Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section 2:
Socio-Cultural Theories

Section overview
In this section, we present an overview of classic and current theories and definitions of
culture, ethnicity, and diversity. These are linked to relationships in the workplace. This
understanding helps you to develop an appreciation for the way in which culture does,
and does not, operate at global, societal, organisational, and individual levels.

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

define your concept of what culture is and is not

distinguish between key models of culture

describe the effect of values on culture and managing cultural diversity

distinguish between the four social models for managing cultural diversity

define the term ethnicity and discuss the differences between ethnicity and culture

discuss the term diversity and the primary and secondary dimensions of diversity

identify implications of cultural diversity for practitioners and managers

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section Contents
Section requirements ..................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 2
A brief history of the study of culture......................................................................................... 3
Defining culture.............................................................................................................................. 4
Models of culture ........................................................................................................................... 5
What culture is not .......................................................................................................................14
Defining diversity .........................................................................................................................16
Social models for managing cultural diversity..........................................................................17
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................20

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section requirements
Activities
There are six activities in this section.

Textbook
There is no set textbook for this module.

Readings
There are two readings for this section. You will find them in the readings
pack for this module:
4.

Gannon, M. (2008). Conceptualising and perceiving culture. In

Paradoxes of culture and globalisation (pp. 18-43). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.

5.

Mead, R. (2005). Comparing cultures. In International management: Crosscultural dimensions (3rd ed., pp. 27-54). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Self-Assessment
Please complete the self-assessment questions at the end of this section to test
your understanding and knowledge against the objectives stated in this section.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Introduction
We begin this section with a brief history of the study of culture to set the context for
this section.
The second topic attempts the difficult task of defining culture. Culture will be
considered in light of history and the way in which it is described and used by theorists.
The third topic considers four key models of culture: culture as software for behaviour;
culture as a way of dealing with the world; culture as a way of deciding what is right and
wrong; and culture as a boundary. The importance of values in shaping (and being
shaped by) culture and its effect on managing cultural diversity, especially in the
workplace, is introduced. We briefly reconsider globalisation and culture.
Having explored what culture is, it is equally important to explore what culture is not.
We attempt to distinguish between culture and ethnicity and other aspects of human
interactions.
The next topic attempts to define diversity, including the primary and secondary
dimensions of diversity. We explore several social models, including social justice, in
which societies and organisations manage diversity.
Finally, we ask you to consider how you will use this information to deepen your practice
as a manager or professional counsellor in organisations characterised by cultural diversity.
We consider some of the critiques of these theories, and explore ways in which your own
culture has influenced, and will continue to influence, you as a person and in your
professional capacity as a manager or counsellor. We also need to consider the ways in
which national and group cultures intersect and affect organisational cultures and the
people who work within them.

Activity 2.1
1.

Write a definition for each of the following terms in the light of your
current understanding:
a)

culture

b)

ethnicity

c)

cultural diversity

2.

If you are employed, describe what cultures are represented in your

workplace and give three examples that indicate that cultural diversity is
either well managed or ignored.

3.

If you are not employed, select an organisation you are familiar with
and describe what cultures are represented in that workplace. Provide
three examples that indicate that cultural diversity is well-managed or is
ignored.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

A brief history of the study of culture

The English language has borrowed terms from other languages to extend its vocabulary
for the different and the new. The term culture is one of these. The original German
term kultur was imported into English in the 19th century because of its close
correspondence to the term civilisation (Williams, 1988). The Germans had, in their turn,
borrowed from and modified a French word. We shall see that the complexity of the word
culture is the historical consequence of a long and variable development over time.
What we now call the modern sciences and social sciences took shape during the 19th
century. In particular, the disciplines of anthropology, political science, psychology, and
sociology were forming during this period.
At one point in history, it was difficult to distinguish between culture and biology as the
determinists elaborated on their cultural theories, and many of the now outdated concepts,
relating to human society and cultural development, emerged. These included concepts,
such as race, cultural superiority and notions of innate intellectual superiority.
The two key issues for social scientists were to identify in absolute terms what human
beings around the world shared in common and how they differed. These tasks led to
tension among scientists in the 19th century, and it continues to influence academic
analysis of cultural phenomena. They have enduring implications for the attitudes and
values many individuals have towards people who are culturally different.
Many of the ideas and interpretations of the 19th century gained a social and political
foothold that continues to manifest in modern practices and policies. Most debates on
immigration, for example, give rise to comments that relate directly to 19th century
ideologies purporting to prove scientifically the superiority of European and AngloAmerican cultures to most other cultural groups. Hence, we believe a good
understanding of any area of human knowledge must have a basic historical perspective.

Reading
Gannon, M. (2008). Conceptualising and perceiving culture. In Paradoxes of
culture and globalisation (pp. 18-43). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
This reading uses paradoxical reasoning to study and analyse culture.
Paradoxes include: Why are there so many definitions of culture? Are
demographics more important than culture? Are the distinctions between
levels of culture relevant in a globalising world?

Activity 2.2
There are several definitions of culture in this reading. Which definition do
you prefer? Why? What do you consider to be the three most essential
features of any definition of culture?

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Defining culture
Many books and articles which discuss culture and ethnicity make reference to a classic
publication by Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952). In this publication, the authors identify
164 different definitions and descriptions of the then current culture. Although no-one
has since carried out a similarly comprehensive review of definitions, it is quite probable
that several hundred definitions now exist. This makes it challenging to make sense of
the term and to explain how culture operates in our daily lives
Raymond Williams (1988), one of the foremost writers in the field of cultural studies,
states that:
Culture is one of the two or three most complicated words in the English
language (p. 87).
Unfortunately, theorists and practitioners continue to argue about how to define culture
and the ways in which culture affects individuals and groups. They argue whether culture
is what people do, what they value, or what they believe. In addition, they will often use
the words culture, race, nationality and ethnicity interchangeably.
However, most theorists agree on two key aspects of culture: culture is learnt and culture
is shared. In fact, there is nothing biological or genetic about culture. Inherent is the
notion that humans are taught culture. This in turn tells us that:

We learn our primary culture from the moment we are born.

We are not conscious of the process of learning our primary culture or behaving in
accordance with specific cultural rules we are simply doing things the right way.

We learn our culture from the people who are most important to us, or who have a
big impact on our early lives, that is, parents, teachers, peers, and caregivers.

Culture is not ingrained in us, it can and does change over time. Therefore, each
generation modifies its culture to a certain extent.

In other words:
A person is not born with a given culture: rather, she or he acquires it through
the socialisation process that begins at birth: an American is not born with a
liking for hot dogs, or a German with a natural preference for beer: these
behavioural attributes are culturally transmitted (Phatak, n.d., as cited in Dowling
& Welch, 2004, p. 13).
Socialisation, is the process by which we learn and internalise the rules and patterns of
the society in which we live.
This process which occurs over a long time, involves learning and mastering societal
norms, attitudes, values and belief systems (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 60).

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

The second key aspect is that culture is shared. This means that it is impossible to have a
culture of one but, at the same time, it is possible for the same person to share a
number of cultures: ethnic, religious, professional, sport, hobby, age and so on. Most
theorists agree that when we say that culture is shared, we are talking about the sharing of
language, communication, ideas, behaviours, social organisation, and institutions,
including rules and values, symbols and what is considered sacred. It also includes those
things which a culture produces, including material, intellectual and artistic productions.
However these definitions do not tell us what culture is, rather they tell us how it operates.
Culture is about: assumptions, perceptions, thought processes, and feelings. It is also
about survival and dealing with problems. It pertains to dynamics within a group and to
a group within a larger social, national or global group. It is also about what is perceived
as right and wrong for a group, and therefore about values, attitudes and beliefs.
Jack Wood, Joseph Wallace, Rachid Zeffane, Judith Chapman, Michele Fromholtz, and
Val Morrison (2004) provide a distinction between the visible and invisible dimensions of
culture. The visible dimensions are those that are obvious to others, including language,
time orientation, use of space and time. The invisible dimensions are those that are less
easily observed and include values and assumptions that underpin human behaviour.
Martin Gannon (2008) places emphasis on geography.
Culture is a shared meaning system, found among those who speak a particular
language dialect, during a specific historic period, and in a definable geographic
region (p. 157).
David Matsumoto and Linda Juang (2008) highlight environmental factors that influence
culture. These environmental factors are:

ecological: for example, geography, climate, and amount of natural resources

social: for example, population density, type of government history, and religion

biological: whilst culture may shape personality, it is also possible that groups of
people with certain personalities may influence culture

We suggest the following definition by Edgar Schein (1987) summarises the concepts
many of the earlier definitions describe. He describes culture as:
A pattern of shared assumptions invented, discovered and shared by a given
group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation (how to
survive) and internal integration (how to stay together) that has worked well
enough to be valid, and is to be taught to new members of the group as the
correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to these problems (p. 52).

Models of culture
There are many models of culture and the four we have selected provide distinct ways to
consider culture: culture as software for behaviour; culture as a way of dealing with the
world; culture as a way of deciding what is right and wrong; and culture as a boundary.
Be mindful that the models themselves are culturally biased, and if they are to be useful,
they need to be balanced in terms of culturally-diverse viewpoints.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Culture as software for behaviour

Geert Hofstede (1991), one of the key writers in the field of cross-cultural management
and organisation theories, describes culture as mental software. From his perspective,
culture is analogous to the software that allows a computer to operate.
Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and
potential acting which were learnt throughout their lifetime. Much of it has been
acquired in early childhood, because at that time a person is most susceptible to
learning and assimilating. As soon as certain patterns of thinking, feeling, and
acting have established themselves within a persons mind, (s)he must unlearn
these before being able to learn something different, and unlearning is more
difficult than learning for the first time (p. 3).
In describing culture in this way, it is important to avoid the conceptual trap of
determinism where culture is viewed as the only factor affecting a persons behaviour.
Whilst culture is a powerful force in every individual, it does not directly determine what
they do; rather it determines what is possible, usual or preferred within a culture.
A classic example of culture shaping individual disposition is children from immigrant
families who are the first in their families to undertake university studies. Had their
parents remained in their country of origin, they may not have had the means for their
children to continue with their education. Through the process of immigration, they
have reformulated their objective structures, and view their ability to gain access to these
resources differently.
Another way of thinking about culture is to view it as an iceberg, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The iceberg theory of culture

Source: Mayers, S., & Lambert, J. (1990). Managing cultural diversity (p. 28). Los Angeles, CA: Author.

As a metaphor, the figure illustrates the notion that much of our culture is hidden. The
hidden culture includes assumptions, habits, and beliefs that may not be consciously
articulated or taught.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Larry Samovar and Richard Porter (2003) have revised this theory to include three levels.
On the surface are daily activities and artefacts such as clothing, art, buildings, and so on,
that we can observe easily and physically touch. Just below the surface are those that take
some time to recognise. We may be able to immediately recognise a difference but have
difficulty in understanding the meaning. The third and most important level deep
culture, is the one we cannot see at all. It is these aspects of culture that Samovar and
Porter (2003) claim resist major alterations.
For the purposes of study, we will define culture as:
the learned and shared ways of thinking and doing found among members of a
society (Wood et al. 2004, p. 59).
We will return to Hofstedes theory of culture as mental software when we consider how
cultural identity is formed and the challenges faced by people adjusting or transitioning to
new cultural environments.

Activity 2.3
Think about your own culture and imagine trying to explain it to a foreign
visitor who has no knowledge of your country. Use the iceberg metaphor to
identify the artefacts and the hidden culture, that is, the world of
assumptions, habits, and beliefs.
In a culturally diverse country like Australia, it is impossible now to describe a single
culture! You might best describe it in historical phases in the context of multiculturalism,
and include the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Even the hidden culture of
assumptions, such as a fair go, are influenced by changing social constructions and
realities. As we will see in this module, culture is not static.

Culture as a way of dealing with the world

Culture enables the group and individuals to exist as a collective group. This means being
able to meet basic needs and deal with problems. Abraham Maslow (1954) identified our
common basic needs as: physiological, safety, love, affection and belonging, esteem and
self-actualisation. How we choose to meet these needs, or deal with problems, is largely
shaped by culture or what culture deems is possible and appropriate.
Once preferences are developed and passed on to younger generations, the culture or
group begins to adopt a behavioural pattern that this is the prescribed way to act. These
patterns also enable people to get on with their daily lives without having to think about
every aspect of what they are doing.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

As Ina Brown (1963) states:

Our culture is our routine of sleeping, bathing, dressing, eating and getting to
work. It is our household chores and the actions we perform on the job, the way
we buy goods and services, write and mail a letter, take a taxi or board a bus,
make a telephone call, go to a movie, or attend church. It is the way we greet
friends or address a stranger, the admonitions and scoldings we give our children
and the way they regard what we consider good and bad manners, and even to a
large extent what we consider right and wrong.
All these and thousands of other ways of thinking, feeling and acting seem so
natural and right that we may even wonder how else one could do it. But, to
millions of other people in the world, every one of these acts would seem strange,
awkward, incomprehensible, unnatural or wrong. These people would perform
many, if not all, of the same acts but they would be done is different ways that to
them would seem logical, natural and right (p. 11).
Culture can be viewed as a way of dealing with the world by the way groups of people:
shape their physical environment, develop and practice their religion, and construct and
run their political and economic systems.

Culture as a way of deciding right and wrong

Cultural norms are influenced by the values, beliefs, and attitudes of a culture.
Values are those shared ideas of what is good/bad, desirable/undesirable, or
sacred/profane in a society (Alexander & Thompson, 2008, p. 7).

A belief is a conscious certainty that something exists, or is good, in the society.

For example, the belief that wisdom is naturally acquired by experience, and that
the old are naturally wiser than the young.

An attitude is normative a conscious stance about how people ought to behave

in a society (Mead, 1998, p. 7).

Other aspects of culture, such as rituals, heroes, symbols, and everyday practice, are built
on the basis of values. Values are said to develop in children between the ages of five to
ten years. After this, it becomes increasingly difficult to change them.
DuBrin, Dalglish, and Miller (2006) observe that by examining values one can better
understand how national cultures differ. The following figure outlining dimensions of
values identified by Geert Hofstede (1980) and Arvind Phatak (1983) are useful for
describing differences between cultures.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Figure 3: Dimensions of values

1. Individualism

Collectivism

2. High power distance

Low power distance

3. High uncertainty avoidance

4. Masculinity

Low uncertainty avoidance

Femininity

5. Long-term orientation

Short-term orientation

6. Informality

Formality

7. Urgent time orientation

Casual time orientation

Source: DuBrin, A., Dalglish, C., & Miller, P. (2006). Leadership (2nd ed., p. 432). Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons.

Characteristics of each dimension are shown below.

Table 1: Characteristics of values dimensions
Dimension

Characteristics

Individualism/collectivism Individualism is where people see themselves first as

individuals, believing their interests and values take priority.
Collectivism is the notion that the group/organisation/society
is most important. Members of a society that value
individualism will value their careers more than the good of
the organisation. Australia is an individualistic culture.
Collectivistic cultures include many Latin American, Asian
and Middle Eastern countries.
Power distance

Power distance refers to the extent employees accept that

members of an organisation have different levels of power. In
high-power distance countries such as France, Japan and Mexico
bosses make decisions simply because they are the boss and
other employees comply. In low-power-distance cultures such as
Australia, employees do not readily recognise a power hierarchy.

Uncertainty avoidance

Cultures that accept the unknown and tolerate risk and

unconventional behaviour such as Australia are said to have
low-uncertainty avoidance. Workers in Japan, Italy and Argentina,
on the other hand, value certainty and predictability and are
said to high-uncertainty avoidance.

Masculinity/femininity

Masculinity refers to an emphasis on assertiveness, success and

competition and includes countries such as Australia and
India. Femininity refers to an emphasis on personal
relationships and a high quality of life, and includes countries
such as Denmark, Korea and Spain.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Long-term
orientation/short-term
orientation

Employees from a culture with long-term orientation such as

Japan and China maintain long-range perspectives and do not
demand quick returns on investment. Masculine countries
such as Australia and some West African countries have a
short-term orientation.

Formality/informality

Latin American workers typically value formality and attach

importance to traditions, ceremony, social rules, and rank.
Conversely, countries such as Australia value informality.

Urgent time
orientation/casual time
orientation.

People from countries such as Australia and the US perceive

time as a scarce resource and tend to be impatient, especially
in planning and investment decisions. People from some
countries in the Middle East and Asia have a more causal time
orientation, often displaying great patience when negotiating.

Adapted from: DuBrin, A., Dalglish, C., & Miller, P. (2006). Leadership (2nd ed., p. 432). Brisbane: John
Wiley & Sons.

Some countries will display dimensions that contrast significantly to Australia. As

practitioners and managers, it is helpful to recognise that a persons national values might
influence his or her behaviours in the work environment.
Because values are usually embedded within a person, they have a very strong influence
on behaviour and shape how people interact. In terms of managing cultural diversity, it
is important to recognise that individuals from different cultures come together in the
same workplace with significantly different expectations of what will occur, what will be
recognised, and what will be rewarded. For example, an employee with strong
individualist values may find it difficult to meet performance measures based on team
results. Likewise, a person from a culture with high-power distance may find it
challenging to take on a supervisory role where group decision-making is expected.
Leslie Aguilar and Linda Stokes (1996) go further, and identify fifty common ways in
which culture influences behaviour:
Etiquette and behaviour

how we meet each other

how closely we stand next to each

other

whats considered common courtesy

whats considered impolite

the holidays we celebrate and the way

we celebrate

how we show respect and disrespect

what is embarrassing

how we use money, credit and

bartering

what makes us feel good

what is risqu

what we eat and how we eat

how we seek and use health services

what we wear

what we find humorous

what we buy and how we behave in

stores

how we use mass transit

how often we touch each other and

how we touch each other

seating placement in a room

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Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Beliefs and values

what is beautiful or ugly

common sense

what are worthwhile goals in life

our perceived needs

the nature of God and other religious

beliefs

whether privacy is desirable or

undesirable

whether a person is in control of

their life or whether fate determines
their life

appropriate health care

appropriate personal hygiene

Communication

the language we speak

what should be said, what should be

left unsaid

whether conversation should be

formal or informal

the meaning of hand gestures, facial

expressions, and other non-verbal
communication

how often we smile, whom we smile

at, and the meaning of the smile

what is appropriate small talk

whom we speak to and to whom we

should not speak

whether communication should be

direct or indirect

Human relations

the role of the individual

interactions between strangers

the role of men and how men should

behave

the role of women and how women

should behave

how to interact with a person in

authority (e.g. boss, police officer,
teacher)

how to interact with a person who is

serving us

the importance of harmony in a group

the importance of competition

between individuals

relationships and obligations between

friends

social class system

hierarchy in business relationships

relationships and obligations between

parents, children and other family
members

crowd or audience behaviour

Time

how time is scheduled and used

whether schedules are important or

unimportant

the importance of preparing for the

future

whether old age is valuable or

undesirable

the importance of maintaining

tradition

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Culture as a boundary
Hofstede (1997) provides a useful schemata for looking at the way in which levels of
culture operate within a society, and the way in which individuals may be part of a
number of cultures:

a national level: corresponding to ones country or countries for people who

migrate during their lifetimes

a regional, ethnic, religious and linguistic level of affiliation: as most nations

are composed of culturally different regions, ethnic, religious and/or language
groups

a gender level: according to whether a person is born and socialised as a boy or

girl

a generation level: distinguishing grandparents from parents, parents from

children

a socio-class level: associated with educational opportunities and a persons

occupation or profession

an organisational or corporate level for those who are employed: associated

with the way employees have been socialised by their work organisation

Like all boundaries, these can be altered or removed. Two common mistakes people make
about culture are to assume that it is unchanging and deterministic. It does not determine
how every individual acts, all the time. Indeed, sociologists now emphasise that:
while symbols must be shared to constitute a culture, they certainly do not
have to be shared by every single member of a social group. Cultures do not
have to be, and usually are not, integrated wholes. In fact, they are often divided
and conflicted. Sets of cultural beliefs can be at war with each other inside the
same society (Alexander & Thompson, 2008, p. 80).
Even within a culture, a wide range of sub-cultures, or cultures within a culture exist,
for example, surfers, Goths, environmentalists, or religious fundamentalists.
Because culture is adaptive, it changes over time and responds to broader social,
economic, and environmental changes. Likewise, culture can freeze. This occurs when
immigrants maintain their culture in the same form which existed at the time they left
their country of origin, even though the original culture (in their country of birth) has
since changed.
Culture is about human interaction, it shapes and is shaped by changes in human society.
The acceptance of homosexuality, the use of mobile phones and the ability to build
multi-story buildings are a few examples of paradigm shifts in the way culture changes.
Williams (1988) described culture as operating in society in four inter-related and
dynamic ways.
1.

The dominant culture is what is widely accepted or acquired by most people in a

society.

2.

The archaic culture is those aspects of culture which are symbolic, and which
come out of the cultures past, but do not operate in the modern society. For
example, the use of the Colosseum to depict Rome today.

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

3.

The residual culture is the aspect of culture which developed in the past and
continues to operate in some form in current society, such as the English
monarchy.

4.

The emergent culture involves the creation of new values, practices and
relationships, for example, the legal recognition of homosexual marriages.

Once new ways of being are developed, they either remain at the edge of the culture or
become incorporated into the dominant culture. Sometimes, they create a new phase or
form of the dominant culture as, some would argue, happened with the role of women in
the workforce in many countries of the world.

Reading
Mead, R. (2005). Comparing cultures. In International management: Cross-cultural
dimensions (3rd ed., pp. 27-54). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
This reading discusses how far national cultures can be effectively analysed on
a comparative basis. The reading also provides you with greater detail on
Hofstedes work. Despite the weaknesses of this model, it is very
comprehensive, well respected, and widely used.

Activity 2.4
1.

We have suggested you already have your own culture in terms of the
Hofstede categories. Identify your own culture and think about it in
terms of its special characteristics and idiosyncrasies.

2.

Now look at it through the eyes of a person from another culture.

What characteristics might this person use if asked to describe you?

Globalisation and culture

Richard Mead (2005) believes the term globalisation is difficult to define because it is
used differently depending on the context in which it is used. However, he argues that:
it should not be interpreted as simply the expansion of trade and capitalism
between different countries. This expansion has a long history and is nothing
new. The important point is that globalisation is a new process that has
developed only since the late 1970s and is eroding the influence of national
institutions and borders, and is transforming international relations between
countries and regions (p. 263).
Many people believe globalisation has resulted in national cultures converging to a
common norm, assisted by mass communication and the standardisation of consumption.
However, others maintain that evidence of cultural convergence is not compelling.
David Thomas & Kerr Inkson (2004) argue convergence is only taking place in
superficial matters such as business procedures and consumer preferences, rather than in
fundamental ways of thinking and behaviour. They argue that cultures tend to accept
some aspects of other cultures and reject others.
Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Activity 2.5
1.

How do you perceive the difference between culture and ethnicity?

2.

What is your ethnic background? What is the ethnic background of the

majority of your co-workers? If you are not in a workplace, base your
answer on a group of people you are familiar with.

The terms culture and ethnic group are often used interchangeably. However, as you will
see, they are quite different concepts.

What culture is not

Having explored what culture is, or can be, it is equally important to explore what culture is
not. We already identified that culture is not genetic. It is about human interactions, and
not human nature or personality. We also identified that culture is not static, that it
changes over time and in times of social or economic upheaval it can change dramatically.
Culture is not the same as:

Nations: reference to the culture of a nation only works in the broadest sense, for
example, referring to Australians rather than Germans. People in Australia come
from a range of cultural backgrounds. Some cultural groups, like the Kurds, cross
different national boundaries.

Language: although they are closely tied, they are not the same. People in
Switzerland, for example, share a culture, but speak four different languages.

Religion: people who share a religion share a culture, although not all people who
are part of a culture practise that religion. For example, there are many Jewish
people who do not practice their religion, but who still consider themselves Jewish.

Ethnicity: ethnicity or ethnic identity is not the same as culture. People within a
culture may have a different ethnic identity to those of the majority culture, of
which they form a part. For example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples in Australia or African-American people in the United States of America.

Ethnicity
The word ethnicity is derived from the Greek ethnos, meaning people of a nation or
tribe. So what makes an ethnic group different from a culture? Primarily the issue is that
cultural groups can be formed across any number of different variables, including age,
occupation, socio-economic background or gender. When we refer to ethnic groups,
however, we are referring to a specific group of people who:
see themselves as culturally distinct from other groupings in a society, and are
seen by those others to be so. Many different characteristics may serve to
distinguish ethnic groups from one another, but the most usual are language,
history or ancestry (real or imagined) religion and styles of dress or adornment.
Ethnic differences are wholly learned (Giddens, 1989, pp. 223-234).

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

In short, ethnicity suggests a sense of belonging, a distinct group culture and the
overriding importance of shared traditions (Alexander & Thompson, 2008, p. 306). So
while there are similarities between culture and ethnicity, ethnicity is far more specific.
One of the distinguishing features of culture is that often people are unaware of how
their culture operates until they leave it. They view it simply as the way things are done.
Ethnicity, on the other hand, is a more conscious process. This is because individual
ethnic groups may have always been outside the majority culture, although they may in
fact precede that culture.
Loula Rodopoulos (1981) identifies six key aspects of ethnicity:
1.

Its origins preceded the creation of, or are external to, a nation state.

2.

It is an involuntary group, although individual identification with the group may be

optional.

3.

It has an ancestral tradition with its members sharing a sense of peoplehood and
an interdependence of fate.

4.

It has some distinguishing value orientations, behavioural patterns and interests,

often political and economic.

5.

The groups existence has an influence, in many cases a substantial influence, on

the lives of its members.

6.

Membership in the group is influenced both by how members define themselves,

and how they are defined by others. This relates to the concept that peoples
ethnicity is both achieved and ascribed. People may define someone as being a
member of an ethnic group, whilst the individual may have no desire to identify
with that group. Similarly, in Australia, in order to be defined as an Indigenous
Australian, the individual must be accepted by an Aboriginal or Torres Strait
Islander community.

Finally, there are two further points about ethnicity. The first is that in some countries,
the term ethnic group has been used to describe people of non-English speaking
backgrounds. This is incorrect, as every human being is, by definition, part of an ethnic
group, purely on the grounds that whether they see themselves as being so or not, an
ethnicity is ascribed to them in relation to other people.
The second point is that the concept of race or nation sometimes masks what is a whole
range of ethnic groups and differences. Indigenous Australians, for example, are often
seen as being one group. Yet at the time the British arrived in Australia, there were over
600 different dialects and languages spoken in Australia. There are a whole range of
different ethnic and cultural groups which extend over the people who are commonly
and incorrectly defined, only, as Indigenous Australians.
Matsumoto and Juang (2008) counsel that just knowing the ethnicity of a person does
little to explain psychological outcomes. As a practitioner or manager you will need to go
beyond the use of ethnic labels to explain individual or group differences. Rather, they
recommend closer attention to culture (especially norms and values) as an underlying
determinant of psychological functioning which makes ethnic group differences
meaningful.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Defining diversity
Having defined what culture and ethnicity are, we will now consider what is meant by the
term diversity.
We live and work in a world characterised by instant communication, a global
market and transnational corporations. Each year brings intensified movement
of people, products and services across old boundaries, with the inevitable clash
of cultural values
As these factors reached a critical mass, the word diversity was coined to describe
the situation and the efforts to address it (Simons & Abramms, 1992, p. 9).

Diversity management
In recent years, there has been a significant development in the field of management,
particularly in the way organisations perceive and deal with the concept of diversity. In
this sense, diversity management has grown out of a need to deal with the range of
variables which exist in human beings, societies, and workplaces.
Initially, the focus of diversity management reflected the concerns about the full
participation of women in the workforce. Since then, it has gone from being concerned
with minority groups to a more holistic perspective which indicates that diversity
management identifies and meets the needs of all workers and management in a
culturally diverse society. We will return to this theme later in the module.

Primary and secondary dimensions of culture

There are two commonly understood dimensions of diversity within a society, the
primary dimensions and the secondary dimensions.

Primary dimensions of diversity are those we are born with. People may be
sensitive about primary dimensions because others can tell these things about them
just by looking at them. So if someone has a preconceived idea about a certain
dimension, for example, that an older person will not readily use technology to
communicate, they can project that on to someone before the person even speaks.

Secondary dimensions are those we have some control over, and they can
change throughout our lives. People have a choice of whether they want to
disclose this information or not. Therefore, they may not be as sensitive about
these dimensions, even though these may have as big an impact on who we are as
the primary dimensions.

A visual diagram of these dimensions is presented below.

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Figure 4: Dimensions of diversity

Source: Unknown.

George Simons and Bob Abramms (1992) include additional dimensions: profession,
regionality, family structure, political affiliations, and organisational background.
What this chart depicts is that diversity occurs at a number of different levels and all have
an effect on the workplace. Note that ethnicity is only one aspect of diversity. This is
why those who are concerned with issues of culture and ethnicity use the term cultural
diversity management. We will come back to this theme in Section 7.

Social models for managing cultural diversity

The management of cultural diversity occurs at two levels in any given society. At the
primary level, there are overall strategies for the management of cultural diversity within
a society. At a secondary level, there are those strategies, approaches, and perspectives
taken by individual organisations which enable them to effectively respond to the needs
of staff and clients. We summarise four broad common approaches, or social models, to
cultural diversity within societies and organisations.

Assimilation
The assimilation approach requires individuals to forget and deny their original culture.
They eventually adopt their new culture, be it organisational or societal. In general, this
approach simply does not work because:

it is almost impossible to forget ones culture

assimilation robs societies and companies of the richness which diversity brings in
terms of skills, ideas, and new forms of emergent culture

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

As Ann Morrison (1996) states:

Assimilation is now generally regarded as a dysfunctional business strategy in
Australia. Rather, managing for diversity brings an organisation a competitive
advantage (p. 6).

Pluralism
There are three variations to the pluralist approach:
The first is the do unto others approach which simply says treat people as you want to
be treated. This approach does not recognise that there are significant structural and
cultural barriers faced by individuals and groups on the basis of their primary dimensions
of diversity.
The second is the melting pot approach which assumes that all people eventually mix
together and form a new homogeneous group. In reality, this does not happen because
this approach assumes that it is possible to smooth out all differences between groups.
The third variation is the folk culture approach which recognises the value of cultural
diversity of people in society, but it tends to limit their expressions to what they do within
their own homes, or to aspects of folk culture, like food, dance and music. It does not
recognise the structural inequalities which occur in society or in the workplace. It results in
a colour-blind approach, which says that because majority individuals do not see
differences in minority individuals, those differences do not exist when, in fact, they do.

Multiculturalism
The multicultural approach seeks to address the inequities within society or within
organisations. Its starting point is the notion that diversity is a reality and an asset to
society and organisations. It is the duty of each society and organisation to ensure that
the full potential of that diversity is reached for the benefit of all people within the
organisation or society.

Social justice
The social justice approach also seeks to address the inequities of society through
strategies including policies, legislation, training and education. In some countries the
social justice approach has resulted in affirmative action strategies, where positions are
created specifically for minority groups, or where individuals from minority groups are
chosen, if all else is equal, for a position or a promotion. According to Gill Kirton and
Anne-Marie Greene (2000), the social justice approach has struggled to achieve traction
in the profit-oriented profit sector.
According to Henry Tischler and Patrick Ashton (1996), there are four less common and
extreme approaches to cultural diversity. They are:
1.

Subjugation: where one group is under the power of another

2.

Segregation: which can be a form of subjugation when it is imposed on

communities, or a choice where particular groups choose to remain separate

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

3.

Expulsion: where groups are forced to leave the country in which they live, or
where, like slaves, they are stolen from their country of origin

4.

Annihilation: an extreme form, perpetrated on many indigenous populations,

Jewish people, gypsies, and homosexuals, for example, in World War II

One of the ways in which Australia has responded to diversity is through legislation that
prohibits discrimination. We will look at this later in the module.

Activity 2.6
Now that you have examined the concepts of culture, ethnicity and diversity,
observe how they operate in either your workplace or in your community.
1.

Describe the culture of your workplace or community?

2.

How is diversity evidenced in your workplace or community?

3.

Which approach does your organisation or community take to

managing diversity?

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories

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Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Conclusion
In this section, we discussed the notion of culture which has become an important topic
in both counselling and management today. We considered its history, the various
definitions which are applied to it and the way in which it has been described and used by
a number of theorists.
We then discussed four key models of culture, where culture is described as:
1.

a way of dealing with the world

2.

software of the mind

3.

a way for deciding what is right and what is wrong for individuals and communities

4.

a way of setting a boundary for different groups

We examined a number of terms which are often confused or compounded with the
concept of culture. In particular, we outlined the ways in which ethnicity is defined and
six key ways in which it is delineated.
We also discussed theories of cultural diversity, including the primary and secondary
dimensions of diversity. We explored several social models in which societies and
organisations manage diversity.
Throughout this section, you are reminded that concepts like culture, ethnicity and
diversity are useful, however they are only notions. We cannot determine how a person
is going to behave on the basis of what we perceive their ethnicity and culture to be. We
can only take ethnicity and culture into account as a way of exploring a range of possible
approaches, needs, and concerns which an individual might display. However, theories
and models help us make sense of different behaviours, values and attitudes.

Self-Assessment
Did you achieve the objectives for this section? To test your knowledge,
write brief answers to the following questions:

20

1.

Outline the key concepts and theories associated with culture.

2.

Describe the way in which ethnicity can be used to delineate a group of

people.

3.

Discuss the significance for organisations of an ethnically, culturally and

linguistically diverse workforce and clientele.

4.

Review your definitions of culture, ethnicity, and cultural diversity

which you wrote for Activity 2.1. You may find that you need to reword or add to your definitions in light of your learning in this section.

Section 2: Socio-Cultural Theories