferencedependsonboththedensityof
themanometerfluid,andacalibratedmeansofmeasuringtheheightdifference.
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InaBourdontube(showninthetwoviewsontheright),
appliedpressureenteringfromthebottomonthesilver
barbedpipetriestostraightenacurvedtube(orvacuum
triestocurlthetubetoagreaterextent),movingthefree
endofthetubethatismechanicallyconnectedtothe
pointer.Thisisindirectmeasurementthatdependson
calibrationtoreadpressureorvacuumcorrectly.Noself
calibrationispossible,butgenerallythezeropressurestate
iscorrectablebytheuser,asshownbelow.

Seealso
Calibrationcurve
Calibratedgeometry
Calibration(statistics)
Colorcalibration
usedtocalibratea
computermonitoror
display.
Deadweighttester
EURAMET
Associationof
EuropeanNMIs
Measurement

Measurement
Microphone
Calibration
Measurement
uncertainty
Musicaltuning
tuning,inmusic,
meanscalibrating
musicalinstruments
intoplayingtheright
pitch.
Precision

Indirectreadingdesign
showingaBourdontube
fromthefront(left)andthe
rear(right).

Precision
measurement
equipmentlaboratory
Scaletestcara
deviceusedto
calibrateweighing
scalesthatweigh
railroadcars.
Systemsof
measurement

References
Crouch,Stanley&Skoog,DouglasA.(2007).PrinciplesofInstrumentalAnalysis.
PacificGrove:BrooksCole.ISBN0495012017.
1.JCGM200:2008Internationalvocabularyofmetrology(http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/d
ocuments/jcgm/JCGM_200_2008.pdf)Basicandgeneralconceptsandassociatedterms
(VIM)
2.ISO9001:"QualitymanagementsystemsRequirements"(2008),section7.6.
3.ISO17025:"Generalrequirementsforthecompetenceoftestingandcalibrationlaboratories"
(2005),section5.
4.Faison,C.DouglasBrickenkamp,CarrollS.(March2004)."CalibrationLaboratories:
TechnicalGuideforMechanicalMeasurements"(PDF).NISTHandbook1502G.NIST.
Retrieved14June2015.
5."Metrology,Pressure,Thermal&EletrotechnicalMeasurementandCalibration".Fluid
ControlResearchInstitute(FCRI),MinistryofHeavyIndustries&PublicEnterprises,Govt.
ofIndia.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14June2015.Retrieved14June2015.
6.Haider,SyedImtiazAsif,SyedErfan(16February2011).QualityControlTrainingManual:
ComprehensiveTrainingGuideforAPI,FinishedPharmaceuticalandBiotechnologies
Laboratories.CRCPress.p.49.ISBN9781439849941.
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7.Bare,Allen(2006).SimplifiedCalibrationIntervalAnalysis(PDF).Aiken,SC:NCSL
InternationalWorkshopandSymposium,undercontractwiththeOfficeofScientificand
TechnicalInformation,U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.pp.12.Retrieved28November2014.
8."ANSI/NCSLZ540.32006(R2013)".TheNationalConferenceofStandardsLaboratories
(NCSL)International.Retrieved28November2014.
9."CalibrationSystemsRequirements(MilitaryStandard)"(PDF).Washington,DC:U.S.
DepartmentofDefense.1August1998.Retrieved28November2014.
10.Ligowski,M.Jaboski,RyszardTabe,M.(2011),Jaboski,RyszardBezina,Toma,eds.,
ProcedureforCalibratingKelvinProbeForceMicroscope,Mechatronics:Recent
TechnologicalandScientificAdvances,p.227,doi:10.1007/9783642232442,ISBN978
3642232442,LCCN2011935381
11.MilitaryHandbook:EvaluationofContractor'sCalibrationSystem(PDF).U.S.Departmentof
Defense.17August1984.p.7.Retrieved28November2014.
12.Procedureforcalibratingpressuregauges(USBR1040)(PDF).U.S.Departmentofthe
Interior,BureauofReclamation.pp.7073.Retrieved28November2014.
13."KNCModel3666AutomaticPressureCalibrationSystem"(PDF).KingNutronics
Corporation.Retrieved28November2014.
14.http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/calibrate
15.Baber,Zaheer(1996).TheScienceofEmpire:ScientificKnowledge,Civilization,and
ColonialRuleinIndia.SUNYPress.pp.2324.ISBN9780791429198.
16.Franceschini,FiorenzoGaletto,MaurizioMaisano,DomenicoMastrogiacomo,Luca
Pralio,Barbara(6June2011).DistributedLargeScaleDimensionalMetrology:New
Insights.SpringerScience&BusinessMedia.pp.117118.ISBN9780857295439.
17.Ackroyd,Peter(16October2012).Foundation:TheHistoryofEnglandfromItsEarliest
BeginningstotheTudors.St.Martin'sPress.pp.133134.ISBN9781250013675.
18.Bland,AlfredEdwardTawney,RichardHenry(1919).EnglishEconomicHistory:Select
Documents.MacmillanCompany.pp.154155.
19.Tilford,CharlesR(1992)."Pressureandvacuummeasurements"(PDF).Physicalmethodsof
chemistry:106173.Retrieved28November2014.
20.Fridman,A.E.Sabak,AndrewMakinen,Paul(23November2011).TheQualityof
Measurements:AMetrologicalReference.SpringerScience&BusinessMedia.pp.1011.
ISBN9781461414780.
21.Cusc,Laurence(1998).GuidetotheMeasurementofPressureandVacuum.London:The
InstituteofMeasurementandControl.p.5.ISBN090445729X.

IS:ISO:ISI:17025:2005

Externallinks
MasterCalibratorsAssociationIndustryExpertsonElectricalCalibration,
AdjustmentandMetrology(http://www.mastercalibrators.asn.au)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Calibration&oldid=741398790"
Categories: Accuracyandprecision Standards Measurement Metrology
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