WOMEN IN ANCIENT HEBREW CULTURE

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF HEBREW HISTORY

FROM ABRAHAM TO DIASPORA
INTRODUCTION TO WOMEN IN ANCIENT HEBREW CULTURE
BACKGROUND
BECAUSE OF ITS RELIGIOUS & CULTURAL AUTHORITY
BIBLE ONE OF MOST NB MEANS
HOW WOMAN'S PLACE IN SOCIETY DEFINED
FOR CENTURIES BIBLE INVOKED TO JUSTIFY WOMEN'S
SUBORDINATION TO MEN
DURING WOMEN'S MOVEMENT OF LATE 19TH & EARLY 20TH
CENTURIES
IT OBSERVED
WE NEED WOMEN COMMENTATORS TO BRING OUT WOMEN'S
SIDE OF THE BOOK;
IN 1890'S ELIZABETH CADY STANTON
& SMALL GROUP OF COLLABORATORS PRODUCED
THE WOMAN'S BIBLE
GROUP EXCERPTED & COMMENTED ON PORTIONS OF BIBLE IN
WHICH WOMEN APPEAR
OR WERE CONSPICUOUSLY ABSENT
AUTHORS ATTACKED BOTH MALE BIAS THAT DISTORTED
INTERPRETATION OF BIBLE
& MISOGYNY OF TEXT ITSELF
MANY OF ITS OBSERVATIONS WHICH SEEMED SO DARING
HAVE SINCE COME TO BE WIDELY ACCEPTED
MODERN BIBLICAL SCHOLARSHIP PERTAINING TO WOMEN
NOT UNTIL 1964 FEMALE PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE,
MARGARET BRACKENBURY CROOK, PUBLISHED STUDY ON
STATUS OF WOMEN IN JUDAISM & CHRISTIANITY ENTITLED
WOMEN & RELIGION
WOMEN'S MOVEMENT OF 60'S & 70'S
& INCREASING NUMBER OF WOMEN ATTENDING SEMINARIES
SAW INCREASED WORK ON INTERPRETING BIBLE
FEMINIST STUDY OF BIBLE HAS BLOSSOMED TO BECOME ONE OF
MOST NB NEW AREAS TODAY BIBLICAL RESEARCH
NEW REVISED STANDARD VERSION
GONE THROUGH & CHANGED MALE GENDER NOUNS TO
HUMAN BEING, PERSON, BROTHERS & SISTERS
WHERE GENDER OF PERSON IS UNSPECIFIED OR WHERE
WOMEN AS WELL AS MEN ARE CLEARLY BEING
ADDRESSED
BUT TRANSLATORS OF NRSV DID NOT ADDRESS PROBLEM OF
GENDER & LANGUAGE ABOUT GOD
PROBLEMS IN USING BIBLE AS SOURCE FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF
WOMEN'S LIVES
BIBLE IS ANDROCENTRIC OR MALE-CENTERED
IN ITS SUBJECT MATTER
ITS AUTHORSHIP
ITS PERSPECTIVES
1 EXAMPLE OF THIS ANDROCENTRICITY
HEBREW BIBLE MENTIONS 1426 NAMES

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1315 MEN'S NAMES
ONLY 111 WOMEN'S NAMES
9% OF TOTAL
ALL AUTHORS IDENTIFIED BY NAME (E.G. PROPHETS) MALE
PRESUMABLY ANONYMOUS ONES ARE ALSO
THOUGH SOME FEMALES CAN BE POSITED
IE. SONG OF SONGS
BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVE IS PREDOMINANTLY MALE
ISSUES PERTAINING TO WOMEN'S LIVES SCARCE
DIFFICULT TO USE SCRIPTURE ALONE TO SEE HOW WOMEN LIVED IN
BIBLICAL PAST
MAJOR PROTYPES OF WOMEN IN OLD TESTAMENT
EVE & CREATION STORIES OF MAN & WOMAN
MOST POWERFUL METAPHORS OF GENDER IN BIBLE
WOMAN, CREATED OF MAN'S RIB
& EVE, TEMPTRESS, CAUSING HUMANKIND'S FALL
FOR OVER 2000 YRS THESE CITED AS PROOF OF DIVINE SANCTION
FOR SUBORDINATION OF WOMEN
2 SEEMINGLY CONTRADICTORY VERSIONS OF CREATION STORY IN
GENESIS
VERSION IN GENESIS 2:18-25
WOMAN MADE FROM ADAM'S RIB
CA. 850 B.C.
WRITTEN 450 YEARS BEFORE OTHER VERSION
APPEARING IN GENESIS 1:27-9
MALE AND FEMALE CREATED HE THEM
CA. 400 B.C.
850 B.C.E
CREATION OF HUMAN BEINGS
EVE CREATED FROM ADAM'S RIB (AS HIS HELPER)
MADE FROM DIRT
NO DOMINION BUT ADAM NAMES OTHER CREATURES
GARDEN OF EDEN, TREE OF KNOWLEDGE, THE FALL
400 B.C.E CREATION STORY
CREATION OF UNIVERSE
SIMULTANEOUS CREATION OF ADAM & EVE
BOTH MADE IN GOD'S IMAGE
BOTH GIVEN DOMINION OVER ALL OTHER CREATES
NO EDEN, NO FALL
NEWER VERSION PARALLELS MESOPOTAMIAN ENUMA ELISH
CREATION STORY
IN ITS VARIOUS DETAILS & ORDER OF EVENTS
BIBLE'S GARDEN OF EDEN PARALLELS SUMERIAN GARDEN OF
CREATION
IN REGARD TO BLAMING EVE FOR CAUSING SIN IN WORLD
1 OF MOTHER GODDESS SYMBOLS - SERPENT
THEN EVE MUST BE SEVERED FROM SNAKE
IN ORDER FOR MONOTHEISM TO BE ESTABLISHED
THERE SHALL BE ONLY ONE GOD
& FERTILITY-GODDESS SHALL BE CAST OUT AS EVIL
& BECOME VERY SYMBOL OF SIN
WOMAN EXISTS NOT IN HER OWN RIGHT

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BUT ONLY AS HELP MATE
SHE NOT EVEN CREATED IN DIVINE IMAGE
BUT ONLY IN MAN'S
WOMEN FURTHER REMOVED FROM GOD THAN MAN IS
AS CONSEQUENCE MORE PRONE TO FOLLY & VICE
MANY CENTURIES WOMEN'S APPEALS FOR RIGHTS
DENIED ON GROUND WOMEN CREATED ONLY AS HELPERS
NOT ENTITLED TO RIGHTS
WOMEN COULD BE RECOGNIZED ONLY THROUGH THEIR MALE
RELATIVES
JEZEBEL
PHOENICIAN QUEEN FROM SIDON
MARRIED TO AHAB, KING OF ISRAEL
DURING TIME CULT OF BAAL & ASHERAH SPREADING
SO SHE WOULD HAVE WORSHIPPED BAAL & ASTARTE
IT IS UNLIKELY HER POLYTHEISTIC RELIGION WOULD HAVE
MOTIVATED HER TO ELIMINATE PROPHETS OF YAHWEH
UNLESS THESE PRESENTED POLITICAL THREAT
OPPOSITE TRUE
FOLLOWERS OF YAHWEH WOULD HAVE ADOPTED CRUSADER
MENTALITY AGAINST WORSHIPERS OF OTHER DEITIES
& PROPHETS OF YAHWEH INDEED INVOLVED THEMSELVES IN
POLITICAL CONCERNS
ANOINTING KINGS & PROMOTING COUPS
JEZEBEL INITIALLY METAPHOR OF SCHEEMING WOMAN
CAME TO BE UNDERSTOOD WITH INCREASING LITERALNESS
JEZEBEL OFTEN INTERPRETED TODAY NOT AS WOMAN OF POLITICAL
POWER BUT AS SEDUCTRESS
DEBORAH
PERIOD OF WARFARE BETWEEN ISRAELITE TRIBES & CANAANITES
IS DESCRIBED IN ONE OF OLDEST SEGMENTS OF O.T.
SONG OF DEBORAH - JUDGES 4-5
ONE OF RARE INSTANCES
WHERE WOMAN SHOWN IN LEADERSHIP POSITION & HEROIC
ROLE
DEBORAH DESCRIBED AS PROPHETESS & JUDGE
WHO INSPIRES BARAK TO RALLY TROOPS IN RESISTANCE TO
CANAANITES
IN PASSAGE QUITE EXCEPTIONAL IN BIBLICAL LITERATURE SHE IS
SHOWN TO ASSUME ACTUAL LEADERSHIP OVER MEN
WHAT LIFE LIKE FOR WOMEN
CHANGE FROM MATRILOCAL & MATRILINEAL TO PATRILOCL &
PATRILINEAL
STORIES OF PATRIARCHS IN GENESIS OFFER SOME INDICATIONS OF
TRANSITION FROM MATRILOCAL & MATRILINEAL
TO PATRILOCAL & PATRILINEAL FAMILY ORGANIZATION IN SOME OF
TRIBES
REFERENCE TO MAN LEAVING HIS FATHER & MOTHER & CLEAVING
TO HIS WIFE IN GEN. 2/24 COULD BE SO INTERPRETED
JACOB'S 7 YRS OF SERVICE TO LABAN FOR EACH OF HIS DAUGHTERS
WOULD CONFORM TO PRACTICE OF MATRILOCAL MARRIAGE
IN BIBLICAL NARRATIVE MATRILOCAL MARRIAGE IS CALLED BEENA

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MARRIAGE
PATRILOCAL MARRIAGE KNOWN AS BAAL MARRIAGE
STORY OF JACOB'S COURTSHIP & HIS FLIGHT FROM LABAN'S HOUSE
HAS BEEN INTERPRETED AS IMPLYING TRANSITION FROM
MATRILOCALITY TO PATRILOCALITY
RACHEL'S THEFT OF TERAPHIM CAN ALSO BE VIEWED IN THIS LIGHT
SOME INTERPRET TERAPHIM AS HOUSE-GODS
& POSSESSION OF HOUSE GODS SIGNIFIED LEGAL TITLE
TO ESTATE
RACHEL, BELIEVING HER FATHER WOULD DENY HER HUSBAND
LEGAL SHARE IN HIS ESTATE, TOOK TERAPHIM
RACHEL'S ACTION SYMBOLIZED CHANGE FROM MATRILOCALITY TO
PATRILOCALITY TOO
WOMEN IN TIME OF PATRIARCHS
DID ACTIVITIES WITH MEN
TENDED FLOCKS TOGETHER
MET AT WATERING WELLS
WORSHIPPED TOGETHER IN TEMPLE
SHARED PUBLIC CELEBRATIONS
ATE TOGETHER
ATTENDED WEDDINGS & FUNERALS TOGETHER
SEGREGATION IN TEMPLE BEGAN ONLY LATER
JEWISH WOMAN COULD PRAY OR STUDY TORAH
BUT WOMEN NOT PART OF ADMINISTRATION
IT WAS CONSIDERED PRIMARY RELIGIOUS DUTY OF PARENTS TO
TEACH THEIR SONS TORAH
BUT NO SUCH OBLIGATION TO GIRLS
BUT AS LONG AS CHILDREN EDUCATED AT HOME
GIRLS TAUGHT AT DISCRETION OF THEIR PARENTS
HOWEVER, FORMAL EDUCATION, INSTITUTED EITHER IN 2ND OF 1ST
C. B.C. PROBABLY LIMITED TO MALE STUDENTS
STRUCTURE OF FAMILY
PATRIARCHAL PREDOMINANT FAMILY STRUCTURE IN BIBLE
IN EARLIEST PERIOD PATRIARCH HAD UNDISPUTED AUTHORITY
OVER MEMBERS OF HIS FAMILY
WIFE CALLED HER HUSBAND BAAL OR MASTER
WIFE IS LISTED AMONG MAN'S POSSESSIONS ALONG WITH HIS
SERVANTS, HIS OX & ASS
IN THIS PERIOD FATHER COULD SELL HIS DAUGHTER INTO SLAVERY
OR PROSTITUTION
LATER FORBIDDEN TO HIM
WHILE HEBREWS STILL NOMADS & UNDER PATRIARCHS
1 LAWFUL WIFE
WITH AS MANY CONCUBINES AS COULD AFFORD
BUT SETTLED LIFE IN MONARCHY POLYGAMY MARRIAGES
LEGALIZED
BY TIME OF MONARCHY, FATHER'S POWER OF LIFE & DEATH OVER
HIS FAMILY MEMBERS NO LONGER UNLIMITED
IMPROVED POSITION OF DAUGHTERS
PROPERTY BELONGED TO CLAN
INALIENABLE
IT COULD NOT BE SOLD TO ANYONE

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TRANSFERRED SOLELY BY INHERITANCE
THIS INHERITANCE USUALLY FELL TO ELDEST SON
IF NO SONS COULD FALL TO DAUGHTERS
BUT THEY HAD TO MARRY WITHIN THEIR TRIBE SO PORTION WOULD
NOT BE TRANSFERRED OUT
IF OWNER DIED CHILDLESS INHERITANCE WENT TO HIS MALE KINS
ONE OF FOUNDATIONS FOR LAW OF LEVIRATE
REGULATION OF FEMALE SEXUALITY & CUSTOMS
AS IN MESOPOTAMIAN SOCIETIES
HEBREW MEN ENJOYED COMPLETE SEXUAL FREEDOM WITHIN &
OUTSIDE OF MARRIAGE
IF SLAVE WIVES HIS OWN & NOT GIVEN TO HIM BY HIS PRIMARY
WIFE
HE COULD GIVE THEM TO OTHER FAMILY MEMBERS
PUNISHMENT FOR ADULTERY DEATH OF BOTH PARTIES
BUT JEWISH WIFE HAD LESS PROTECTION AGAINST FALSE
ACCUSATIONS OF ADULTERY
THAN DID HER MESOPOTAMIAN COUNTERPART
IN NUMBERS 5:11-31 4TH BOOK OF TORAH
40 YEAR WANDERING IN DESERT AFTER EXILE FROM EGYPT
DESCRIBES RITUAL ORDEAL REQUIRED WIFE WHOSE
HUSBAND DOUBTS HER FIDELITY
DIVORCE OBTAINABLE BY HUSBAND BUT NEVER BY WIFE
JEWISH LAW MORE DETRIMENTAL TO WIFE THAN
HAMMURABIC LAW
SAME TRUE FOR LEGISLATION PERTAINING TO RAPE
MESOPOTAMIAN LAW AFFORDED MORE PROTECTION
JEWISH LAW FORCED RAPIST TO MARRY WOMAN
& HE COULD NOT DIVORCE HER
BARRENNESS IN WIFE
INTERPRETED TO BEAR SONS
DISGRACE & CAUSE FOR DIVORCE
SARAH, LEAH & RACHEL OFFER THEIR SLAVE WOMEN TO THEIR
HUSBANDS SO SLAVE WOMAN'S CHILDREN COUNTED AS
THEIR OWN
CHANGES FOR WOMEN WHEN JEWISH TRIBES BECOME NATION
GRADUAL RESTRICTION OF WOMEN'S PUBLIC & ECONOMIC ROLE
MORE REGULATION OF HER SEXUALITY
AS JEWISH TRIBES MOVE FROM TO STATEHOOD
SOLOMON MADE MANY TREATIES & DYNASTIC MARRIAGES WITH
FORMERLY HOSTILE NEIGHBORS
ACQUIRING HIS VAST HAREM
PREOCCUPATION WITH FIGHTING CULT OF BAAL & ASHERAH
PERSISTED INTO MONARCHIC PERIOD & AFTER
APPARENTLY HAD ITS GREATEST & MOST PERSISTENT STRENGTH
AMONG WOMEN
& MAY EXPLAIN INCREASINGLY SHARP REGULATION OF WOMEN'S
BEHAVIOR
EXCESSIVE LANGUAGE OF CENSURE AGAINST WOMEN'S "WHORING"
IN PROPHETS
& FINALLY PERVASIVE USE OF WOMAN-THE-WHORE AS METAPHOR
FOR EVILS OF SINNING SOCIETY

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JEZEBEL MARRIED TO KING AHAB OF ISRAEL
TRIED TO IMPORT HER NATIVE WORSHIP INTO ISRAEL
SHE SUPPORTED 450 PROPHETS OF BAAL &
400 PROPHETS OF ASHERAH
YAHWEH WON IN CONTEST WITH BAAL
BUT ASHERAH NOT PART OF CONTEST
ISRAELITES DID NOT PURSUE OR CONDEMN CULT-OBJECT
ASHERAH OR GODDESS ASHERAH WITH SAME
VEHEMENCE AS IT FOUGHT WORSHIP OF BAAL
IDEAL WIFE
INDUSTRIOUS
GOOD MANAGER
WISE COUNSELOR
YET ALWAYS FEAR OF STRONG WOMAN
PROVERBS 31:12 "
SHE DOES HIM GOOD & NOT HARM ALL THE DAYS OF HIS LIFE
SUGGESTS WOMEN THOUGHT CAPABLE OF INJURING MEN
BIBLICAL INJUNCTIONS ON CHILDBIRTH & MULTIPLYING
JEWISH TRIBES CONQUERING CANAAN HAD TO OVERCOME
NUMEROUS OBSTACLES
MUST HAVE EXPERIENCED REAL POPULATION PROBLEM
FIGHTING TO GET INTO CANAAN CAUSED DEATHS
PLAGUES OR PESTILENCE ELIMINATED MANY
MAY EXPLAIN BIBLICAL EMPHASIS ON FAMILY & ON WOMAN'S
PROCREATIVE ROLE
IN PRAYERS TO ISHTAR & OTHER FERTILITY-GODDESSES
ONE OF PRAISEWORTHY ATTRIBUTES OF GODDESS
SHE OPENED THE WOMBS OF WOMEN
IN GENESIS THAT LANGUAGE IS USED SOLELY IN REFERENCE TO
YAHWEH
GENESIS 29:31
AND THE LORD SAW THAT LEAH WAS HATED AND HE
OPENED HER WOMB
GENESIS 30: 22-23
AND GOD REMEMBER RACHEL..AND OPENED HER
WOMB.
BIBLICAL INJUNCTIONS TO BE FRUITFUL & MULTIPLY SERVED
INTERESTS OF VILLAGERS & SOCIETY AS WHOLE
CHILDBIRTH DANGEROUS TO CHILD & MOTHER
ANALYSIS OF SKELETAL REMAINS FOUND
AVERAGE LIFE SPAN FOR WOMEN 30
EN SPARED DANGERS OF REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS LIVED
AVERAGE 10 YRS LONGER
SINCE INFANT MORTALITY PROBABLY 50%
THEN WOMEN NEEDED TO HAVE DOUBLE NUMBER OF BIRTHS TO
SUSTAIN FAMILY
DAUGHTER NOT AS WELCOME AS SON
SACRIFIC OF ABRAHAM OF HIS SON ISAAC
LORD INTERVENED
CF WITH JEPTHAH'S DAUGHTER IN BOOK OF JUDGES 11:29-38
DAUGHTER IS SACRIFICED
WOMEN'S ROLE IN ECONOMY

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ANCIENT ISRAEL'S ECONOMY BASED ON AGRICULTURE
SURVIVAL -MEANT HARD WORK & NECESSARYY SKILL
PROBABLY EXTENDED FAMILY
OCCUPATIONS & TASKS VERY GENDER SPECIFIC
MEN'S WORK
PLOWING, & OTHER PHYSICALLY DEMANDING TASKS SUCH AS
CUTTING TRESS, MOVING ROCKS, DIGGING CISTERNS,
WOMEN'S WORK IN AGRICULTURE
PLANTING, WEEDING & HARVESTING ACTIVITIES
LOCAL GARDENING WORK
CULTIVATING FRUIT TREES, VINES, VEGETABLES & HERBS
OTHER SPECIFIC WOMEN'S TASKS
WOMEN RESPONSIBLE FOR MOST OF FOOD PRESERVATION
PROCESSING TASKS ALSO TIME CONSUMING
GRAINS MUST BE SOAKED, MILLED, GROUND,
THEN FLOUR MUST BE MIXED,SET TO RISE & BAKED
ADD ROUTINE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS
FEEDING, MILKING, ETC.
CLOTH & CLOTHING PRODUCTION
SPINNING THREAD, WEAVING, SEWING
SO LARGE FAMILIES CLEARLY MADE FARMING ENTERPRISE MORE
VIABLE
AS MORE MOVED INTO URBAN ENVIRONOMENT
WHEN NEGATIVE REMAKRS ABOUT IDLE & GOSSIPING WOMEN
OCCURRED
WOMEN ALSO
MIDWIVES
PROFESSINAL MOURNERS
TEMPLE SINGERS
WOMEN'S RELIGIOUS ROLES
BIBLE LARGELY FOCUSES ON PUBLIC, COMMUNAL PRACTICES OF
RELIGION
YET CLEAR INDICATIONS IN BOTH SCRIPTURAL & ARCHAEOLOGICAL
RECORD OF DOMESTIC RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
FAMILY CELEBRATIONS OF EITHER LOCAL OR NATIONAL
AS ORGANIZERS & PARTICIPANTS IN THESE FESTIVALS,
WOMEN TOOK PART IN VARIETY SPIRITUAL LIFE
PROBABLY FEW GENDER-BASED RESTRICTIONS
EXCEPT FOR POSSIBILITY OF SERVING AS PRIESTS
BUT THIS HEREDITARY OFFICE NOT AVAILABLE TO MOST MEN
EITHER
SOME WOMEN HAD SPECIAL EXPERTISE IN PUBLIC PERFORMANCE
FOR FUNERALS
WOMEN RECITERS & PROBABLY COMPOSERS OF TRADITIONAL
LAMENTS FOR DEAD
JER. 9:17, 2 CHRON. 35:25)
WOMEN DANCERS, SINGERS & MUSICIANS
WOMEN PERFORMED AT MAJOR PUBLIC EVENTS (JUDGES 21:21
CULTURAL HIGH POINT OF SUCH PERFORMANCES
GREAT HYMNS SUNG BY WOMEN
SEE EX. 15:20-21, JUDGES 5; 1 SAM. 18:6-7
CONCLUSIONS

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MONOTHEISM - GOOD OR DETRIMENTAL FOR WOMEN?
ORGANIZED RELIGION MAY HAVE BEEN ROOT CAUSE OF HISTORIC
DEFEAT OF WOMANKIND
SOME SEE RISE OF MONOTHEISM AS PLOT AGAINST WOMEN
SINCE AFTER EFFECT SO UNIFORMLY DISASTROUS FOR FEMALE SEX
AS ONE SCHOLAR NOTED
EVE DID NOT FALL, SHE WAS PUSHED
MANYY ELEMENTS OF RELIGIOUS
JUDAISM, ISLAM, CHRISTIANITY, BUDDHISM, CONFUCIUSISM
HELD STRONG APPEAL FOR BOTH SEXES
& OFTEN FOR WOMEN IN PARTICULAR
WHY WERE THEY SO ATTRACTIVE TO WOMEN?
EACH OFFERED CLARITY, CERTAINTY
THAT AFTER PLURALISTIC PANTHEON
PROFOUND CONVICTION ONE GOD WOULD TAKE CARE OF
THEM