174 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

(a) before construction

depth of
foundation D

G.L.
existing soil pressure
s = D
existing overburden load
S = DA

where = density of soil

A = area of foundation

(b) after construction

load from
superstructure = P

final total load

T=P+F
where F is the load from
the self weight of the
buried foundation and
its backfill

G.L.

final total bearing pressure

T
A

depth D

t =
F

P+F
A
=p+f

t =

normally the density of the concrete

foundation and backfill density of soil
F
and s = D
and the net bearing pressure n
A

final net bearing pressure

n =ts
P+F
D
=
A
P
A

Fig. 10.15 Definition of loads and pressures simple case.

allowable bearing pressure. If, for example, a soil has a total

allowable bearing pressure of 80 kN/m2 at a depth of 2 m,
the load which the foundation can support is
P = (80 2)A
Taking as 20 kN/m3 and where A is the area of the base in m2
P = 40A kN
If, however, the total allowable bearing pressure was erroneously taken to be the net allowable bearing pressure,
then the load which the foundation could support would be
calculated as
P = 80A kN
Thus in this example the error is 100%!
When considering wind loading conditions the total allowable bearing pressures are increased by 25% in line with
the factor used in permissible stress design codes used for
structures prior to the introduction of the limit-state design
codes.
It should not be forgotten that unless specific reference
has been made to the contrary the allowable bearing pressure is usually based on the ultimate bearing capacity
(typically with a factor of safety of 3) without an assessment

of settlement as this will be dependent on the type, size and

actual applied bearing pressure adopted in the design. It
is therefore necessary for the engineer to make a separate
assessment of the allowable bearing pressure in relation to
settlement criteria and to ensure that the site investigation
provides the necessary information to make that assessment.

10.10 Calculation of applied bearing

pressures
Figure 10.15 shows the typical example where the loading
is axial and there is no variation in ground level or surcharge. While this simple example will cover a large
proportion of foundations constructed, the more general
situation needs to be considered, firstly for calculating the
total and net bearing pressures with variations in surcharge
and/or ground levels and then for the effects of introducing asymmetrical loading.
While on good bearing soils modest surcharges and/or
changes in ground levels will have little effect on the bearing capacity of the soils, in poor soil conditions or where the
load changes are significant they can have a dramatic effect.
For a general case therefore the net increase in load, N, is
given by the formula

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 175

(a) new ground level higher than existing
P
new
G.L.

SS

FS

existing
G.L.
S

FB

SB

before

after construction

(b) new ground level lower than existing

SS

existing
G.L.
new
G.L.

FS

FB

SB

after construction

before

existing load = S
total final load = T
=P+F
net load = T S = P + F S
notes: (1) the existing surcharge SS must have been in place for sufficient time to be considered
as a permanent load. If this is not the case the existing surcharge SS should be ignored.
(2) If the net bearing pressure is negative then consideration should be given to
the effects of heave, particularly on clay soils.

Fig. 10.16 Definition of loads and pressures general case.

N = (total load after construction)

(total existing load)
=TS
where T = total load after construction at underside of
foundation
and
S = existing load at underside of foundation
T=P+F
where P = load from superstructure
and
F = load from foundation
= FS + FB (see Fig. 10.16)
where FS = final foundation surcharge load

FB = load from buried foundation and backfill

S = SS + SB (see Fig. 10.16)
where SS = existing surcharge load (taken as zero except
where it has acted as a permanent load)
and SB = load from existing overburden.

and

Therefore the net increase in load may be rewritten as

N=TS
=P+FS
and the net increase in soil pressure, for an axially loaded
foundation, is given by

176 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

n=

N
A

(4) Variations in relative loads on combined bases (e.g.

bases carrying two or more columns).

T S

A A

Thus in a general case the total pressure under a base with a

small out-of-balance moment is

=ts

t=

T MT

Z
A

t=

T M Tx M Ty

Zx
Zy
A

Alternatively,
n=

P+F S

A
A

=p+fs
This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.16.
It should be noted that where the soil level has been
significantly reduced by a major regrading of the site or
by construction of basements and the like, consideration
should be given to the effects of heave particularly in clays
or where there are artesian groundwater pressures.
It is almost always sufficiently accurate to take the weight
of the new foundation and backfill as equal to the weight of
soil displaced, i.e. FB ~ SB. Thus the equations for net increase
in load and net increase in soil pressure simplify to:
N = P + FS SS

for single axis bending (see Fig. 10.17 (a) and

(b)), and
for biaxial bending (see Fig. 10.18).

The moment MT is calculated by taking moments about the

centroid at the underside of the foundation. In these cases it
is usually beneficial to consider the total bearing pressure
which allows for the balancing effect of the resultant force
due to eccentric loads and/or applied moments.
As with simple beam design if
MT T
>
Z
A
the pressure will be negative and tension, theoretically,
will be developed. However, for most foundations it is
impossible to reliably develop tension, and the foundation
pressure is either compressive or zero.
For a simple rectangular foundation

and

MT

P + FS SS
n=
A

BL2

= p + fS sS

MT L
>
T
6

N=P
P
A

=p
i.e. the net increase in soil load is equal to the load from the
superstructure as mentioned previously.
In the examples above, the foundations have been axially
loaded such that the total bearing pressure is given by
P+F
t=
A

(see Figs 10.15 and 10.16)

While this is the most common situation, and it is clearly an

efficient design principle to create a foundation which uses
the maximum available bearing pressure over its entire
base, there are many occasions when this is not practical
and non-uniform foundation pressures have to be considered. This non-uniformity is typically caused by:
(1) The applied superstructure load P not being on the
centroid of the foundation.
(2) The superstructure being fixed to the foundations such
that moments are transferred into the foundation (e.g.
fixed bases of rigid sway frames).
(3) The application of horizontal loads.

T
BL

6M T
>T
L

When the ground levels and surcharge pressures are only

nominally changed, FS ~ SS , and so the formulae reduce to

n=

>

eT >

or

L
6

where eT is the resulting eccentricity of the foundation.

Therefore if eT is less than L/6, the foundation will be
fully in compression. This is known as the middle third rule
which is illustrated in Design Example 6 in Chapter 11
(section 11.3.2).
Where eT is greater than L/6, a triangular stress distribution is generated under part of the base and zero under the
remainder, and the maximum bearing pressure is calculated using the shortened base theory, which, for a rectangular
base is
tmax =

2T
L
3B eT
2

(see Fig. 10.17 (c)).

Again benefits can be made by considering the total bearing
pressure, thus utilizing the foundation loads which reduce
the overturning and increase the effective length of the
pressure diagram. Consideration should also be given to
the positioning of the base so that the vertical loads P and
F are used to counteract the effects of any moment or

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 177

(a) loading diagram
L
C
L

width of rectangular
base = B

P T

typical loading
combination

eP
M

T =P+F
H

eT =

M = Te T

eT

(b) bearing pressure

distribution where
L
eT <
6
t min =
=

PeP + M + Hh
T

T M
+
Z
A
T Te T
+
=
Z
A
T
6Te
=
+ 2 T
LB
LB

t max =
t min

t max

T MT

Z
A
6Te
T
2 T
LB
LB

L
2

(c) bearing pressure

distribution where
L
eT >
6

L
eT
2

eT

t max =
=

2T
BL b
2T
L
3B
eT
2

t min = 0
t max
Note: tension (ve) pressure
cannot be generated between
underside of base and soil,
therefore pressure is positive
(i.e. in compression) or zero

Lb = 3

( L2 e )
T

Note: centre of pressure base area

diagram is on the line of the resultant
force T. This applies for all foundation
shapes but in this case forms a
triangular stress/force block

length of base
in compression

Fig. 10.17 Foundation in bending about single axis.

horizontal loads. In the example shown in Fig. 10.17, the

load P should be to the left of the centreline such that the
formula for calculating the total eccentricity becomes
eT =

PeP + M + Hh
T

The ideal situation is that eT should be zero or

eP =

M + Hh
P

While it is appropriate to compare the existing load with

the new load on the ground when designing axially loaded
foundations, in the more general case where the loads are
eccentric, it is necessary to consider the allowable bearing

pressure (net or total) with the applied foundation pressure

(net or total) and it is recommended that pressures are compared rather than loads in all cases to maintain consistency
and avoid confusion.
Eccentrically loaded rectangular pad or strip foundations
are generally designed on the middle third rule where this
applies. For other shapes and conditions a trial and error
basis is adopted. A base size is selected and the resulting
bearing pressures compared with the allowable; the base
size is adjusted up or down and the calculations repeated
until the maximum bearing pressure is close to the allowable. Experience will soon enable the engineer to make a
fairly accurate first guess on the size of base required and
reduce the number of iterations necessary.