a.

b.
c.
d.

Are carbon steels adequate?

Can coatings or chemicals be used economically to control corrosion?
If high alloy materials are required, how much will they cost?
How well is the interaction between the process environment and the material
understood?
e. Is there a requirement for materials testing prior to selection?
f. Could required materials testing jeopardize the project in financial or schedule
terms?
As an example, consider conceptual design for a plant for handling high velocity wet
natural gas at 1000psi, with 25% CO 2 and H2S AT 200F. Bare carbon steel would not
be a likely candidate material due to excessive weight loss corrosion. Inhibitors could be
considered, but adequate corrosion control may not be possible. The process is a bit
hot for conventional organic coatings or plastic liners. Both CO 2 and H2S could permeate
the coating and cause coating failure if the system were subject to rapid pressure
changes. Intermediate alloys containing chromium could work with adequate control
welding and heat treatment. High alloy steels (stainless steels) could also work, but
there is a large increment in cost and there may be potential for chlorides and resultant
chloride stress corrosion cracking (CISCC).
Process Design
If development economics favor further work, the next phase of material selection is
generally made coincident with or slightly lagging behind process design. Process
information is examined in detail and materials are selected based on compatibility with
process stream characteristics and other external variables if they are known. Decisions
often require consultation with process engineers for clear understanding of process
conditions, including steady and non-steady state conditions such as start-up, upset,
planned shutdown, and unplanned shutdown.
As an example of the material selection process for a given stream, one might
designate piping materials such as carbon steel (CS) with a suitable corrosion were
important. However, if it is also known that the pipe might be exposed to low ambient
temperatures where impact properties were required, one might upgrade the material
selection to CSIT (carbon steel, impact tested) . For another stream, which could be
considered very corrosive, one might specify 3XXL stainless steel, where L grade is
imposed to resist HAZ sensitization during welding, and the possibility of intergranular
corrosion is service. If that same stream contained an aqueous chloride phase at 80C,
3XX would be susceptible to CISCC. In that case, one might specify a duplex stainless
steel or superduplex stainless steel, depending upon chloride level, oxygen content and
temperature.
While there is no single method for making and documenting materials selection
decisions, the normal output at this stage of a project is a Corrosion and Materials
Report. The word corrosion is generally included in the title of the report, since many of

the material selection decisions reflect a response to corrosion predictions. The report
typically contains the basis for decision making, as well as narratives describing issues,
concerns, and limitations governing final materials selection for a given portion of the
process.
Material selection diagrams (MSDs) and/or material selection tables are generally
included with the Corrosion and Materials Report. MSDs are typically modified process
flow diagrams (PFDs) showing generic material choices and corrosion allowances for
each corrosion circuit. Corrosion circuits are elements of the process with similar
corrosion characteristics, and are frequently equivalent to process streams defined on
the PFD, or to subsets of process streams. Presentation of materials selection data in
diagram is generally the most useful format for communication with other design
professionals, who will use the information during completion of subsequent work. Such
presentation also assists in maintaining materials engineering input on the project. A
simplified example of a MSD for an amine sweetening unit is shown in Figure 5.1
During the mechanical design stage, the process characteristics shown by process
simulations and PFDs and the material requirements shown by the Corrosion and
Materials Report and MSDs, are carefully examined. Then a piping class, which
summarizes detailed mechanical and material requirements, is generally assigned to
each line in the piping system. Note that the use of piping classes is not a B31.3
requirement; it is a typical approach to mechanical design within the pressure piping
industry.
An example of a simple piping class is shown in Figure 5.2. It is a table of information
for a given pressure rating and service characteristic, which describes acceptable piping
component types and dimensions, as well as material specifications, types, classes,
and/or grades. Piping components include pipe, forgings, fittings, valves, bolting,
gaskets, and other piping specials. Usually the piping class contains information about
corrosion allowance, postweld heat treatment, and nondestructive examination. Within a
corporation, piping classes often exist from previous projects, or are supplied by the firm
contracted to complete the engineering. When they do not exist, they are usually
developed on the basis of process, material, and mechanical requirements.
The piping class designator is typically an alphanumeric descriptor such s D2 or AA2U,
which is shown on the piping drawings (collectively, a group of drawings including P &
IDs, MFDs, piping plans and sections, and isometrics), usually as part of the line
number. a typical line number would be 6 in HC-34212-D2, where 6 in. is the nominal
pipe size, HC is the commodity descriptor (e.g., hydrocarbon), 34212 is the line serial
number, and D2 is the piping class. Specification breaks, which may be for material or
pressure reasons, are also applied to piping drawings.
Depending on project scope and technical complexity, the mechanical design stage may
also include preparation of detailed material specifications (stand alone or
supplementary) to address issued such as material chemistry, processing requirements,

product form (cast, forged, welded), fracture toughness, weldabilty, heat treatment,
nondestructive examination, and various forms of corrosion resistance.

********

3. FABRICATION, ASSEMBLY, AND ERECTION

Introduction:

Chapter V of the B31.3 Code is devoted to the fabrication, assembly, and erection of
piping systems. These terms are defined by 300.2 as follows.
a.

Fabrication is the preparation of piping for assembly, including cutting, threading,

grooving, forming, bending, and joining of components into subassemblies.
Fabrication may be performed in the shop or in the field.

b.

Assembly is the joining together of two or more piping components by bolting,

welding, bonding, screwing, brazing, soldering, cementing, or use of packing
devices as specified by the engineering design.

c.

Erection is the complete installation of a piping system in the locations and on the
supports designated by the engineering design, including any field assembly,
fabrication, examination, inspection, and testing of the system as required by the
code.

Fabrication, assembly, and erection require the use of many special processes
including:
a. Forming and bending by cold and hot methods;
b. Joining by welding, brazing, soldering, or mechanical methods including threading,
flanging, specialty high pressure connections, and mechanical interference fits
(MIF); and
c. Heat treatment by local methods, or by permanent or temporary furnaces.
B31.3 assumes some understanding of the special processes used during fabrication,
assembly, and erection of piping systems. However, as with materials of construction,
the level of understanding is widely varied and often restricted to a few processes in the
users repertoire of experience.
Consequently, the objective of this chapter is to explore the basic technology behind
some of the special processes in relation to requirements of the Code.

Bending and Forming [332]

General
Bending and forming processes are sophisticated technical operations. An evaluation of
the effects of bending and forming on material properties is integral to the use of such
products in piping systems. In this light, the following Code statements should be
considered as more than simple motherhood:
a. 332.1 states: pipe may be bent and components may be formed by any hot or cold
method which is suitable for the material, the fluid service, and the severity of the
bending or forming process.
b. 332.3 states: the temperature range for forming shall be consistent with material,
intended service, and specified heat treatment.
These Code clauses are intended to trigger the engineering input necessary to verify
that final material properties will be satisfactory for the intended service. And, even
though the Code does impose requirement for design (e.g., 304.2) and fluid service
(e.g.,306.2), engineering input is still needed. The Code does not and can not provide
rules to address the specific requirements of every situation.
As part of an engineering evaluation, below are some useful starting questions
regarding the effects of bending and forming on material properties for a specific
service.

a. What effect will the bending or forming temperature and deformation parameters
(e.g., cold, warm, or hot bending, strain rate and total strain) have on strength,
ductility, hardness and notch toughness of the resulting bend?
b. What effect will the resulting microstructure have on general corrosion, localized
corrosion (galvanic, pitting, and/or crevice corrosion), stress corrosion cracking, or
long-term mechanical properties?
c. What are the risks relative to formation of hard spots, undesirable precipitation
effects, fatigue resistance, and creep resistance?
Hopefully the above questions would be answered with the help of metallurgical and/or
corrosion specialists, in combination with suitable testing when appropriate.
Bending
The need for changes to the direction of flow in piping systems has traditionally been
accommodated through the use of manufactured fittings such as elbows and tees.
However, changes to direction of flow may also be made through the use of pipe bends.
In fact, with modern equipment, substantial economic benefits can be derived from the
use of bends, by virtue of reduced fitting, welding, and nondestructive examination
(NDE) costs.
Before examining bends in detail, a few comments regarding bend types may be useful
to readers with no bending experience. In the bending and piping industries, bend types
are often described by a multitude of terms. Although a formal classification system
does not exist, bends are usually referred to in terms of:
a. Method of manufacture, including cold bends, hot bends, furnace bends, induction
bends, arm bends, ram bends, three point bends, miter bends, segmented bends,
corrugated bends, and creased bends;
b. Location of manufacture, that is, field bends or factory bends;
c. Shape or appearance, such as L-bends, S-bends, wrinkle bends, miter bends,
segmented bends, corrugated bends, and creased bends; and
d. Function or end-use, such as sag bends, overbends, side bends, and combination
bends.
Note that several of the terms described in (c) and (d) above are rooted in cross-country
pipeline construction, where bends are normally used to accommodate changes of
elevation associated with the terrain or to provide for expansion and contraction of the
pipeline with changes of temperature. For plant piping systems, it is most common to
use bending terms reflective of the method of manufacture, which may include
combinations of terms (e.g., three point cold bend, hot furnace bend, hot induction
bend).

Regardless of bend type, all bends have certain features and dimensional
characteristics which must be carefully specified during piping design and controlled
during bend procurement and manufacture (see Figure 6.1).
.
B31.3 addresses limitations on outer fiber elongation (strain) in clauses dealing with
post bend heat treatment [332.4]. In addition to B31.3 requirements, be cautions
about outer fiber strain restrictions imposed by other standards, which may be
applicable to the piping system (e.g., NACE MRO176).
Although not specified in B31.3, when longitudinally welded pipe is used for bending,
the longitudinal weld should be placed as near as practical to the neutral axis of the
bend.
Heat Treatments Required After Bending or Forming
Through heat treatment rules B31.3 does address some of the adverse effects of
bending and forming operations on material properties. The rules are based on type of
bending operation (hot or cold), type of material, and outer fiber strain.
Regardless of material thickness, heat treatment is required according to conditions
prescribed by 331:
a. After hot bending and forming operations carried out on P nos.3, 4, 5, 6, and 10A
materials;
b. After cold bending and forming.
1. of P-No. 1 to P-No.6 materials where the outer fiber elongation in the direction of
severest forming (usually extrudes) exceeds 50% of specified minimum
elongation stated for the specification grade, and thickness of the starting pipe
material;
2. of any material requiring impact testing, if the maximum calculated fiber strain
after bending or forming exceeds 5%; and
3. when specified by the engineering design.
With regard to (a) above, the materials listed are capable of transformation hardening
when cooled from hot bending and forming temperatures, so heat treatment is aimed at
restoring mechanical properties to a level reasonably consistent with the starting
materials. With regard to (b) above, work hardening effects imparted by cold bending
and forming reduce the ductility and notch toughness (impact strength) of materials. As

well, cold bending and forming operations generate residual stresses in the finished
parts. Heat treatment is therefore applied as a tool to reduce the negative
consequences of these effects (e.g., brittle fracture).

Welding
Most people associated with the pressure piping industry will, at some point, come in
contact with welding. This could mean:
a. Writing a welding procedure,
b. Qualify a welding procedure or welding personnel,
c. Reviewing a welding procedure for acceptance of rejection in a specific application,
or
d. Doing the welding, which will likely involve trying to interpret someone elses welding
procedure.
To laymen, welding is a magic act. With the common arc welding processes, the arc
ignites with a flash of bright light, the magician (welder) moves the bright light along the
interface between the metals and presto, a weld is created. Of course, well-informed
piping professionals know that welding is a lot more than smoke and mirrors. It is a very
complex interdisciplinary science involving aspects of mechanical, civil, electrical, and
metallurgical engineering. Thorough technical understanding of welding operations
requires specific training, which is only available at select engineering, technical, and
trade schools.
B31.3 provides welding guidance in the areas of:
a. responsibility [328.1],
b. qualifications[328.2], and
c. technical and workmanship criteria [328.3 through 328.6].
these are discussed in detail in the following sections.
Welding Responsibility [328.1]
B31.3 is very clear regarding responsibility for welding. 328.1 states: each employer is
responsible for the welding done by the personnel of his organization and; except as
provided in paragraphs. 328.2.2 and 328.2.3, shall conduct the tests required to qualify
welding procedures, and to qualify and as necessary requalify welders and welding

operators. This philosophy is consistent with other sections of the ASME code and with
similar codes, standards, and specifications around the world.
The two exceptions in 328.1, regarding the need for employers to conduct welding
qualification tests, are:
a. Procedure Qualifications By others [328.2.2], and
b. Performance Qualification By Others [328.2.3]
Although these exemptions exist, the employer is not exempt from responsibility for
welds prepared according to procedures or personnel qualified by others. Close
examination of the conditions attached to these exemptions will enhance understanding
as to why the employer is responsible for all welding.