DIREC'A~D FRAL"EUKE OF ROCKS BY BLASTING

A. L. Isakov

The problem of directed fracture of rocks by blasting is not new. One of the first
references about the possibility of controlling fractures by exploding blasthole charges of
explosive was dated 1905 [i]. It was suggested that longitudinal notches be made in the
blasthole wall thus directing fracturing during blasting in a prescribed way. However, up to
the present time questions connected with obtaining determined breaking up of the rock mass
by exploding a single borehole (blasthole) charge of explosive has not been properly developed.
There are two basic reasons for this: technical complexities occurring in the realization of
known methods for directed fracture of rocks by blasting, and the lack of serious theoretical
and experimental .work. This article provides classification of methods for directed fracture
and more detailed consideration of one of these methods exhibiting a number of advantages
compared with existing procedures.
CLASSIFICATION
The proposed classification includes currently known major possibilities for prescribing
advantageous dlrections of rock fracture with explosion of a single borehole or blasthole
explosive charge [1-7]. It is not necessary to explain that locallzation for fracture of
brlttle materlals, whlchin the overwhelming majority are hard rocks, is caused by stress concentratlon. This classification is carried out with the aim of placing existing methods in
order for creating stress concentrations on purpose at the boundary of the blasting cavity
which prescribe directions for anticipated fracture of the surrounding material.
Conditionally all of these methods can be broken down into three baslcclasses (see
Table I, where all of the pictures are given for the case of two directed cracks, although
the classified methods allow an arbitrarynumber of them).
T~ ~st
o~s
includes methods connected with prior (before blastlng) weakening of the
peripheral zone of the borehole by creating stress concentrators in it. One of the most
effective variants for creating concentrators is application of a trlangular-shaped notch
in the borehole wall over its whole length (Table 1, la), With sufficient depth and a high
degree of tip sharpening these notches make it possible with considerable accuracy to prescribe the dlrectlonof rock fracture [2]. One disadvantage of this method is the absence of
currently suitable technical means making it possible to obtain these notches under production
conditions.

Other p o s s i b i l i t i e s
f o r p r i o r weakening o f t h e c o n t o u r zone o f t h e b o r e h o l e a r e g i v e n
in [3, 4] (see Table i, Ib, ic).
Both of these variations surpass the first both in quality of the directed fracture
obtained and in the complicated way of forming stress concentrators (drilling addltlonal
holes close to the main borehole end shape changes for the borehole itself).
T ~ secor~ e~usscombines methods with which stress concentrators in the peripheral zone
of the borehole are formed slmultaneously with explosion of a basic explosive charge [5, 6].
The process for obtaining directed fracture is broken down into two stages: in the phase of
blast wave operation before the average pressure is established in the cavity local fracture
of the borenole wall is created; in the phase of blast piston operation there is development
of radial cracks along directions governed by the location of local fracture (stress concentrators).
Hera the following variants for obtaining stress concentrators are possible: by means of
cumulative operation of detonation products or shock wave concentration using explosive
charges of special construction (see Table i, 2a); by the action of detonation waves at the
borehole wall where they are in contact with the explosive charge (see Table 1, 2b); by

I n s t i t u t e o f Mining, S i b e r i a n Branch, Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR, N o v o s i b i r s k .

T r a n s l a t e d from F i z i k o - T e k h n i c h e s k i e P r o b l e ~ y R a z r a b o t k i Poleznykh Iskopaemykh, No. 6, pp.
41-52, November-December, i98~. O r i g i n a l a r t i c l e s u b m i t t e d May 6, 19S3.
0038-55~1/B3/i906- 0479507.50

9 1984 Plenum P u b l i s h i n g C o r p o r a t i o n

479

TABLE 1
With mechanical weake-lnE of the co,your zone
for lhe bl~uhole or bocehole

pt~!!m!~ry

./mulra~ously with
blas~la~

Wlthout mechaa/cal

w e a k e n / . 8 of r3~e contour
zo,~- of the b l u t h o l e or

borehole

2b

transmitting an explosive load to the borehole wall through intermediate elements with high
acoustic stiffness (see Table 1, 2c).
The most advanced method of this class is that of using extended explosive charges with
cumulative excavation. 8owever, the increased sensitlvlt"y of this method to the accuracy of
placing charges in the borehole and to selection of its parameters in each specific case has
not yet made it possible to recommend it for widespread industrial use.
Shsrd ~l~ss embraces methods not requlrlng either prior or simultaneously with the
explosion weakening of the borehole peripheral zone. Local concentration of stresses leadlng
to development of radial cracks in intended areas is achieved here due to the use of special
devices and attachments, and it is realized in the stage of piston operation for the explosion. The principal operation of these devices and attachments involves creation of disrupting forces in areas of pl--ned fracture due to nonuniform distribution of stresses over
the borehole wall.
One of the simplest attachments of this type is a rigid tube with longltudlnal cuts
inserted into the borenole (Table i, 3a) [7]. In applying a uniformly distributed load to
the internal walls of the tube at the borehole wall around the notches tensile stress concentrations arise which lead to the development of radial cracks in intended areas earlier
than they devel,op in another place. However, in nature there is always a certain gap between
the borehole walls and the surface of a tube inserted in it whose value depends on the specific drilling conditions. As experiments have shown, the presence of this gap affects in a
very important way the quality of directed crack formation. This is explained by the fact
that tube walls receive at the instant of explosion enormous accelerations, occurring for
dispersion, deliver high velocity impact over the borehole walls which leads to fracture of
the whole peripheral zone of the borehole in the initial (wave) stage of the explosion. Under
these conditions growth of initially planned cracks decreases sharply and this reduces the
efficiency of the whole process. In addltlon, t h e area of possible use for this method is
limited by complexities of placing tubes with slits in boreholes o f intermediate and considerable depth with strict orientation.
In characterizing this classification as a whole it should be noted that the division
of methods into classes given has a basic aim of exposing the principal ideas lying at the
basis of existing approaches for obtaining directed fracture of rocks by blasting. A combination of two or more separately classified ideas into one method leads to the development
of a new class, i.e., composite methods. The basic idea of creating composite methods involves

480

Fig. i. Diagram for arrangement of a

shell with notches in the horehole.
use of the positive aspects of the prototype methods and removal of their disadvantages by
drawing on other means. As an example of this we consider a method suggested at the Institute
of Mining, Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for directed fracture of
rocks by blasting [3], the essence of which is as follows.
A solid shell with longitudinal notches is formed over the whole length of the borehole
and it has close contact with the walls (Fig. i). The n,-,her and location of cutouts are
selected according to the number and directions of the proposed fracture planes. Explosion
of an extended charge placed within this shell provides the prescribed break-up of the surrounding rock mass by developing radial cracks.
It is not difficult to see that this method has two prototypes [i, 7] (see Table i, la,
and 3a). The main disadvantage of this first prototype is the complexity of making longitudinal cuts of the prescribed dimensions and shape in the peripheral zone of the borehole. In
the method being consldered this disadvantage is overcome by creating an artificial peripheral
zone for the borehole in which the preparation of notches (simultaneously or subsequently) may
be accomplished in a simpler way. Formation of a shell in the borehole fulfilling the role o f
an artificial peripheral zone for the borehole has its own prototype tube in the borehole.
This also overcomes the basic disadvantage of this method, i.e., the existence of a gap
between the walls ot the tube and the borehole.
Thus, the method in [8] drew together the princlpal achievements of methods in [1, 7] and
at the same time it became free "of their basic disadvantages. Practical possibilities of
using this method have been illustrated sufficiently by the example of one of the possible
variants of production technology for its realization [9].
In view of the newness and promising nature of this method of directed fracture for .
rocks by blasting we dwell in more detail on studying it both from experimental and theoretical
viewpoints.
EXPERIMENT
Basic factors affecting the picture of fracture with explosion of a charge placed within
a tubular shell with longitudinal notches are the strength and thickness of the shell, and the
magnitude of the initial pressure in the charge cavity.
In order to clarify the level of the effect of these factors on the quality and parameters
of directed fracture a series of laboratory explosions were carried out in acrylic plastic by
the following scheme.
In a plate of acrylic plastic 30 --- thick a hole was drilled within which a shell was
created with longitudinal notches and within this a glass tube with an explosive charge was
placed. In all cases pentaerythrltyl tetranitrate (PETN) was used as an explosive in the
form of extended charges 5 mm in diameter and 60 --, in length with a bulk density of 0.9
g/cm s (detonation rate is 5 km/sec). The outer diameter of the glass tube in which the charge
was placed is 7 mm. With the aim of preventing excessively rapid escape of detonation products from the explosion channel, the latter was lengthened through a hole placed on the
acrylic plastic within a metal plate 30 mm thick. This measure made it possible to attain
about a twofold increase in the pulse duration operating on the wall of the explosion cavity.
Series I. A shell was made of pure rosin by pouring it into the drilled hole. Slits in
the shell were sawn out over the whole length, and there were two slits located diametrically
opposite. Tests were carried out with three hole dia,~ters, 12, 17, and 22 mm. Shell
thicgness was 2.5, 3, and 7 mm, respectively.

481

Flg. Z. Results of explosions in arty.lit plastic for two identical

charges of PETN placed within a shell: with slits (a), without sllts (b).
Explosions carried out as described previously demonstrated the following. The effect
of directed fracture was qualitlvely absent in all three cases. The overall picture was
filled up by a dense network of radial cracks of short (several charge radii) lensth in all
directions. With increaslnE hole diameter the density of the network increased markedly.
With all of the explosions the shells appeared to have crumbled, and this clearly pointed to
insufficient strensth for this material.
Series IT. With the aim of increasing the strensth of shell material cement was added
to the molten rosin before pourlng it into the hole. All of the other explosion conditions
remained unchanged.
Shell material strensthenln S appeared to be satisfactory, i.e., all of the shells after
explosions remained whole. As a result of thls~ the effect of directed fracture for specimens
was stable in all cases. Secondary fracture around the hole was insignificant. Maximum
length of directed cracks was recorded with an averase hole diameter of 17---- (FIE. 2a) and
it was 48 charse radii or 14 hole radii.
Given in Fi S. Zb for comparison is a picture of fracture for a similar explosion in a
shell of pure rosin wltho-t prior formation of slits in it.
Series TIT. In order to clarify the nature of fracture in acrylic plastic with an
extemaly hish-strength shell material, use was made of metal cores cut in half and inserted
~ightly into drilled holes. Explosions carried out with this shell by the aforementioned
scheme demonstrated that in this case apart from the stable effect of directed crack formation
there is a sharp increase in the network size and density of parasitic fractures over the
whole peripheral zone of the hole (Fig. 3).
Series IV. In order to check qualitatively the effect of the amount of initial gas
pressure in the charge cavity (or shattering effect of the explosive) on the picture of
fracture a series of explosions was carried out in rosin shells strengthened with cement, but
using more powerful exploslve, i.e., PETN with a density of 1.5 g/cm 3 and detonation rate 7

482

Fig. 3. Picture
of acrylic plastic fracture with explosion of
a PETH charge within a metal core with a diametral cut.

Fig. 4
km/sec.
Results of these explosions showed that with these initial loading parameters for
specimens t h e effect of directed fracture was completely absent in spite of the fact that
after an explosion each type of shell remained whole.
All of these experiments were carried out with diametrally located slits in the shell.
However, this method also made it possible to obtain directed fracture with arbitrary placing
of slits in the shell.
As an illustration of this Fig. 4 gives the results of an explosion
in a rosin shell reinforced with cement with a 120 ~ angle between slits.
In reviewing
following.

these results for the experiments

performed it is possible to note the

Both low and extremely high-strength (acoustic stiffness) shell material leads to
worsening of directed crack formation quality.
In the first case this is caused by failure
of the shell itself during an explosion, and in the second case it is caused by an increase
in the amplitude of the stress wave deflected in the shell, which predetermines wave fracture
of the surrounding material thus making it more difficult to realize directed fracture.
Maximum directed crack dimensions are attained with some intermediate values of shell
thickness (here this means a change only in the shell outer radius with an unchanged charge
cavity).
An increase in shattering effect for the explosive used (with a completely filled charge
cavity) or in initial pressure (charging with gaps) leads to worsening quality for the effect
of directed fracture even reducing it to zero.
THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF DIRECTED CRACK FORMATION
Theoretical consideration of the initiation and development of directed cracks during
explosion of a blasthole charge has two aspects.
The first is connected with a study of

483

conditions for directed crack initiation, in particular those under which secondary fracture
of the blasthole contour zone is excluded, and the second is connected w i t h describing dynamics for the growth of developing radial c r a c k s , and also with determining their final
dimensions under different blasting conditions.
If consideration of the first stage of the
test process connected with initiation of crack sources depends essentially on the method of
directed fracture used and it requires an individual approach for each specific case, then
in descrlbing subsequent movement of cracks formed it is possible to use a single universal
algorithm independent of the type of method used corresponding to one of the classes in the
classification given. We now dwell on these aspects in detail.
Initiation of Directed Cracks. The basic aim of studying this stage of the test process
is to determine the permissible range of initial gas pressure in the charge cavity guaranteeing
intitlation of directed cracks without the occurrence of secondary fracture in the peripheral
zone of the blasthole.
Given below is one of the possible approaches to solving this question illustrated by
the example of a method for directed fracture of rocks by blasting using prepared shells with
longitudinal slits in blastholes.
As a result of instantaneous detonation of an extended explosive charge let the internal
volume of the shell with slits appear to be filled with gas, i.e., detonation products with
initial pressure Po (see Ylg. i). We will assume a priori that wave fracture of the peripheral zone of the blasthole is absent. We now consider the nature of tangential tensile
stress u B distribution over the blasthole periphery.
s is easy to assume that the maximum
value ot ~ x
will occur close to the tip of notches in the shell (point A), and the minimum
stresses o ~ n will occur at points of greatest distance from the notches (point B). A
strictly matnematlcal approach to determination of values o ~ x would lead to the creation of
special features for stresses at point A, and consequently to infinite values of u B. However,
actual conditions (finite radius of curvature for the notch tip, shell slippage over the
blasthole wail, etc.) guarantee ~ finite value of a ~ x.
As a criterion for fracture (radial crack initiation) we will choose a condition for
achlevlng a pulse of tangential tensile stresses at the blasthole periphery with a certain
v a l u e J,
|

This criterion has been used repeatedly in the works of Soviet mechanics, and recently
it has been particularly successfully developed in [10].
Furthermore, we will assume that secondary fracture of the blasthole peripheral zones does
not occur if the loading wave in/tlated by directed crack initiation reaches point B sooner
than fracture condition (1) will be fulfilled.
Shwon in Fig. 5 is a diagram for the change in the pulse of tensile stresses at points
A and B (see Fig. 1) ass,--lug that pressure Po is held in the cavity up to the start of
radial crack initiation. This last assumption m-k-S it possible to ass,-,~ that valuesi" 0~un
and ~
are constants in the stage of the process being considered.
We designate the time at which the unload4ng wave covers the distance from A to B in
terms of T. Then according to Fig. 5 the condition for directed crack initiation without
secondary fractures of the blasthole peripheral zone may be written in r_he form

9 ,~ ~ - - ~ - - t .
w h e r e t I == J,/eo~ ax a n d t I = J , / e o ~ a r e
and B respectively.

time for reaching

(2)
the condition

C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e u n l o a d i n g wave p r o p a g a t e s w i t h
in the surrounding material ~,
it is possible to write

the velocity

=- ~RJ2C,,
where R, is blasthole radius.

484

for

By placing (3) in (2) we obtain

fracture

at point

6f a longitudinal

A
wave

(3 )

0
f,
Cz
Fig. 5. Diagram for the change in
pulses of tangential tensile stresses
in the blasehole contour at two
extreme points.

z(tw h e r e E s ~ oemn/oo~x

(subscript

Z characterizes

,)I.ep

(4)

the number of cracks prescribed).

F o r n u m e r i c a l e s t t r a a t i o n o f oo~n we make t h e f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n : t h e p r e s e n c e o f
n o t c h e s i n t h e s h e l l ( t h e i r n u m b e r a n d s h a p e ) doea n o t a f f e c t t h e v a l u e o f o~Am ; s h e l l
material behaves as an uncompressible plastically
deforming body.
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s we now c o n s i d e r t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e o f an u n b r o k e n
(without slits)
s h e l l i n t h e b l a s t h o l e l o a d e d f r o m w i t h i n ( r = t o ) by p r e s s u r e Po a n d p r e s c r i b e d by a s y s t e m o f e q u a t i o n s
0,-%
~r "~
== 0 - - eq-mbrium~

(5)

o, -- o, -" K - re(a,+o0) -- ductility.

Integration of system (5)~rltbin limits from r - ro to r - Ro with the boundary condition
--Po leads to an expression for radial stresses operating in the outer shell
which in accordance with the condition for continuity are equal to s~mllar stresses
at the blasthole contour
~ o ~

"

(6)

Assuming that the rock mass surrounding the blasthole is elastic and paying attention
to the fact for Lhat actual shell materials Po >> K, expression (6) may be transformed to
_ r v0 x m / a + m

(7)

By substituting (7) in (4) we obtain finally the limiting condition for initial pressure
in the cavity guaranteeing the effect of crack formation without the occurrence of secondary
cracks

where ro is shell internal radius, m = sin ~

angle).

is a material constant ( ~ is internal friction

Generalizing the inequality for the case of uniformly distributed notches around the
shell ( T--RR0/mCp ) we arrive at the expression

e~

"O-x")'r'c" {
'%

C9)

where E , = o ~ a / u ~ ax is a value depending on shell material, its thickness, slit shape and
and nftmber ( 0 o ~

corresponds here to a point on the periphery equidistant from two notches).

Numerical values of K n can be determined both by means of theoretical estimates and by

485

80

Z.

40

80

~/~

,0~

Fig. 6
Fig. 6.
length.

2~

~, MPa

Fig. 7

Dependence of relative crack dimensions on blasthole

presFig. 7. Dependence o f r e l a t i v e c r a c k d i m e n s i o n s on i n i t i a l
s u r e : 1) w i t h L. = 5 0 t o ; 2) w i t h Lo - l o g o , w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n o f
Co by Eqs. (13) (a) and (12) (b).
carrying out special static experiments whose description is beyond the hounds of this
article. It is only pointed out that considering the scatter of strength properties of actual
rocks (coefficient of variation ~ 30Z), the acceptable range for K n guaranteeing the effect
of directed fracture wltn observation of condition (9) should be assumed to be 0 < K n < 0.7.
As an estimate for values of critical pulse 3, it is possible to use the data of [11]
where results are given for measurements of limiting (minimum) "cleavage" pulses in rods of
different materials.
For example, for marble ( ~ - 4400 m/secJ J, = 140 paoser and for
diabase (Cp - 5500 m/sec) 3, = 310 Pa~
which when substituted in (8) give Pc s 14.5 and
40 MPa (m-- 0.7; E,-- 0~; RJ~-- 1,6; R. ~ 2 cm), respectively.
The estimates obtained translated into the n~mher of threads of detonating fuse (DF) exploded in blastholes with an
annular air gap corresponded to 2-2.5 threads of DF for marble and 5-6 threads of DF for
dlabase.
In conclusion it is noted that the idea of using the unloading contour as a factor
preventing initiation of new cracks has been formulated previously by Kuznetsov [12-] for use
in the case of fracturing metal rings in the ductile condition.
Directed Crack Development. With regard t o time this stage embraces almost the whole
of the process of directed crack formation and it is only very provisionally connected with
features of the crack initiation phase at the blasthole or borehole periphery.
In fact, the
scale of events occurring in the first stage of the process is comlensurate with the dimensions of the explosion cavity, whereas final crack length exceeds them by a factor of ten or
even one hundred. Therefore, in order to describe the dynamics for directed crack growth, it
is sufficient to know only the direction along which their movement is proposed; the rest of
the factors characterizing fracture in its initial stage are apparently unimportant.
This
conclusion has been confirmed by detailed theoretical analysis carried out in [13]. It was
also shown there that as a universal algorithm correctly describing the process of directed
crack development with any rate schedules for their movement, it is possible to use a quasistatic solution with a delay prescribed by the system of equations

(zo)
9 P (= -

Kx =

486

~lCj) ~n--~
'~- R=,

~..im m

//

~0o

/
f

tO

ZO

R,, . - .

Fig. 8. Dependence of absolute crack

dimensions on Ro with an unchanged
initial pressure in the cavity: I)
Lo - 25; 2) Lo - 75; 3) Lo = 125 mm.

with the initial condition ~ = ~o with t - ~o/CR, and an additional rule for the change in
pressure in the b tasthole

fPo,

t ~ LJCo;

L,

P(t)=Ip I

\s

.1)

where Kic is critical stresslntensity factor, Vll m is 11mqtlng crack 8rowCh rate, C R is
Rnyleigh wave velocity, Co is initial speed of sound in the gas, Lo is blasthole length, a
is a material constant.
The delay for the signal arriving at the rip of a moving crack from the center of the
applied load is accounted for here by shifting the argument of function P(t) in Eq. (i0)
behind t h e value I/C R.
As an illustration of solving systems (I0)and (ii)we introduce some calculated dependences
(n - 2) obtained with the following values of constants typical for acrylic plastic: KIt =
i M P a - m ~/a, Vll m - 650 m/see, C R - 1100 m/see, = - 1.
Graphs are shown in Fig. 6 for the change in flnal dimensions of directed cracks depending
on blasthole length (Po " 3000 MPa, Co - 3000 m/set, Ro - 2.5 ram). The broken line indicates
results of similar calculations carried out without accounting for a delay in the argument of
function p(t) of Eq. (10). The linear nature of the dependence given in this case is caused
by the high values of initial pressue in the explosion cavity. A reduction in this value
leads to marked curvature of the graph being considered up to its emergence into an asymptote.
Calculation has been given in [13] characterizing the change i~ Ima x with a change in Po
by introducing an annular air gap around the explosive charge. The rule for the change in
inltial sound velocity Co in the blasthole was prescribed by the expression

c. = c. Fg b-i,

(12)

where CH and PH are detonation parameters for the explosive.

Results of calculations with
this interrelationship of Co and P, showed that with a reduction in Po to several kilobars
final crack dimensions remained almost constant. However, another variant is possible for
changing (reducing) the initial pressure in the cavity involving mixing the explosive with
inert additives of the same density, e.g. with NaCI. In this case the increased content of
inert additive in the explosive mixture may reduce Pr with an unchanged initial density for
the detonation products Po. Then drawing attention to the fact that C o = ~'TP~p0, we obtain
the following relationship between Co and Po :

c,

c,

(13)
487

Given in Fig. 7 are calculations carried out using Eqs. (12) and (13) for two different
lengths of blasthole (Ro - 2.5 mm). Comparison of the curves depicted in Fi E . 7 makes it
possible to make the following conclusions: from the point of view of the crack length obtained it is most effective to use mixed explosives for which the reduction in detonating
pressure is obtained without markedly changing their initial density (~i g/cm s).
The last series of calculations given in Fig. 8 was carried out in order to clarify
whether there is a change absolute dimensions for directed cracks with a change in blasthole
radius if its length and Initial pressure remain unchanged (Po " 3000 MPa, Co - 3000 m/sac).
It appeared that with an increase in Ro there is an increase in the length of cracks whereas
their relative dimensions Zmax/Ro are sharply reduced. This fact makes It possible to vlev
from another side the scale effects occurring during directed crack formation
LITERATURE CITED
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

i0.
11.
12.
13.

488

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