NERVOUS SYSTEM LECTURE- PART I

I. General Introduction
The nervous system is the bodys control center and communications network
II. Functions of the Nervous System
The human nervous system serves 3 broad functions:
A. Sensory
The nervous system senses changes within the body and in the outside environment.
B. Integrative
The nervous system interprets the changes and determines the appropriate response based on past
experiences, reflexes, and current conditions.
C. Motor
The nervous system responds to the interpretation by initiating action in the form of muscular
contractions or glandular secretions.
III. Organization of the Nervous System
The nervous system can be divided into 2 principle divisions: The CNS and PNS
A. Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord)
This is the control center for the entire nervous system.
It consists of the brain and spinal cord.
All body sensations must be relayed from receptors to the CNS if they are to be interpreted and acted
on.
All of the nerve impulses that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete must also originate
in the CNS.
Thus, we say the CNS integrates and coordinates sensory data and motor commands.
The CNS is also the part of the nervous system that is involved in higher functions such as
intelligence, memory, and emotion.
B. Peripheral Nervous System (Cranial Nerves, Spinal Nerves, and Ganglia)
The PNS is made up of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia. They connect the brain and spinal
cord with receptors, muscles, and glands.
Cranial nerves carry signals to and from the brain
Spinal nerves carry signals to and from the spinal cord
Ganglia are areas in the PNS where the cell bodies of neurons are clustered.
There are two major parts of the PNS
1. Sensory (Afferent) Division

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(af = to; ferre = to carry)

The afferent division brings sensory information picked up by sensory receptors throughout the
body and carried by nerve fibers of the PNS and sends the information to the CNS.
a. Somatic Sensory Receptors
(somato = body)
These are receptors that monitor the outside world and our position in it (e.g. skin, skeletal,
muscle, and bones-these are structures external to the ventral body cavity)
These include the senses of touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temperature, and
proprioception in the skin, body wall, and limbs.
Proprioception detects the amount of stretch in muscles, tendons, and joint capsules. They
inform you of the position and movement of your body space.
Somatic sensory receptors also include receptors for hearing, equilibrium, vision, and smell.
b. Visceral Sensory Receptors
(visceral = organ)
These are receptors that monitor internal conditions and that status of the organ systems
(heart, lungs, digestive tract, etc)
These include receptors for stretch, pain, temperature, chemical changes, and irritation in
the viscera; it also includes nausea and hunger.
Taste is a special visceral sense
2. Motor (Efferent) Division
(ef = from; ferre = to carry)
The efferent division carries motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
The efferent division is further divided into two: somatic motor system and autonomic nervous
system.
a. Somatic Nervous System
The somatic motor system consists of nerve cells (motor neurons) that convey information from
the CNS to the skeletal muscles.
1. Effectors: Skeletal Muscles
2. Control: It is under conscious or voluntary control.
b. Autonomic Nervous System
(auto = self; nomic = law)
1. Effectors: The visceral motor system or autonomic motor system has motor neurons that
convey impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle tissue (e.g. the smooth muscle
around arteries), cardiac muscle tissue, and glands.

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2. Control Thus, the autonomic NS is involuntary

[Laura: The sensory neurons are in cranial nerves VII, IX, and X and monitor the levels of
CO2, O2, sugar, arterial pressure, chemical content of stomach and gut. These synapse with
sensory neurons in the medulla oblongata which integrates all visceral info.]
3. Two major divisions
a. Sympathetic Division
(sympatheo = to feel with)
This division enables the body to respond to stressful situations. You notice its
effects during exercise, excitement, or emergencies.
Visualize changes that occur during "E" situations: exercise, emergency,
excitement, and embarassment.
In general, this system stimulates tissue metabolism, increases alertness, and
prepares the individual for sudden, intense physical activity ("fight or flight"
response).
When this entire division responds, the effects are felt as increased alertness, a
feeling of energy and euphoria, increased cardiovascular and respiratory activity,
and increase in muscle tone.
1. Effects on Major Organs
a. Increases heart rate and strength of contraction
b. Increases blood pressure
c. Dilates the bronchioles
d. Stimulates sweat glands
e. Increases blood glucose level
f. Decreases digestive activity
g. Reduces circulation to the skin and body wall
h. Accelerates blood flow to skeletal muscles
i. Restores stored lipids from adipose tissue
j. Dilates the pupils
k. Stimulates adrenal medulla to release adrenaline (epinephrine) into
bloodstream which increases sympathetic activity of the sympathetic nervous
system.
b. Parasympathetic Division
(para = beside, near; beyond)
This division influences organs to conserve and restore energy and does
"housekeeping" activities such as defecating and urinating.
(Think SLUDD and 3 decreases: salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion,
defecation, and decreased heart rate, decreased diameter of airways, and decreased
diameter of pupils.)
1. Effects on Major Organs
In general, this system inhibits. It centers on relaxation, food processing,
and energy absorption.
In general, the effects of parasympathetic stimulation is the "rest and
digest" response.

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a. salivation
b. lacrimation
c. urination (stimulates contraction of urinary bladder)
d. digestion (increases digestive activity)
e. defection
f. decreases heart rate
g. decreased diameter of airways (bronchioles)
h. decreases diameter (constricts) the pupils
Now let's look at the tissue that makes up the nervous system and then we will examine the CNS and
PNS in more detail.
IV. Nervous Tissue
There are basically two types of cells in nervous tissue: neuroglia and neurons
A. Neurons (Nerve Cells)
These are highly specialized cells that are the basic structural units of the nervous system.
1. Function
Neurons conduct electrical impulses (electrical currents) from one part of the body to another in
order to communicate with another neuron or another cell such as a muscle or gland.
2. Special Characteristics
a. Extreme Longevity
Neurons can live and function for a lifetime, over 100 years.
b. Do Not Divide
There are some exceptions as neural stem cells have been identified in certain areas of the CNS.
c. High Metabolic Rate
Neurons cannot survive for more than a few minutes without oxygen.
3. Structure
Most neurons have 3 parts, as we discussed in the Muscular System with neuromuscular
junctions:
a. Cell Body (Soma)
This part of the neuron has a large, single round nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm. and a
nucleolous and other typical organelles like lysosomes, mitochondria, and Golgi.
The cell body acts receives signals from other neurons.
b. Dendrites
(dendro = little tree)
These are highly branched extensions of the cytoplasm of the cell body.
They receive incoming signals and pass the signal toward the cell body to the axon
c. Axon

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(axon = axis; axle)

This is another extension of the cytoplasm that conducts impulses away from the cell body
to another neuron or tissue.
1. Synaptic Terminals (Synaptic Bulbs)
These are the ends of axons that end in bulblike structures called synaptic terminals or
synaptic bulbs.
2. Myelin Sheaths
Some neurons have myelin sheaths. Myelin sheaths are lipid coverings produced by
neuroglial cells.
3. Nodes of Ranier (Neurofibril Nodes)
The cells along a myelinated axon do not touch one another. They leave gaps called
nodes of Ranvier.
The nerve impulses in these myelinated axons jump from membrane of one node of
Ranvier to the next so that the speed of the impulse is greatly increased.
4. Axon Hillock
This is a cone-shaped region where the axon arises.
B. Neuroglia (Glia or Supporting Cells)
(neuro = nerve; glia = glue)
These are cells of the CNS or PNS that support and protect the neurons though each also has a
unique specific function.
They also cover all nonsynaptic parts of the neuron which insulates the neurons and keeps the
electrical activities of adjacent neurons from interfering with each other.
Like neurons most glial cells have branching process and a central cell body but they are small in
size. There are 10X more neuroglia than neurons.
Also they can divide throughout life.
1. Neuroglia in the CNS
a. Astrocytes
(astro = star; cytes = cell)
Structure:
These are star-shaped cells with radiating processes have bulbous ends that cling to neurons
and capillaries.
They are the most abundant glial cells in the CNS (over 90% of nervous tissue in brain is
made of astrocytes.
Functions:
1. Help form the blood-brain barrier.

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The blood-brain barrier is a system that strictly controls which substances pass from
the bloodstream into the nervous tissue in the brain so that the brain is not exposed to
toxins, but yet gets the nutrients the cells need to survive. We will talk about it in more
detail later.
2. Regulate tissue fluid composition
They take up and release ions to control the ion levels around neurons.
3. Strengthen and organize nervous tissue in the CNS.
4. Replace the space taken up by neurons that die.
5. Secrete chemicals that regulate the connections between neurons when the brain is
developing in a fetus..
b. Ependymal Cells
Structure:
These are simple cuboidal epithelial cells with cilia that the line the ventricles of the brain
and the central canal of the spinal cord.
Function:
The cells help make cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a fluid that bathes the cells of the CNS.
The cilia help circulate the cerebrospinal fluid.
c. Microglial Cells
These are the smallest neuroglial cells and are rare.
Structure:
They have elongated cell bodies and cell processes with many pointed projections.
Function:
They function as phagocytes and eat invading microorganisms and injured or dead neurons.
d. Oligodendrocytes
(oligo = few; dendro = branch)
Structure:
These are rounded cells with many projections that wrap around the CNS axons.
These cells have fewer branches than astrocytes.
Function:
They line up in small groups and wrap their cell processes around the thicker axons of the
CNS to produce insulating coverings called myelin sheaths. I'll talk about myelin sheaths
later today.
2. Neuroglia in the PNS
a. Satellite Cells
Structure:
These are flattened cells that surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia.

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Function:
They regulate nutrients for the cell bodies in the ganglia.
b. Schwann Cells (Neurolemmocytes)
Structure:
These are flattened cells that wrap around a portion of an axon in the PNS.
Function:
Form myelin sheaths around PNS axons which increases speed of nerve impulse conduction
V. Classification of Neurons
Neurons can be classified by structure or function.
A. Structural Classification of Neurons
Neurons can be classified by the number of processes that extend from the cell body.
1. Multipolar Neurons (99% of neurons)
(multi = many; polar = ends, poles)
These neurons have many dendrites and one axon.
Ex: motor neurons that innervate muscles and glands.
2. Bipolar Neurons
These neurons have 2 process that extend from opposite sides of the cell body. (one axon and
one dendrite)
These are very rare.
They occur in some of the special sensory organs (ear, nose, retina of eye) where serve as
sensory neurons.
3. Unipolar Neurons (Pseudounipolar Neurons)
These neurons have a short, single process (an axon) that emerges from the cell body and
divides like an inverted T into two long branches.
Most start as a bipolar neuron and then the two processes fuse together near the cell body during
development. Thus they are sometimes called pseudounipolar neurons.
These make up typical sensory neurons.
B. Functional Classification of Neurons
Neurons can also be classified according to the direction the nerve impulse travels relative to the
CNS.
1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent neurons)
These transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS.
These neurons are specialized to detect changes in the environment (stimuli) in the form of
touch, pressre, healt light, or chemicals.

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Most are unipolar and their cell bodies are in ganglia outside the CNS called the posterior root
ganglia..
2. Motor Neurons (Efferent neurons)
These neurons carry impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands. They stimulate muscles to
contract or glands to secrete.
They are multipolar and their cell bodies are located in the spinal cord and their axons primarily
travel in cranial or spinal nerves to muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons (Association neurons)
These neurons lie between motor and sensory neurons.
They are found entirely in the CNS.
They facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons.
99% of our neurons are interneurons.
Almost all are multipolar but vary in size and in branching patterns.
VI. Myelin Sheaths
A. In the PNS
1. Only in Thick, Rapidly-Conducting Axons
2. Formed by Schwann Cells (Neurolemmocytes)
Formed during the fetal period and during 1st year of postnatal life.
The cells wrap themselves around the axon repeatedly to form concentric layers.
3. Neurilemma
When the cells wrap, the cytoplasm of the cell is gradually squeezed outward from between the
plasma membrane layers. The nucleus and most of the cytoplasm end up in a thin outer
membrane called the neurilemma.
4. Nodes of Ranier
The cells along a myelinated axon do not touch one another. They leave gaps called nodes of
Ranvier. Ithe nerve impulses in these myelinated axons jump from membrane of one node of
Ranvier to the next so that the speed of the impulse is greatly increased.
B. In the CNS
1. Only Thick Axons
2. Formed by Oligodendrocytes
These cells have multiple processes that coil around several different axons.
3. Nodes of Ranvier

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These are present although they are more widely spaced than those in the PNS.
VII. Synaptic Communication
A synapse is a site of communication between a nerve cell and some other cell, where nerve impulses
are transmitted from one cell to another,.
A nerve impulse is just an electrical signal that travels along a neuron caused when ions enter the neuron
and change the voltage across the membrane.
There are 2 types of synapses: electrical or chemical
A. Electrical Synapses
An electrical synapse is a synapse in which an impulse is transmitted between two neurons when
ions cross between proteins channels that connect the 2 cells, allowing the impulse to be transmitted
between neurons very fast.
These protein channels are called gap junctions.
[Proteins called connexons]
These occur mostly between smooth muscle cells and cardiac muscle cells, where quick and even
innervation is necessary.
B. Chemical Synapse
A chemical synapse is a synapse in which the nerve impulse is passed from one neuron to another
through chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Recall we have already studied chemical synapses when we examined the neuromuscular junction.
These types of synapses are more common than electrical synapses
Here are the parts of a chemical synapse
1. Synaptic Terminals (Synaptic Bulbs)
These are the ends of axons that end in bulblike structures called synaptic terminals or synaptic
bulbs.
2. Synaptic Cleft
This is a narrow space between 2 neurons.
3. Presynaptic Neuron
This is the neuron that is located before a synaptic cleft and transmits signals toward a synapse.
4. Postsynaptic Neuron
This is a neuron located after a synaptic cleft and transmits signals away from the synapse.
5. Synaptic Vesicles
These are membrane-bound sacs that store neurotransmitters.
6. Neurotransmitters

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These are chemical compounds released by one neuron which affect the membrane potential of
another neuron (either cause an action potential or inhibit it.)
Recall the events that happen at the synapse as we discussed with neuromuscular junctions.
1. A nerve impulse (action potential) arrives at a synaptic end bulb of a presynaptic neuron.
2 This causes Ca+2 ions to enter the end bulb from the extracellular fluid.
3 This attracts synaptic vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane.
4. The neurontransmitters which are stored in the vesicles are released into the synaptic cleft by
exocytosis. An example of a neurotransmitter is acetylcholine (ACh)
5. The neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on the postsynaptic neuron. The receptor may be a Na+
voltage gated channel (receptor). If so the binding of the neurotransmitter to the channel opens
the channel so that Na+ ions rapidly diffuse into the cell and start an action potential. Or the
receptor may inhibit an action potential instead of exciting one.
6. Ca+2 ions are actively transported out of the presynaptic neuron which stops the release of Ach.
7. Enzymes called acetylcholinesterase (AChE) break down the ACh)

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