Cbmpics CBM c128s c128sg

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www.zimmers.net/cbmpics/cbm/c128s/c128sg.txt
OriginalTitle:Commodore128PersonalComputerSystemGuide
Publishedby:CommodoreBusinessMachines,Ltd.1985
Typedby:RenevanBelzen
Version:April9,2000
Notesfromthetypist
=====================
Entering(datatyping)theCommodore128SystemGuide...Thisentailedfar
morethanIbargainedfor.Thisisbecausenotonlybecausetheoriginal
textcontainederrors,whichhadtobecorrected,butalsobecausesome
usefulinformationandhintsweremissing.
IcouldhavewrittenaseparateebookcontainingwhatIfeelshouldhave
beenincludedintheC128SystemGuideaswell(andIstillmaydothat
oneday).InsteadIaddedsomewordshereandtheretoclarifymatters,
toavoidwanderingofftoomuchfromtheoriginaltext.Thismeansthis
etextisnotanexact1:1replicaoftheoriginal,butI'msurethe
authorsoftheoriginalSystemGuidewouldn'tobject(toomuch).Theypro
bablyhadtowritetheSystemGuideinajiffie,whileIcouldtakeaslong
asIwantedtogetthetextjustright.
Credits:
MostoftheetextIhavetyped(andcorrected)myself.However,
someoftheASCIIartandsomeoftheappendixesIhavecopiedandadapted
fromtheC64Programmer'sReferenceGuide,theetextversionbyVille
Muikkula.Also,wheretheoriginaltextbyCommodorehadshortcomingsI
added/correctedtext.
Manythankstoallthosepeoplewhopointedmetotheexistingerrorsin
oneofmyearlierpublicationsoftheC128SystemGuide.
April9,2000
RenevanBelzen
mailto:hurray@xs4all.nl
http://www.xs4all.nl/~hurray/cbm/
(Notethatboththeemailandwebaddressmaychangeatanypointinthe
future.)
SystemGuide
Commodore
128
PersonalComputer
(c)CommodoreElectronics,Ltd.1985.Allrightsreserved.
Copyright(c)1985byCommodoreElectronicsLimited
Allrightsreserved
Thismanualcontainscopyrightedandproprietaryinformation.Nopartof
thispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortrans
mittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,
recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofCommodore
ElectronicsLimited.
http://www.zimmers.net/cbmpics/cbm/c128s/c128sg.txt
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CommodoreBASIC7.0
Copyright(c)1985byCommodoreElectronicsLimited;Allrightsreserved
Copyright(c)1977byMicrosoftCorp.
Allrightsreserved
CP/M(R)PlusVersion3.0
Copyright(c)1982DigitalResearchInc.
Allrightsreserved
CP/MisaregisteredtrademarkofDigitalResearchInc.
CONTENTS
C128SYSTEMGUIDE
CHAPTERIINTRODUCTION
SECTION1HOWTOUSETHISGUIDE
SECTION2OVERVIEWOFTHECOMMODORE128PERSONALCOMPUTER
CHAPTERIIUSINGC128MODE
SECTION3GETTINGSTARTEDINBASIC
SECTION4ADVANCEDBASICPROGRAMMING
SECTION5SOMEBASICCOMMANDSANDKEYBOARDOPERATIONS
UNIQUETOC128
SECTION6COLOR,ANIMATIONANDSPRITEGRAPHICS
SECTION7SOUNDANDMUSICINC128MODE
SECTION8USING80COLUMNS
CHAPTERIIIUSINGC64MODE
SECTION9USINGBASICINC64MODE
SECTION10STORINGANDREUSINGYOURPROGRAMSINC64MODE
CHAPTERIVCP/MMODE
SECTION11INTRODUCTIONTOCP/M3.0
SECTION12FILES,DISKSANDDRIVESINCP/M3.0
SECTION13USINGTHECONSOLEANDPRINTERINCP/M3.0
SECTION14SUMMARYOFMAJORCP/M3.0COMMANDS
SECTION15COMMODOREENHANCEMENTSTOCP/M3.0
CHAPTERVBASIC7.0ENCYCLOPAEDIA
SECTION16INTRODUCTION
SECTION17BASICCOMMANDSANDSTATEMENTS
SECTION18BASICFUNCTIONS
SECTION19VARIABLESANDOPERATIONS
SECTION20RESERVEDWORDSANDSYMBOLS
APPENDICES
APPENDIXABASICLANGUAGEERRORMESSAGES
APPENDIXBDOSERRORMESSAGES
APPENDIXCCONNECTORS/PORTSFORPERIPHERALEQUIPMENT
APPENDIXDSCREENDISPLAYCODES
APPENDIXEASCIIANDCHR$CODES
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APPENDIXFSCREENANDCOLORMEMORYMAPS
APPENDIXGDERIVEDMATHEMATICALFUNCTIONS
APPENDIXHMEMORYMAP
APPENDIXICONTROLANDESCAPECODES
APPENDIXJMACHINELANGUAGEMONITOR
APPENDIXKBASIC7.0ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDIXLDISKCOMMANDSUMMARY
GLOSSARY
INDEX
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
SECTION1
1.HowtoUseThisGuide
ThisCommodore128SystemGuideisdesignedtohelpyoumakefulluseof
theadvancedcapabilitiesoftheCommodore128computer.
BeforeyoureadanyfurtherinthisSystemGuide,makesureyouhave
readtheotherbookthatcomeswithyourcomputer,theCommodore128
PersonalComputerIntroductoryGuide.Thisintroductoryguidecontains
importantinformationongettingstartedwiththeCommodore128.
IfyouareprimarilyinterestedinusingtheBASIClanguagetocreate
andrunyourownprograms,youshouldreadChapterII,USINGC128MODE.
ThischapterintroducesyoutotheBASICprogramminglanguageasused
inbothC128andC64modes,describestheCommodore128keyboard,
definessomeadvancedcommandsyoucanuseinbothC128andC64modes,
showshowtouseanumberofpowerfulnewBASICcommands(including
colour,graphicandsoundcommands)thatareuniquetoC128Mode,and
describeshowtousethe80columncapabilitiesavailableinC128Mode.
IfyouwanttouseBASICinC64Mode,readChapterIII,USINGC64MODE.
IfyouwanttouseCP/MontheCommodore128,readChapterIV,USING
CP/MMODE.ThischaptertellsyouhowtostartupanduseCP/Monthe
Commodore128.InCP/Myoucanchoosefromthousandsofcommercial
softwarepackages,includingthePERFECTseries(PERFECTWRITER,
PERFECTCALC,PERFECTFILER).YoucanalsocreateyourownCP/M
programs.
IfyouwantdetailsontheBASIC7.0commands,readChapterIV,BASIC
7.0ENCYCLOPAEDIA.Thischaptergivesformatandusagedetailsonall
BASIC7.0commands,statementsandfunctions.
If,afterreadingChaptersIthroughV,youarelookingforadditional
technicalinformationaboutaparticularCommodore128topic,first
checktheAppendicestothisSystemGuide.Theseappendicescontaina
widerangeofinformation,suchasacompletelistofBASICandDOS
errormessagesandasummaryofdiskcommands.AGlossaryfollowingthe
Appendicesprovidesdefinitionsofcomputingterms.
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ForcompletetechnicaldetailsaboutanyfeatureoftheCommodore128,con
sulttheCommodore128Programmer'sReferenceGuide.
SECTION2
2.OverviewoftheCommodoreC128PersonalComputer
2.1OVERVIEWOFTHECOMMODOREC128PERSONALCOMPUTER
2.1.1C128MODE
2.1.2C64MODE
2.1.3CP/MMODE
2.2SWITCHINGBETWEENMODES
2.2.1MODESWITCHINGCHART
2.1OVERVIEWOFTHECOMMODOREC128PERSONALCOMPUTER
TheCommodore128PersonalComputeroffersthreeprimaryoperatingmodes:
*C128Mode
*C64Mode
*CP/MMode
2.1.1C128Mode
InC128Mode,theCommodore128PersonalComputerprovidesaccessto128K
ofRAMandapowerfulextendedBASIClanguageknownasBASIC7.0.BASIC7.0
offersover140commands,statementsandfunctions.C128Modealsoprovides
both40and80columnoutputandfulluseofthe92keykeyboard.Abuilt
inmachinelanguagemonitorallowsyoutocreateanddebugyourownmachine
languageprograms.InC128Modeyoucanuseanumberofnewperipheral
devicesfromCommodore,includinganewfastserialdiskdrive(the1571),
amouse,anda40/80columncompositevideo/RGBImonitor(the1901).You
canalsouseallstandardCommodoreserialperipherals.
2.1.2C64Mode
InC64Mode,theCommodore128operatesexactlylikeaCommodore64com
puter,allowingyoutotakefulladvantageofthewiderangeofavailable
C64software.YoualsohavefullcompatibilitywithallC64peripherals.
C64ModeprovidesBASIC2.0language,40columnoutputandaccessto64Kof
RAM.
2.1.3CP/MMode
InCP/MMode,anonboardZ80microprocessorgivesyouallthecapabilities
ofDigitalResearch'sCP/MPlusversion3.0,plusseveralnewcapabilities
byCommodore.TheCommodore128'sCP/Mpackage,calledCP/MPlus,provides
128KofRAM,40and80columnoutput,accesstothefullkeyboard,inclu
dingthenumerickeypadandspecialkeys,andaccesstothenewCommodore
1571fastserialdiskdriveaswellasstandardserialperipherals.
ChaptersII,IIIandIV,whichincludeSections3through15,tellyouhow
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toaccessandusethecapabilitiesofthethreepowerfulandversatile
operatingmodesoftheCommodore128PersonalComputer.
2.2SwitchingBetweenModes
Thefollowingcharttellsyouhowtoswitchtoonemodefromanother.
NOTE:IfyouareusingaCommodore1901dualmonitorremembertomovethe
videoswitchonthemonitorfromtheCOMPOSITEorSEPARATEDtoRGBIwhen
switchingfrom40columnto80columndisplay.Reversethisstepwhen
switchingfrom80to40columns.
2.2.1MODESWITCHINGCHART
FROM
T|OFFC128C128C64CP/MCP/M
O|40COL(1)80COL(2)(3)40COL(4)80COL(5)
+++++++
1|1.Checkthat||1.Press|1.Check|1.Check|1.Check|
|{40/80}||{esc}|that|that|that|
|keyisUP.||key;|{40/80}|{40/80}|{40/80}|
|2.Turn||release.|keyis|keyis|keyis|
|computer||2.PressX|UP.|UP.|UP.|
|ON.||key.|2.Turn|2.Remove|2.Remove
|||OR|computer|CP/M|CP/M|
|||1.Check|OFF,then|system|system|
|||that|ON.|disk,if|disk,if|
|||{40/80}||neces|neces|
|||keyis||sary.|sary.|
|||UP.||3.Turn|3.Turn|
|||2.Press||computer|computer|
|||{reset}||OFF,then|OFF,then|
|||button.||ON.|ON.|
+++++++
2|1.Press|1.Press||1.Press|1.Press|1.Check|
|{40/80}|{esc}||{40/80}|{40/80}|that|
|keyDOWN.|key;||keyDOWN.|keyDOWN.|{40/80}|
|2.Turn|release.||2.Turn|2.Remove|keyis|
|computer|2.PressX||computer|CP/M|DOWN.|
|ON.|key.||OFF,then|system|2.Remove|
||OR||ON.|diskfrom|CP/M|
||1.Press|||drive,if|system|
||{40/80}|||neces|diskfrom|
||keyDOWN.|||sary.|drive,if|
||2.Press|||3.Turn|neces|
||{reset}|||computer|sary.|
||button.|||OFF,then|3.Turn|
|||||ON.|computer|
||||||OFF,then|
||||||ON.|
+++++++
3|1.Hold{C=}|1.Type|1.Type||1.Turn|1.Turn|
|keyDOWN.|GO64;|GO64;||computer|computer|
|2.Turn|press|press||OFF.|OFF.|
|computer|{return}.|{return}.||2.Check|2.Check|
|ON.|2.The|2.The||that|that|
|OR|computer|computer||{40/80}|{40/80}|
|1.InsertC64|responds:|responds:||keyis|keyis|
|cartridge.|AREYOU|AREYOU||UP.|UP.|
|2.Turn|SURE?|SURE?||3.HoldDOWN|3.HoldDOWN|
|computer|TypeY;|TypeY;||{C=}key|{C=}key|
|ON.|press|press||while|while|
||{return}.|{return}.||turning|turning|
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|||||computer|computer|
|||||ON.|ON.|
|||||OR|OR|
|||||1.Turn|1.Turn|
|||||computer|computer|
|||||OFF.|OFF.|
|||||2.Insert|2.Insert|
|||||C64car|C64car|
|||||tridge.|tridge.|
|||||3.Turn|3.Turn|
|||||powerON.|powerON.|
+++++++
4|1.Turndisk|1.Turndisk|1.Turndisk|1.Check||1.Insert|
|driveON.|driveON.|driveON.|that||CP/M|
|2.Insert|2.Insert|2.Insert|{40/80}||utilities|
|CP/Msys|CP/Msys|CP/Msys|keyis||diskin|
|temdisk|temdisk|temdisk|UP.||drive.|
|indisk|indisk|indisk|2.Turndisk||2.Atscreen|
|drive.|drive.|drive.|driveON.||prompt,|
|3.Checkthat|3.Check|3.Check|3.Insert||A>type:|
|{40/80}|that|that|CP/M||DEVICE|
|keyisUP.|{40/80}|{40/80}|system||CONOUT|
|4.Turn|keyis|keyis|diskin||=40COL.|
|computer|UP.|UP.|drive.||3.Press|
|ON.|4.Type:|4.Type:|4.Turn||{return}.|
||BOOT.|BOOT.|computer|||
||5.Press|5.Press|OFF,then|||
||{return}.|{return}|ON.|||
+++++++
5|1.Turndisk|1.Turndisk|1.Turndisk|1.Press|1.Insert||
|driveON.|driveON.|driveON.|{40/80}|CP/M||
|2.Insert|2.Insert|2.Insert|keyDOWN.|utilities||
|CP/Msys|CP/Msys|CP/Msys|2.Turndisk|diskin||
|temdisk|temdisk|temdisk|driveON.|drive.||
|indisk|indisk|indisk|3.Insert|2.Atscreen||
|drive.|drive.|drive.|CP/M|prompt||
|3.Press|3.Press|3.Check|system|A>type:||
|{40/80}|{40/80}|that|diskin|DEVICE||
|keyDOWN.|keyDOWN.|{40/80}|drive.|CONOUT||
|4.Turn|4.Type:|keyis|4.Turn|=80COL.||
|computer|computer|DOWN.|computer|3.Press||
|ON.|BOOT.|4.Type:|OFF,then|{return}.||
||5.Press|BOOT.|ON.|||
||{return}.|5.Press||||
|||{return}.||||
+++++++
NOTE:IfyouareusingaCommodore1902dualmonitor,remembertomovethe
videoswitchonthemonitorfromCOMPOSITEorSEPARATEDtoRGBIwhen
switchingfrom40columnto80columndisplay;reversethisstepwhen
switchingfrom80to40columns.Also,whenswitchingbetweenmodesremove
anycartridgesfromtheexpansionportandanydisksfromthediskdrive.
CHAPTER
2
USINGC128MODE
SECTION3
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3.GettingStartedinBasic
3.1BASICPROGRAMMINGLANGUAGE
3.1.1DirectMode
3.1.2ProgramMode
3.2USINGTHEKEYBOARD
3.2.0.1C128KeyboardLayOut
3.2.1KeyboardCharacterSets
3.2.2UsingtheCommandKeys
3.2.2.1Return
3.2.2.2Shift
3.2.2.3ShiftLock
3.2.2.4Movingthecursor
3.2.2.4.1UsingthefourArrowCursorkeys
3.2.2.4.2UsingtheCRSRkeys
3.2.2.5INST/DEL
3.2.2.5.1Instertingcharacters
3.2.2.5.2Deletingcharacters
3.2.2.5.3UsingINSerTandDELetetogether
3.2.2.6Control
3.2.2.7Run/Stop
3.2.2.8Restore
3.2.2.9CLR/Home
3.2.2.10Commodorekey
3.2.3FunctionKeys
3.2.4DisplayingGraphicCharacters
3.2.5RulesforTypingBASICLanguagePrograms
3.3GETTINGSTARTEDTHEPRINTCOMMAND
3.3.1PrintingNumbers
3.3.2UsingtheQuestionMarktoAbbreviatethePRINTCommand
3.3.3PrintingText
3.3.4PrintinginDifferentColors
Table31.AvailableColorsin40and80ColumnScreenFormats.
3.3.5UsingtheCursorKeysInsideQuoteswiththePRINTCommand
3.4BEGINNINGTOPROGRAM
3.4.1WhataProgramIs
3.4.2LineNumbers
3.4.3ViewingyourProgramTheLISTCommand
3.4.4ASimpleLoopTheGOTOCommand
3.4.5ClearingtheComputer'sMemoryTheNEWCommand
3.4.6UsingColorinaProgram
3.5EDITINGYOURPROGRAM
3.5.1ErasingaLinefromaProgram
3.5.2DuplicatingaLine
3.5.3ReplacingaLine
3.5.4ChangingaLine
3.6MATHEMATICALOPERATIONS
3.6.1AdditionandSubtraction
3.6.2MultiplicationandDivision
3.6.3Exponentiation
3.6.4OrderofOperations
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3.6.5UsingParenthesestoDefinetheOrderofOperations
3.7CONSTANTS,VARIABLESANDSTRINGS
3.7.1Constants
3.7.2Variables
3.7.3Strings
3.8SAMPLEPROGRAM
3.9STORINGANDREUSINGYOURPROGRAMS
3.9.1FormattingaDiskTheHEADERCommand
3.9.2SAVEingonDisk
3.9.3SAVEingonCassette
3.9.4LOADingfromDisk
3.9.5LOADingfromCassetteTape
3.9.6OtherDiskRelatedCommands
3.9.6.1VerifyingaProgram
3.9.6.2DisplayingYourDiskDirectory
3.1BASICPROGRAMMINGLANGUAGE
TheBASICprogramminglanguageisaspeciallanguagethatletsyoucommuni
catewithyourCommodore128.UsingBASICisonemeansbywhichyou
instructyourcomputerwhattodo.
BASIChasitsownvocabulary(madeupofcommands,statementsandfunc
tions)anditsownrulesofstructure(calledsyntax).Youcanusethe
BASICvocabularyandsyntaxtocreateasetofinstructionscalleda
program,whichyourcomputercanthenperformor"run".
UsingBASIC,youcancommunicatewithyourCommodore128intwoways:
withinaprogram,ordirectly(outsideaprogram).
3.1.1DirectMode
YourCommodore128isreadytoacceptBASICcommandsindirectmodeassoon
asyouturnonthecomputer.Inthedirectmode,youtypecommandsonthe
keyboardandenterthemintothecomputerbypressingthe{return}key.
MostBASICcommandsinyourCommodore128canbeusedindirectmodeas
wellasinaprogram.
3.1.2ProgramMode
Inprogrammodeyouenterasetofinstructionsthatperformaspecific
task.Eachinstructioniscontainedinasequentialprogramline.Astate
mentinaprogrammaybeaslongas160characters;thisisequivalentto
fourfullscreenlinesin40columnformat,andtwofullscreenlinesin
80columnformat.
Onceyouhavetypedaprogram,youcanuseitimmediatelybytypingtheRUN
commandandpressingthe{return}key.Youcanalsostoretheprogramon
diskortapebyusingtheDSAVE(orSAVE)command.Thenyourecallitfrom
thediskortapebyusingtheDLOAD(orLOAD)command.Thiscommandcopies
theprogramfromthediskortapeandplacesthatprogramintheCommodore
128'smemory.Youcanthenuseor"execute"theprogramagainbyentering
theRUNcommand.Allthesecommandsareexplainedlaterinthissection.
Mostofthetimeyouwillbeusingyoucomputerwithprograms,including
programsyouyourselfwrite,andcommerciallyavailablesoftwarepackages.
Theonlytimeyouoperateindirectmodeiswhenyouaremanipulatingor
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editingyourprogramswithcommandssuchasLIST,LOAD,SAVEandRUN.Asa
rule,thedifferencebetweendirectmodeandoperationwithinaprogramis
thatdirectmodecommandshavenolinenumbers.
3.2USINGTHEKEYBOARD
ShownbelowisthekeyboardoftheCommodore128PersonalComputer.
3.2.0.1C128KeyboardLayOut
++
/E\/T\/A\/C\/H\/L\/4\/N\/u\/d\/l\/r\|/F\/F\/F\/F\|
|sal||l||pwfg|||1357||
\c/\b/\t/\L/\p/\F/\8/\S/\/\n/\t/\t/|\/\/\/\/|
+++
|/L\/!\/"\/#\/$\/%\/&\/'\/(\/)\/\/\/\/l\/C\/I\|/\/\/\/\
||0+b|||789+|
|\A/\1/\2/\3/\4/\5/\6/\7/\8/\9/\/\/\/\s/\H/\D/|\/\/\/\/
||
|/co\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/U\/RES\|/\/\/\/\
||ntQWERTYUIOP@*STO|||456|
|\rl/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\A/\RE/|\/\/\/\/
||
|/R\/S\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/[\/]\/RE\|/\/\/\/\
||hASDEFGHJKLTURN|||123||E|
|\S/\L/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\:/\;/\/|\/\/\/|N|
|||T|
|/C\/SH\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/<\/>\/?\/SHI\/C\/C\|/\/\|E|
||=IFZXCVBNMFT||u||l|||0.||R|
|\/\T/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\,/\./\//\/\d/\r/|\/\/\/
||
|[spacebar]|
++
CL={capslock}Hlp={help}LF={linefeed}48={40/80dsp}
NS={noscroll}up={crsrup}dwn={crsrdown}lft={crsrleft}
rgt={crsrright}LA={leftarrow}lbs={pound}CH={clr/home}
ID={inst/del}contrl={ctrl}UA={uparrow}RS={run/stop}
ShL={shiftlock}C=={commodore}Cud={crsrup/down}
Clr={crsrleft/right}
Note:OutlinedkeyareascanbeusedinC64Mode.
UsingBASICisessentiallythesameinbothC64andC128modes.Mostofthe
keys,andmanyofthecommandsyouwilllearn,canbeusedtoprogramBASIC
ineithermode.Thekeysthatareshadedinthediagramabovecanbeused
inC64mode.InC128modeyoucanuseallofthekeysonthekeyboard.
3.2.1KeyboardCharacterSets
TheCommodore128keyboardofferstwodifferentsetsofcharacters:
Uppercaselettersandgraphiccharacters
Upperandlowercaseletters
In80columnformat,bothcharactersetsareavailablesimultaneously.This
givesyouatotalof512differentcharactersthatyoucandisplayonthe
screen.In40columnformatyoucanuseonlyonecharactersetatatime.
WhenyouturnontheCommodore128in40columnformat,thekeyboardnor
mallyisusingtheuppercase/graphiccharacterset.Thismeansthatevery
thingyoutypeisincapitalletters.Toswitchbackandforthbetweenthe
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twocharactersets,pressthe{shift}keyandthe{C=}key(theCOMMODORE
key)atthesametime.Topracticeusingthetwocharactersetsturnon
yourcomputerandpressseverallettersorgraphiccharacters.Thenpress
the{shift}keyandthe{C=}(Commodore)key.Noticehowthescreenchanges
toupperandlowercasecharacters.Press{shift}and{C=}againtoreturn
totheuppercaseandgraphiccharacterset.
3.2.2UsingtheCommandKeys
COMMANDkeysarekeysthatsendmessagestothecomputer.Somecommandkeys
(suchas{return})areusedbythemselves.Otherkeyssuchas{shift},
{ctrl},{C=}and{restore})areusedwithotherkeys.Theuseofeachof
thecommandkeysisexplainedbelow.ThekeysusedinC128modearedes
cribedinSection5.
3.2.2.1Return
Whenyoupressthe{return}key,whatyouhavetypedissenttotheCommo
dore128computer'smemory.Pressingthe{return}keyalsomovesthecursor
(thesmallflashingrectanglethatmarkswherethenextcharacteryoutype
willappear)tothenextline.
Attimesyoumaymisspellacommandortypeinsomethingthecomputerdoes
notunderstand.Then,whenyoupressthe{return}key,youprobablywill
getamessagelikeSYNTAXERRORonthescreen.Thisiscalledan"Error
Message".AppendixAliststheerrormessagesandtellshowtocorrectthe
errors.
3.2.2.2Shift
Therearetwo{shift}keysonthebottomrowofthekeyboard.Onekeyis
theoneontheleftandtheotherontheright,justasonastandardtype
writerkeyboard.
The{shift}keycanbeusedinthreeways:
1.Withtheupper/lowercasecharacterset,the{shift}keyisusedlikethe
shiftkeyonaregulartypewriter.Whenthe{shift}keyisholddown,it
letsyouprintcapitallettersorthetopcharactersondoublecharacter
keys.
2.The{shift}keycanbeusedwithsomeoftheothercommandkeystoper
formspecialfunctions.
3.Whenthekeyboardissetfortheuppercase/graphiccharacterset,you
canusethe{shift}keytoprintthegraphicsymbolsorcharactersthat
appearontherightofthefrontfaceofcertainkeys.Seeparagraph
3.2.4attheendofthissectionformoredetails.
3.2.2.3ShiftLock
Whenyoupressthiskeydown,itlocksintoplace.Then,whateveryoutype
willeitherbeacapitalletter,orthetopcharacterofadoublecharacter
key.Toreleasethelock,pressdownonthe{shiftlock}keyagain.
3.2.2.4Movingthecursor
InC128mode,youcanmovethecursorbyusingeitherthefourarrowkeys
locatedjustabovethetoprightofthemainkeyboard,orthetwokeys
labeled{crsr},attherightofthebottomrowofthemainkeyboard.
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3.2.2.4.1UsingthefourArrowCursorkeys
InC128mode,thecursorcanbemovedinanydirectionsimplybyusingthe
arrowkeyinthetoprowthatpointsinthedirectionyouwanttomovethe
cursor.(ThesekeyscannotbeusedinC64mode).
3.2.2.4.2UsingtheCRSRkeys
InbothC128andC64mode,youcanusethetwokeysontherightsideof
thebottomrowofthemainkeyboardtomovethecursor:
Pressingthe{crsrup/down}keyalonemovesthecursordown.
Pressingthe{crsrup/down}and{shift}keystogethermovesthecursor
up.
Pressingthe{crsrleft/right}keyalonemovesthecursorright.
Pressingthe{crsrleft/right}and{shift}keystogethermovesthecursor
left.
Youdon'thavetokeeptappingacursorkeytomovemorethanonespace.
Justholdthekeydownandthecursorcontinuestomove,releaseitwhenit
reachesthepositionyouwant.
Noticethatwhenthecursorreachestherightsideofthescreen,it
"wraps",orstartsagainatthebeginningofthenextrow.Whenmoving
left,thecursorwillmovealonguntilitreachestheedgeofthescreen,
thenitwilljumpuptotheendoftheprecedingline.
Youshouldtrytobecomeveryfamiliarwiththecursorkeys,becausemoving
thecursormakesyourprogrammingmucheasier.Withalittlepracticeyou
willfindthatyoucanmovethecursoralmostwithoutthinkingaboutit.
3.2.2.5Inst/Del
Thisisadualpurposekey.INSTstandsforINSerT,andDELforDELete.
3.2.2.5.1InsertingCharacters
Youmustusethe{shift}keywiththe{inst/del}keywhenyouwantto
insertcharactersinaline.Supposeyouleftsomecharactersoutofaline
likethis:
WHILEWEREOUT_
Toinsertthemissingcharacters,firstusethecursorkeystomovethe
cursorbacktotheerror.likethis:
WHILE_WEREOUT
Then,whileyouholddownthe{shift}key,pressthe{inst/del}keyuntil
youhaveenoughspacetoaddthemissingcharacters:
WHILE_WEREOUT
Noticethat{inst}doesn'tmovethecursor;itjustaddsspacebetweenthe
cursorandthecharactertoitsright.Tomakethecorrectiontypethemis
sing{space},{y},{o}and{u}likethis:
WHILEYOU_WEREOUT
3.2.2.5.2Deletingcharacters
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Whenyoupressthe{del}key,thecursormoveonespacetotheleftand
erasesthecharacterthatisthereandmovesanycharacterstotherightof
thecursoronepositiontotheleft.Thismeansthatwhenyouwantto
deletesomething,youmovethecursorjusttotherightofthecharacter
youwanttoDELete.Supposeyouhavemadeamistakeintyping,likethis:
PRINT"ERROER"_
YouwantedtotypethewordERROR,notERROER.TodeletetheincorrectE
thatprecedesthefinalR,positionthecursoronthefinalR.Whenyou
pressthe{del}key,theRautomaticallymovesoveronespacetotheleft.
Younowhavethecorrectwordinglikethis:
PRINT"ERROR"
3.2.2.5.3UsingINSerTandDELetetogether
YoucanusetheINSerTandDELetefunctionstogethertofixincorrect
characters.First,movethecursoronespaceaftertheincorrectcharacters
andpressthe{inst/del}keybyitselftodeletetheincorrectcharacters.
Next,pressthe{shift}keyandthe{inst/del}keytogethertoaddany
necessaryspace.
3.2.2.6Control
The{ctrl}keyisusedwithotherkeystodospecialtaskcalledcontrol
functions.Toperformacontrolfunction,holddownthe{ctrl}keywhile
youpresssomeotherkey.Afulllistofcontrolsequencesisgivenin
ASCII,CHR$andESCcodes.Controlfunctionsareoftenusedinprepackaged
softwaresuchasawordprocessingsystem.
Onecontrolfunctionthatisusedoftenissettingthecharacterandcursor
color.Toselectacolor,holddownthe{ctrl}keywhileyoupressanumber
key({1}throught{8}),onthetoprowofthemainkeyboard.Thereare
eightmorecolorsavailabletoyou;thesecanbeselectedwiththe{C=}
key,asexplainedlater.
3.2.2.7Run/Stop
Thisisadualfunctionkey.UndercertainconditionsyoucanusetheRUN
functionofthiskeybypressingthe{shift}and{run/stop}keytogether.
ItisalsopossibletousetheSTOPfunctionofthekeytohaltaprogram
oraprintoutbypressingthiskeywhiletheprogramisrunning.However,
inmostprepackagedprograms,theSTOPfunctionofthe{run/stop}keyis
intentionallydisabled(madeunusable).Thisisdonetopreventtheuser
fromtryingtostopaprogramthatisrunningbeforeitreachesitsnormal
endpoint.Iftheuserwereabletostoptheprogram,valuabledatacould
belost.
3.2.2.8Restore
The{restore}keyisusedwiththe{run/stop}keytoreturnthecomputerto
itsstandardcondition.Mostprepackagedprogramsdisablethe{restore}key
forthesamereasonthedisabletheSTOPfunctionofthe{run/stop}key:to
preventlosingvaluabledata.
3.2.2.9CLR/Home
CLRstandsforCLeaR.HOMEreferstotheupperleftcornerofthescreen,
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whichiscalledtheHOMEposition.Ifyoupressthisbyitselfthecursor
returnstotheHOMEposition.Whenyouusethe{shift}keywiththe
{clr/home}key,thescreenCLeaRsandthecursorreturnstotheHOME
position.
3.2.2.10Commodorekey
The{C=}key(knownasthe{commodore}key)hasanumberoffunctions,
includingthefollowingones:
1.Whenusedwiththe{shift}key,the{C=}keyletsyouswitchbetween
uppercase/graphicsmodeandupper/lowercasetextmodes.
2.Whenyou'reineithermode,the{C=}keyactsasashifttoletyoutype
graphicssymbolspicturedontheLEFTfrontofeachkey.Justholddown
the{C=}andpresstehgraphickeyyouwant.
3.Whenyouwanttochangethecoloryouaretypingintooneofthe8
colorslistedontheBOTTOMrowofthefaceofthecolorkeys(number
keys{1}through{8}onthemainkeyboard):press{C=}andthecoloryou
want.
4.Whenyouwanttoslowdownascrollingprogramdisplay,holddownthe
{C=}key.Thedisplayscrollingspeedslowsdownconsiderably.Whenyou
releasethiskey,thescreenscrollingresumesatnormalspeed.
5.Ifyouholddownthe{C=}keywhileturningonthecomputer,you
immediatelyaccessC64mode.
3.2.3FunctionKeys
Thefourkeysabovethenumerickeypad(markedF1,F3,F5andF7onthetop
andF2,F4,F6andF8onthefront)arecalledfunctionkeys.InbothC128
andC64modes,youcanprogramthefunctionkeys.(SeetheKEYcommanddes
criptionsinSection5,paragraph5.9.2ofChapterIIandinSection17,
paragraph17.53ofChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia).Thesekeysare
oftenusedbyprepackagedsoftwaretoallowyoutoperformataskwitha
singlekeystroke.
3.2.4DisplayingGraphicCharacters
Todisplaythegraphicsymbolontherightfrontofakey,holddownthe
{shift}keywhileyoupressthekeythathasthegraphiccharacteryouwant
toprint.Youcandisplaytherightsidegraphiccharacteronlywhenthe
keyboardisintheuppercase/graphicscharacterset(onenormalcharacter
setusuallyavailableatpowerup).
Todisplaythegraphiccharacterontheleftfrontfaceofakey,holddown
the{C=}keywhileyoupressthekeythathasthegraphiccharacteryou
want.Youcandisplaytheleftgraphiccharacterwhilethekeyboardisin
eithercharacterset.
3.2.5RulesforTypingBASICLanguagePrograms
YoucantypeanduseBASIClanguageprogramsevenwithoutknowingBASIC.
Youmusttypecarefully,however,becauseatypingerrormaycausethe
computertorejectyourinformation.Thefollowingguidelineswillhelp
minimizeerrorswhentypingorcopyingaprogramlisting.
1.Spacingbetweenwordsisnotcritical;e.g.typingFORT=1TO10isthe
sameastypingFORT=1TO10.However,aBASICkeyworditselfmustnot
bebrokenupbyspaces(seeSection20,paragraph20.1,oftheBASIC7.0
EncyclopaediainChapterVforalistofBASICkeywords).
2.Anycharacterscanbetypedinsidequotationmarks.Somecharactershave
specialfunctionswhenplacedinsidequotationmarks,Thesefunctions
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areexplainedlaterinthisguide.
3.Becarefulwithpunctuationmarks.Commas,colonsandsemicolonsalso
havespecialproperties,explainedlaterinthisguide.
4.Alwayspressthe{return}keyaftercompletinganumberedline.
5.Nevertypemorethan160charactersinaprogramline.Remember,thisis
thesameasfourfullscreenlinesin40columnformat,ortwofull
screenlinesin80columnformat.SeeSection8formoredetailson40
and80columnsformats.
6.Distinguishclearlybetweentheletter{l}andthenumeral{1}and
betweenthecapitalletter{O}andthenumeral{0}(zero).
7.ThecomputerignoresanythingfollowingthelettersREMonaprogram
line.REMstandsforREMark.YoucanusetheREMstatementtoputcom
mentsinyouprogramthattellanyonelistingtheprogramwhatishappe
ningataspecificpoint.
Followtheseguidelineswhenyoutypetheexamplesandprogramsshownin
thissection.
3.3GETTINGSTARTEDTHEPRINTCOMMAND
ThePRINTcommandtellsthecomputertodisplayinformationonthescreen.
Youcanprintbothnumbersandtext(letters),buttherearespecialrules
foreachcase,describedinthefollowingparagraphs.
3.3.1PrintingNumbers
Toprintnumbers,usethePRINTcommandfollowedbythenumber(s)youwant
toprint.TrytypingthisonyouCommodore128:
PRINT5
Thenpressthe{return}key.Noticethenumber5isnowdisplayedonthe
screen.
Nowtypethisandpress{return}:
PRINT5,6
InthisPRINTcommand,thecommatellstheCommodore128thatyouwantto
printmorethanonenumber.Whenthecomputerfindscommasinastringof
numbersinaPRINTstatement,theoutputisdisplayedtothenearesttenth
column.
Ifyoudon'twantalltheextraspaces,useasemicolon(;)inyourPRINT
statementinsteadofacomma.Thesemicolontellsthecomputertoprintthe
numbersnexttoeachother.Anumberwhenprintedhaseitheraspaceora
minussignprecedingitandaskipcharacterafterit.Typetheseexamples
andseewhathappens:
PRINT5;6{return}
PRINT100;200;300;400;500{return}
3.3.2UsingtheQuestionMarktoAbbreviatethePRINTCommand
Youcanuseaquotationmark(?)asanabbreviationforthePRINTcommand.
Manyoftheexamplesinthissectionusethe?symbolinplaceoftheword
PRINT.Infact,mostoftheBASICcommandscanbeabbreviated.The
abbreviationsforBASICcommandscanbefoundinAppendixKofthisGuide.
3.3.3PrintingText
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Nowthatyouknowhowtoprintnumbers,it'stimetolearnhowtoprint
text.It'sactuallyverysimple.Anywordsorcharactersyouwanttodis
playaretypedonthescreen,withaquotesymbolateachendofthestring
ofcharacters.StringistheBASICnameforanysetofcharacterssur
roundedbyquotes.Thequotecharacterisobtainedbypressing"SHIFT"and
thenumber{2}keyontopofthemainkeyboard(notthe{2}inthenumeric
keypad).Trytheseexamples:
?"COMMODORE128"{return}
?"4*5"{return}
Noticethatwhenyoupress{return},thecomputerdisplaysthecharacter
withinthequotesonthescreen.Alsonotethatthesecondexampledidnot
calculate4*5sinceitwastreatedasastringandnotamathematicalcal
culation.Ifyouwanttocalculatetheresultof4*5,usethefollowingcom
mand:
?4*5{return}
YoucanPRINTanystringyouwantbyusingthePRINTcommandandsurroun
dingtheprintedcharacterswithquotes.Youcancombinetextandcalcula
tionsinasinglePRINTcommandlikethis:
?"4*5="4*5{return}
SeehowthecomputerPRINTsthecharactersinquotes,makesthecalculation
andPRINTstheresult.Itdoesn'tmatterwhetherthetextorcalculation
comesfirst.Infact,youcanusebothseveraltimesinonePRINTcommand.
Typethefollowingstatement:
?4*(2+3)"isthesameas"4*5{return}
Noticethatevenspacesinsidethequotationmarksareprintedonthe
screen.Type:
?"OVERHERE"{return}
3.3.4PrintinginDifferentColors
TheCommodore128iscapableofdisplaying16differentcolorsonthe
screen.Youcanchangecolorseasily.Allyoudoisholddownthe{ctrl}
keyandpressanumberedkeybetweenoneandeightonthetoprowofthe
mainkeyboard.Noticethatthecursorchangescoloraccordingtothenum
beredkeyyoupressed.Allthesucceedingcharactersaredisplayedinthe
coloryouselected.Holddownthe{C=}keyandpressanumberedkey
betweenoneandeight,andeightadditionalcolorsaredisplayedonthe
screen.
Table31listthecolorsavailableinC128mode,forboth40columnand
80columnscreenformats.Thetablesalsoshowthekeysequence(CONTROL
keyplusnumberkey,or{C=}keyplusnumberkey)usedtospecifyagiven
color.
Table31.AvailableColorsin40and80ColumnScreenFormats.
CONTROL+Color{C=}+Color
1Black1Orange
2White2Brown
3Red3LightRed
4Cyan4DarkGrey
5Purple5MiddleGrey
6Green6LightGreen
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7Blue7LightBlue
8Yellow8LightGrey
Colorsin40ColumnFormat
CONTROL+Color{C=}+Color
1Black1DarkPurple
2White2Brown
3DarkRed3LightRed
4LightCyan4DarkCyan
5LightPurple5MiddleGrey
6DarkGreen6LightGreen
7DarkBlue7LightBlue
8LightYellow8LightGrey
Colorsin80ColumnFormat
3.3.5UsingtheCursorKeysInsideQuoteswiththePRINTCommand
Whenyoutypethecursorkeysinsidequotationmarks,graphiccharacters
areshownonthescreentorepresentthekeys.ThesecharacterswillNOTbe
printedonthescreenwhenyoupress{return}.Trytypingaquestionmark
({?}),openquotes({shift}ed{2}key);thenpresseitherofthedown
cursorkeys10times,enterthewords"DOWNHERE",andclosethequotes.
Thelineshouldlooklikethis:
?"QQQQQQQQQQDOWNHERE"
Nowpress{return}.TheCommodore128prints10blanklines,andonthe
eleventhline,itprints"DOWNHERE".Asthisexampleshows,youcantell
thecomputertoprintanywhereonyourscreenbyusingthecursorcontrol
keysinsidequotationmarks.
3.4BEGINNINGTOPROGRAM
SofarmostofthecommandswehavediscussedhavebeenperformedinDIRECT
mode.Thatis,thecommandwasexecutedassoonasthe{return}keywas
pressed.However,mostBASICcommandsandfunctionscanalsobeusedin
programs.
3.4.1WhataProgramIs
AprogramisjustasetofnumberedBASICinstructionsthattellyourcom
puterwhatyouwantittodo.Thesenumberedinstructionsarereferredto
asstatementsorlines.
3.4.2LineNumbers
Thelinesofaprogamarenumberedsothatthecomputerknowsinwhatorder
yowantthemexecutedorRUN.Thecomputerexecutestheprogramlinesin
numericalorder,unlesstheprograminstructsotherwise.Youcanuseany
wholenumberfrom0to63999foralinenumber.Neveruseacommainaline
number.
ManyofthecommandsyouhavelearnedtouseinDIRECTmodecaneasilybe
madeintoprogramstatements.Forexample,typethis:
10?"COMMODORE128"{return}
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NoticethecomputerdidnotdisplayCOMMODORE128whenyoupressed
{return},asitwoulddoifyouwereusingthePRINTcommandinDIRECT
mode.Thisisbecausethenumber,10,thatcomesbeforethePRINTsymbol
(?)tellsthecomputerthatyouareenteringaBASICprogram.Thecomputer
juststoresthenumberedstatementandwaitsforthenextinputfromyou.
NowtypeRUNandpress{return}.ThecomputerprintsthewordsCOMMODORE
128.ThisnotthesameasusingthePRINTcommandinDIRECTmode.Whathas
happenedhereisthatYOUHAVEWRITTENANDRUNYOURFIRSTBASICPROGRAMas
smallasitmayseem.Theprogramisstillinthecomputer'smemory,soyou
canrunitasmanytimesasyouwant.
3.4.3ViewingyourProgramTheLISTCommand
YouronelineprogramisstillintheC128memory.Nowclearthescreenby
pressingthe{shift}and{clr/home}keystogether.Thescreenisempty.At
thispointyoumaywanttoseetheprogramlistingtobesureitisstill
inmemory.TheBASIClanguageisequippedwithacommandthatletsyoudo
justthistheLISTcommand.
TypeLISTandpress{return}.TheCommodore128respondswith:
10PRINT"COMMODORE128"
READY.
Anytimeyouwanttoseeallthelinesinyourprogram,typeLIST.Thisis
especiallyhelpfulifyoumakechanges,becauseyoucanchecktobesure
thenewlineshavebeenregisteredinthecomputer'smemory.Inresponse
tothecommand,thecomputerdisplaysthechangedversionoftheline,
lines,orprogram.HerearetherulesforusingtheLISTcommand:
Toseelinenonly,typeLISTnandpress{return}.
Toseefromlinentotheendoftheprogram,typeLISTnandpress
{return}.
Toseethelinesfromthebeginningoftheprogramtolinen,type
LISTnandpress{return}.
Toseefromlinen1tolinen2inclusive,typeLISTn1n2andpress
{return}.
3.4.4ASimpleLoopTheGOTOCommand
Thelinenumbersinaprogramhaveanotherpurposebesidesputtingyour
commandsintheproperorderforthecomputer.Theserveasareferencefor
thecomputerincaseyouwanttoexecutethecommandinthatlinerepeti
tivelyinyourprogram.YouusetheGOTOcommandtotellthecomputertogo
toalineandexecutethecommand(s)init.Nowtype:
20GOTO10
Whenyoupress{return}aftertypingline20,youaddittoyourprogramin
thecomputer'smemory.
Noticethatwenumberedthefirstline10andthesecondline20.Itis
veryhelpfultonumberprogramlinesinincrementsof10(thatis10,20,
30,40,etc.)incaseyouwanttogobackandaddlinesinbetween.Youcan
numbersuchaddedlinesbyfives(15,25...),orones(1,2...)infact,
byanywholenumbertokeepthelinesinproperorder.(SeetheRENUMBER
andAUTOcommandsintheBASICEncyclopaedia,paragraphs.)
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TypeRUNandpress{return},andwatchthewordsCOMMODORE128movedown
yourscreen.Tostopthemessagefromprintingonthescreen,pressthe
{run/stop}keyontheleftsideofthemainkeyboard.
Thetwolinesthatyouhavetypedmakeupasimpleprogramthatrepeatsit
selfendlessly,becausethesecondlinekeepsreferringthecomputerback
tothefirstline.Theprogramwillcontinueindefinitelyunlessyoustop
itorturnoffthecomputer.
NowtypeLIST{return}Thescreenshouldsay:
10PRINT"COMMODORE128"
20GOTO10
READY.
Yourprogramisstillinmemory.YoucanRUNitagainifyouwantto.This
isanimportantdifferencebetweenPROGRAMmodeandDIRECTmode.Oncea
commandisexecutedinDIRECTmode,itisnolongerinthecomputer's
memory.Noticethateventhoughyouusedthe?symbolforthePRINTstate
ment,yourcomputerhasconverteditintothefullcommand.Thishappens
whenyouLISTanycommandyouhaveabbreviatedinaprogram.
3.4.5ClearingtheComputer'sMemoryTheNEWCommand
AnytimeyouwanttostartalloveragainoreraseaBASICprograminthe
computer'smemory,justtypeNEWandpress{return}.Thiscommandclears
outthecomputer'sBASICmemory,theareawhereprogramsarestored.
3.4.6UsingColorinaProgram
Toselectcolorwithinaprogram,youmustincludethecolorselection
informationwithinaPRINTstatement.Forexample,clearyourcomputer's
memorybytypingNEWandpressing{return},thetypethefollowing,being
suretoleavespacebetweeneachletter:
10PRINT"RAINBOW"{return}
Nowtypeline10again,butthistimeholddownthe{ctrl}keyandpress
the(numeral){1}keydirectlyafterenteringthefirstsetofquotemarks.
Releasethe{ctrl}keyandtypethe{r}.Nowholddownthe{ctrl}againand
pressthe{2}key.Releasethe{ctrl}keyandtypethe{a}.Nextholddown
the{ctrl}againandpressthe{3}key.Continuethisprocessuntilyou
havetypedallthelettersinthewordRAINBOWandselectedacolorbetween
eachletter.Pressthe{shift}andthe{2}keystotypeasetoftheclo
singquotationmarksandpressthe{return}key.NowtypeRUNandpressthe
{return}key.ThecomputerdisplaysthewordRAINBOWwitheachletterina
differentcolor.NowtypeLISTandpressthe{return}key.Noticethe
graphiccharactersthatappearinthePRINTstatementinline10.These
characterstellsthecomputerwhatcoloryouwantforeachprintedletter.
NotethatthesegraphiccharactersdonotappearwhentheCommodore128
PRINTsthewordRAINBOWindifferentcolors.
Thecolorselectioncharacters,knownascontrolcharacters,inthePRINT
statementinline10telltheCommodore128tochangecolors.Thecomputer
thenprintsthecharactersthatfollowinthenewcoloruntilanothercolor
selectioncharacterisencountered.Whilecharactersenclosedinquotation
marksareusuallyPRINTedexactlyastheyappear,controlcharactersare
onlydisplayedwithinaprogramLISTing.
3.5EDITINGYOURPROGRAM
Thefollowingparagraphswillhelpyoutotypeinyourprogramsandmake
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correctionsandadditionstothem.
3.5.1ErasingaLinefromaProgram
UsetheLISTcommandtodisplaytheprogramyoutypedpreviously.Nowtype
10andpress{return}.Youjusterasedline10fromtheprogram.LISTyour
programandseeforyourself.Iftheoldline10isstillonthescreen,
movethecursorupsothatitisblinkinganywhereonthatline.Now,if
youpress{return},line10isbackinthecomputer'smemory.
3.5.2DuplicatingaLine
Holddownthe{shift}keyandpressthe{clr/home}keyontheupperright
sideofthemainkeyboard.Thiswillclearyourscreen.NowLISTthepro
gram.Movethecursorupagainsothatitisblinkinginthe(numeral)"0"
inthelinenumbered10.Nowtypea{5}andpress{return}.Youhavejust
duplicated(i.e.copied)line10.Theduplicatedlineisnumbered15.Type
LISTandpressRETURNtoseetheprogramwiththeduplicatedline.
3.5.3ReplacingaLine
Youcanreplaceawholelinebytypingintheoldlinenumberfollowedby
thetextofthenewline,thepressing{return}.Theoldversionofthe
linewillbeerasedfrommemoryandreplacedbythenewlineassoonasyou
press{return}.
3.5.4ChangingaLine
Supposeyouwanttoaddsomethinginthemiddleofaline.Simplymovethe
cursortothecharacterorspacethatimmediatelyfollowsthespotwhere
youwanttoinsertthenewmaterial.Thenholddownthe{shift}keyandthe
{inst/del}keytogetheruntilthereisenoughspacetoinsertyournew
characters.
Trythisexample.Clearthecomputer'smemorybytypingNEWandpressing
{return}.Thetype:
10?"MY128ISGREAT"{return}
Let'ssayyouwanttoaddthewordCOMMODOREinfrontofthenumber128.
Justmovethecursorsothatitisblinkingonthe"1"in128.Holddown
the{shift}and{inst/del}keysuntilyouhaveenoughroomtotypein
COMMODORE(don'tforgettoleaveenoughroomforaspaceafterthelast
letter"E").ThentypeinthewordCOMMODORE.
3.6MATHEMATICALOPERATIONS
YoucanusethePRINTcommandtoperformcalculationslikeaddition,sub
traction,multiplication,divisionandexponentiation.Youtypethecalcu
lationafterthePRINTcommand.
3.6.1AdditionandSubtraction
Trytypingtheseexamples:
PRINT6+4{return}
PRINT5020{return}
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PRINT10+155{return}
PRINT75100{return}
PRINT30+40,5525{return}
PRINT30+40;5525{return}
Noticethatthefourthcalculation(75100)resultedinanegativenumber.
Alsonoticethatyoucantellthecomputertomakemorethanonecalcula
tionwithasinglePRINTcommand.Youcanuseeitheracommaorsemicolon
inyourcommand,dependingonwhetherornotyouwantyourresultsprinted
tabulatedornexttoeachother.
3.6.2MultiplicationandDivision
Findtheasteriskkey(*)ontherightsideofthemainkeyboard.Thisis
thesymbolthattheCommodore128usesformultiplication.Theslash(/)
key,locatednexttotheright{shift}key,isusedfordivision.
Trytheseexamples:
PRINT5*3{return}
PRINT100/2{return}
3.6.3Exponentiation
Exponentiationmeanstoraiseanumbertoapower.Theuparrowkey
({uparrow},locatednexttotheasteriskonthemainkeyboard,isusedfor
exponentiation.Ifyouwanttoraiseanumbertoapower,usethePRINT
command,followedbythenumber,theuparrowandthepower,inthatorder.
Forexample,tofindoutwhat3squaredis,type:
PRINT3{uparrow}2{return}
NOTE:Fromnowon,the{uparrow}keystrokeisrepresentedbythe{^}key
stroke,orsimply^.
3.6.4OrderofOperations
Youhaveseenhowyoucancombineadditionandsubtractioninthesame
PRINTcommand.Ifyoucombinemultiplicationordivisionwithadditionor
subtractionoperations,youmaynotgettheresultyouexpect.Forexample,
type:
PRINT4+6/2{return}
Ifyouassumedyouweredividing10by2,youwereprobablysurprisedwhen
thecomputerrespondedwiththeanswer7.Thereasonyougotthisansweris
thatmultiplicationanddivisionoperationsareperformedbythecomputer
beforeadditionorsubtraction.Multiplicationanddivisionaresaidto
takeprecedenceoveradditionandsubtraction.Itdoesn'tmatterinwhat
orderyoutypetheoperation.Incomputing,theorderinwhichmathematical
operationsareperformedisknownastheorderofoperations.
Exponentiation,orraisinganumbertoapower,takesprecedenceoverthe
otherfourmathematicaloperations.Forexample,ifyoutype:
PRINT16/4^2{return}
theCommodore128respondswith1,becauseitsquaresthe4beforeit
divides16.
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3.6.5UsingParenthesestoDefinetheOrderofOperations
YoucantelltheCommodore128whichmathematicaloperationyouwantper
formedfirstbyenclosingthatoperationinparenthesesinthePRINT
command.Forinstance,inthefirstexampleabove,ifyouwanttotellthe
computertoaddbeforedividing,type:
PRINT(4+6)/2{return}
Thisgivesyouthedesiredanswer,5.
Ifyouwantthecomputertodividebeforesquaringinthesecondexample,
type:
PRINT(16/4)^2{return}
Nowyouhavetheexpectedanswer,16.
Ifyoudon'tuseparentheses,thecomputerperformsthecalculationsaccor
dingtotheaboverules.Whenalloperationsinacalculationhaveequal
precedence,theyareperformedfromlefttoright.Forexample,type:
PRINT4*5/10*6{return}
Sincetheoperationsinthisexampleareperformedinorderfromleftto
right,theresultis12(4*5=20...20/10=2...2*6=12).Ifyouwantto
divide4*5by10*6youtype:
PRINT(4*5)/(10*6){return}
Theanswerisnow.333333333.
3.7CONSTANTS,VARIABLESANDSTRINGS
3.7.1Constants
Constantsarenumericvaluesthatarepermanent:thatis,theydonot
changeinvalueoverthecourseofanequationorprogram.Forexample,the
number3isaconstant,asisanynumber.Thisstatementillustrateshow
yourprogramusesconstants:
10PRINT3
Nomatterhowmanytimesyouexecutethisline,theanswerwillalways
be3.
3.7.2Variables
Variablesarevaluesthatcanchangeoverthecourseofanequationor
programstatement.Thereisapartofthecomputer'sBASICmemorythatis
reservedforthecharacters(number,lettersandsymbols)youuseinyour
program.Thinkofthismemoryasanumberofstoragecompartmentsinthe
computerthatstoreinformationaboutyourprogram;thispartofthecom
puter'smemoryisreferredtoasvariablestorage.Typeinthisprogram:
10X=5
20?X
NowRUNtheprogramandseehowthecomputerprintsa5onyourscreen.You
toldthecomputerinline10thattheletterXwillrepresentthenumber5
fortheremaninderoftheprogram.TheletterXiscalledavariable,be
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causethevalueofXvariesdependingonthevaluetotherightofthe
equalssign.Wecallthisanassignmentstatementbecausenowthereisa
storagecompartmentlabeledXinthecomputer'smemory,andthenumber5
hasbeenassignedtoit.The=signtellsthecomputerthatwhatevercomes
totherightofitwillbeassignedtoastoragecompartment(amemory
location)labeledwiththeletterXtotheleftoftheequalssign.
Thevariablenameontheleftsideofthe=signcanbeeitheroneortwo
letters,oroneletterandonenumber(theletterMUSTcomefirst).The
namescanbelonger,butthecomputeronlylooksatthefirsttwocharac
ters.ThismeansthenamesPAandPARTwouldrefertothesamestorage
compartment.Also,thewordsusedforBASICcommands(LOAD,RUN,LIST,
etc.)orfunctions(INT,ABS,SQR,etc.)cannotbeusedasnamesinyour
programs.RefertotheBASICEncyclopaediainChapterVifyouhaveany
questionsaboutwhetheravariablenameisaBASICkeyword.Noticethatthe
=inassigmentstatementsisnotthesameasthemathematicalsymbol
meaning"equals",butrathermeansallocateavariable(storagecompart
ment)andassignavaluetoit.
Inthesampleprogramyoujusttyped,thevalueofthevariableXremains
at5throughout.Youcanputcalculationstotherightofthe=signto
assigntheresulttoavariable.YoucanmixtextwithconstantsinaPRINT
statementtoidentifythem.TypeNEWandpress{return}tocleartheCommo
dore128'smemory;thentrythisprogram:
10A=3*100
20B=3*200
30?"AISEQUALTO"A
40?"BISEQUALTO"B
Nowtherearetwovariables,labeledAandB,inthecomputer'smemory,
containingthenumbers300and600respectively.If,laterintheprogram,
youwanttochangethevalueofavariable,justputanotherassignment
statementintheprogram.AddtheselinestotheprogramaboveandRUNit
again.
50A=900*30/10
60B=95+32+128
70GOTO30
You'llhavetopressthe{stop}keytohalttheprogram.
NowLISTtheprogramandtracethestepstakenbythecomputer.First,it
assignsthevaluetotherightofthe=signinline10totheletterA.It
doesthesamethinginline20fortheletterB.Next,itprintsthemessa
gesinlines30and40thatgiveyouthevaluesofAandB.Finally,it
assignsnewvaluestoAandBinlines50and60.Theoldvaluesarerepla
cedandcannotberecoveredunlessthecomputerexecuteslines10and20
again.Whenthecomputerissenttoline30tobeginprintingthevaluesof
AandBagain,itprintsthenewvaluescalculatedinlines50and60.
Lines50and60reassignthesamevaluestoAandBandline70sendsthe
computerbacktoline30.Thisiscalledanendlessloop,becauselines30
through70areexecutedoverandoveragainuntilyoupressthe{run/stop}
keytohalttheprogram.Othermethodsofloopingarediscussedlaterin
thisandfollowingtwosections.
3.7.3Strings
Astringisacharacterorgroupofcharactersenclosedinquotes.These
charactersarestoredinthecomputer'smemoryasavariableinmuchthe
samewaynumericvariablesarestored.Youcanalsousevariablenamesto
representstrings,justasyouusethemtorepresentnumbers.Whenyouput
thedollarsign($)afterthevariablename,ittellsthecomputerthatthe
nameisforastringvariable,andnotanumericvariable.
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TypeNEWandpress{return}toclearyourcomputer'smemory,thentypein
theprogrambelow:
10A$="COMMODORE"
20X=128
30B$="COMPUTER"
40Y=1
50?"THE"A$;X;B$"ISNUMBER"Y
Seehowyoucanprintnumericandstringvariablesinthesamestatement?
Tryexperimentingwithvariablesinyourownshortprograms.
YoucanprintthevalueofavariableinDIRECTmode,aftertheprogramhas
beenRUN.Type?A$;B$;X;Y{return}afterrunningtheprogramaboveandsee
thatthosefourvariablevaluesarestillinthecomputer'smemory.
IfyouwanttoclearthisareaofBASICmemorybutstillleaveyourprogram
intact,usetheCLRcommand.JusttypeCLR{return}andallconstants,
variablesandstringsareerased.ButwhenyoutypeLIST,youcanseethe
programisstillinmemory.TheNEWcommanddiscussedearliererasesboth
theprogramandthevariables.
3.8SAMPLEPROGRAM
Hereisasampleprogramincorporatingmanyofthetechniquesandcommands
discussedinthesection.
Thisprogramcalculatestheavarageofthreenumbers(X,YandZ)and
printstheirvaluesandtheiravaragesonthescreen.Youcaneditthepro
gramandchangethecalculationsinline10through30tochangethevalues
ofthevariables.Line40addsthevariablesanddividesthemby3toget
theaverage.Notetheuseofparenthesestotellthecomputertoaddthe
numbersbeforeitdivides.
TIP:Wheneveryouareusingmorethanonesetofparenthesesina
statement,it'sagoodideatocountthenumberofleftparentheses
andrightparenthesestomakesuretheyareequal.
10X=46
20Y=73
30Z=114
40A=(X+Y+Z)/3
50?"THEAVERAGEOF"X;Y;"AND"Z;"IS"A;
60END
3.9STORINGANDREUSINGYOURPROGRAMS
Onceyouhavecreatedyourprogram,youwillprobablywanttostoreit
permanentlysoyouwillbeabletorecallanduseitatsomelatertime.To
dothis,you'llneedeitheraCommodorediskdriveortheCommodore1530
(or1531)Datassette,orsimilarstoringdevice.
Youwilllearnseveralcommandsthatletyoucommunicatebetweenyourcom
puterandyourdiskdriveorDatassette.Thesecommandsarestructuredwith
theuseofacommandwordfollowedbyseveralparameters.Parametersare
letters,wordsorsymbolsinacommandthatsupplyspecificinformationto
thecomputer,suchasafilename,oranumericvariablethatspecifiesa
devicenumber.Eachcommandmayhaveseveralparameters.Forexample,the
parameterofthediskformatcommandincludeanameforthediskandan
identifyingnumberorcode,plusseveralotherparameters.Parametersare
usedinalmosteveryBASICcommand;somearevariableswhichchangeand
othersareconstant.Thesearetheparametersthatsupplydiskinformation
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totheC128andthediskdrive:
3.9.0.1DiskHandlingParameters
disknamearbitrary16characteridentifyingnameyousupply.
filenamearbitrary16characteridentifyingnameyousupply.
i.d.numberarbitrarytwocharacteridentifyingcodeyousupply.
drivenumbermustuse0forasinglediskdrive,0or1inadual
diskdrive.
devicenumberapreassignednumberforaperipheraldevice.For
example,thedevicenumberforaCommodorediskdrive
is8.
3.9.1FormattingaDiskTheHEADERCommand
Tostoreprogramsonanew(orblank)disk,youmustfirstpreparethedisk
toreceivedata.Thisiscalled"formatting"thedisk.
NOTE:Makesureyouturnonthediskdrivebeforeinsertinganydisk.
Theformattingprocessdividesthediskintosectionscalledtracksand
sectors.Atableofcontents,calledadirectory,iscreated.Eachtimeyou
storeaprogramondisk,thenameyouassigntothatprogramwillbeadded
tothedirectory.
TheCommodore128hastwokindsofformattingcommands.Onecanbeusedin
C128modeonly,andonecanbeusedinbothC64andC128mode.Thefollo
wingdescribestheC128modeformattingcommandonly.Seeyourdiskdrive
manualforthediskhandlinginC64mode.
ThecommandthatformatsadisketteiscalledtheHEADERcommand.Ithasa
longformandashortform.Toformatablank(new)disk,youMUSTusethe
longformasfollows:
HEADER"diskname",Ii.d.[,Ddrivenumber][,[ON]Udevicenumber]
AfterthewordHEADER,youtypeanameofyourchoiceforthedisk,within
quotes.Youcanchooseanynamewithupto16characters.Youshouldchoose
disknamesthathelpyouidentifywhatwillbestoredonthedisk.
Followthedisknamewithacommaandtheletter"I".Nowatwocharacter
i.d.Yourdiski.d.doesnothavetobenumbers;youcanalsochooselet
ters.Youmaywanttodevelopaconsecutivecodingsystemforyourdisk,
suchasA1,A2,B1,B2.
Ifyouhaveonesinglediskdrive,justpress{return}atthispointsince
theCommodore128automaticallyassumesthedrivenumberis0andthe
devicenumberis8.Youcanspecifytheseparametersifyouhavemorethan
onedriveoradualdrive.
Thenextparameterinthecommandselectsthedrivenumber.Pressthe{d}
keyandifyouhaveasinglediskdrive,pressthe{zero}keyfollowedbya
{comma}.Dualdrivesarelabeled0and1.Thedevicenumberparameter
startswiththeletterUsopressthe{u}keyfollowedbythepreassigned
devicenumberforaCommodorediskdrivewhichis{8}.
HereisanexampleofthelongformoftheHEADERcommand:
HEADER"RECS",IA1,D0,U8{return}
Thiscommandformatsthediskette,callingit"RECS",thei.d.number"A1",
ondrive0,unit8.
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Thedefaultvaluesfordiskdrive(0)anddevicenumber(8)willbeusedif
nonearesupplied.ThisisanacceptablelongformoftheHEADERcommand:
HEADER"MYDISK",I51{return}
TheHEADERcommandcanalsobeusedtoerasealldatafromauseddisk,so
thediskcanbereusedasifitwereabrandnewdisk.Becarefulthatyou
don'teraseadiskthatcontainsdatayoumaywantsomeday.
ThequickformoftheHEADERcommandcanbeusedifthediskwaspreviously
formattedwiththelongformoftheHEADERcommand.
Thequickformclearsthedirectory,erasingalldatainthesamewayas
thelongform,butkeepsthesamei.d.aswaspreviouslyused.Hereiswhat
thequickHEADERmightlooklike:
HEADER"NEWPROGS"{return}
3.9.2SAVEingonDisk
InC128mode,youcanstoreyouprogramondiskbyusingeitherofthe
followingcommands:
DSAVE"programname"{return}
SAVE"programname",8{return}
Eithercommandcanbeused.RememberthatthecharactersequenceDSAVE"can
bedisplayedonthescreenbypressingthefunctionkeylabeled{f5},or
youcantypethesequenceyourself.Theprogamnamecanbeanynameyou
choose,upto16characterslong.Besuretoenclosetheprogramnamein
quotes.Youcannotputtwoprogramswiththesamenameonthesamedisk.
Ifyoudo,thesecondprogramwillnotbeaccepted;thediskwillretain
thefirstone.Inthesecondexample,the8indicatesthatyouaresaving
yourprogramondevicenumber8.Youdonotneedthe8withDSAVE,because
thecomputerautomaticallyassumesyouareusingdevicenumber8.
IfyouareusingaDatassettetostoreyourprogram,insertablanktapein
therecorder,rewindthetapeifnecessary,andtype:
SAVE"programname"{return}
YoumusttypethewordSAVE,followedbytheprogramname.Theprogramname
canbeanynameyouchooseupto16characters.
NOTE:The40columnscreenwillgoblankwhiletheprogramisbeing
SAVEd,butreturnstonormalwhentheprocessiscompleted.
Unlikedisk,youcansavetwoprogramstotapeunderthesamename.However
whenyouloaditbackintothecomputer,thefirstprogamsequentiallyon
thetapewillbeloaded,soavoidgivingprogramsthesamename.
OnceaprogramhasbeenSAVEd,youcanLOADitbackintothecomputer's
memoryandRUNitanytimeyouwish.
3.9.4LOADingfromDisk
Loadingaprogramsimplycopiesthecontentsoftheprogramfromthedisk
intothecomputer'smemory.IfaBASICprogramwasalreadyinmemorybefore
youissuedtheLOADcommand,itiserased.
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ToloadyourBASICprogramfromadisk,useeitherotthefollowingcom
mandsinC128mode:
DLOAD"programname"{return}
LOAD"programname",8{return}
Remember,inC128modeyoucanusethe{f2}functionkey(whichyouacti
vatebypressing{shift}and{f1}together)todisplaythesequenceDLOAD",
oryoucantypethelettersyourself.Inthesecondexample,the8indi
catestothecomputerthatyouareloadingfromdevicenumber8.Again,
likeDSAVE,DLOADassumesthediskdrivedevicenumberis8.Becarefulto
typetheprogramnameexactlyasyoutypeditwhenSAVEingtheprogram,or
thecomputerwillrespondFILENOTFOUND.
Oncetheprogramisloaded,typeRUNtoexecute.TheCommodore128hasa
specialformoftheRUNcommandusedtoLOADandRUNtheprograminC128
modewithonecommand.TypeRUN,followedbythenameoftheprogram(also
knownasthefilename)inquotes:
RUN"MYPROG"{return}
3.9.5LOADingfromCassetteTape
ToLOADyourprogramfromcassettetape,type:
LOAD"programname"{return}
Ifyoudonotknowthenameoftheprogram,youcantype:
LOAD{return}
andthenextprogramontapewillbefound.WhiletheDatassetteissear
chingfortheprogramthe40columnscreenisblank.Whentheprogramis
found,thescreendisplays:
FOUNDPROGRAMNAME
Toactuallyloadtheprogram,youthenpresstheCommodorekey,orin128
modepressthespacebartofindthenextprogramontape.
YoucanusethecounterontheDatassettetoidentifythestartingposition
oftheprograms.Then,whenyouwanttoretrieveaprogram,simplewindthe
tapeforwardfrom000totheprogram'sstartlocation,andtype:
LOAD{return}
Inthiscaseyoudon'thavetospecifytheprogramname;yourprogramwill
loadautomaticallybecauseitisthenextprogramonthetape.
3.9.6OtherDiskRelatedCommands
3.9.6.1VerifyingaProgram
Toverifythataprogramhasbeencorrectlysaved,usethefollowingcom
mandinC128mode:
DVERIFY"programname"{return}
Iftheprograminthecomputerisidenticaltotheoneonthedisk,the
screendisplaywillrespondwiththeletters"OK".
TheVERIFYcommandalsoworksfortapeprograms.Youtype:
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VERIFY"programname"{return}
Youdonotenterthecommaandadevicenumber.
3.9.6.2DisplayingYourDiskDirectory
InC128mode,youcanseealistordirectoryoftheprogramsonyourdisk
byusingthefollowingcommand:
DIRECTORY{return}
Thisliststhecontentsofthedirectory.Theeasywayistopressthe{f3}
functionkey.Whenyoupress{f3},theC128displaysthewordDIRECTORYand
performsthecommand.
ForfurtherinformationonSAVEingandLOADingyourprograms,orotherdisk
relatedinformationrefertoyourDatassetteordiskdrivemanual.Also
consulttheLOADandSAVEcommanddescriptionsintheChapterV,BASIC7.0
Encyclopaedia.
**********
YounowknowsomethingabouttheBASIClanguageandsomeelementarypro
grammingconcepts.Thenextsectionbuildsontheseconcepts,introducing
additionalcommands,functionsandtechniquesthatyoucanusetoprogram
inBASIC.
SECTION4
4.AdvancedBasicProgramming
4.1COMPUTERDECISIONSTheIFTHENStatement
4.1.1UsingtheColon
4.2LOOPSTheFORNEXTCommand
4.2.1EmptyLoopsInsertingDelaysinaProgram
4.2.2TheSTEPCommand
4.3INPUTTINGDATA
4.3.1TheINPUTCommand
4.3.1.1Assigningavaluetoavariable
4.3.1.2PromptMessages
4.3.2TheGETCommand
4.3.3SampleProgram
4.3.4TheREADDATACommands
4.3.5TheRESTORECommand
4.3.5.1Assigningvaluestostringvariables
4.3.6UsingArrays
4.3.6.1SubscriptedVariables
4.3.6.2DimensioningArrays
4.3.6.3SampleProgram
4.4PROGRAMMINGSUBROUTINES
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4.4.1TheGOSUBRETURNCommands
4.4.2TheONGOTO/GOSUBCommands
4.5USINGMEMORYLOCATION
4.5.1UsingPEEKandPOKEforRAMAccess
4.5.1.1UsingPEEK
4.5.1.2UsingPOKE
4.6BASICFUNCTIONS
4.6.1WhatisaFunction?
4.6.2TheINTEGERFunction(INT)
4.6.3GeneratingRandomNumbersTheRNDFunction
4.6.4TheASCandCHR$Functions
4.6.5ConvertingStringsandNumbers
4.6.5.1TheVALFunction
4.6.5.2TheSTR$Function
4.6.6TheSquareRootFunction(SQR)
4.6.7TheAbsoluteValueFunction(ABS)
4.7THESTOPANDCONT(CONTINUE)COMMANDS
ThissectiondescribeshowtouseanumberofpowerfulBASICcommands,
functionsandprogrammingtechniquesthatcanbeusedinbothC128andC64
modes.
Thesecommandsandfunctionsallowyoutoprogramrepeatedactionsthrough
loopingandnestingtechniques;handletablesofvalues;branchorjumpto
anothersectionofaprogram,andreturnfromthatsection;assignvarying
valuestoaquantityandmore.Examplesandsampleprogramsshowjusthow
theseBASICconceptsworkandinteract.
4.1COMPUTERDECISIONSTheIFTHENStatement
Nowyouknowhowtochangethevaluesofvariables,thenextstepisto
havethecomputermakedecisionsbasedontheseupdatedvalues.Youdothis
withtheIFTHENstatement.
YoutellthecomputertoexecuteacommandonlyIFaconditionistrue
(e.g.IFX=5).Thecommandyouwantthecomputertoexecutewhenthecondi
tionistruecomesafterthewordTHENinthestatement.
Clearyourcomputer'smemorybytypingNEWandpressing{return},then
typeinthisprogram:
10J=0
20J=J+1
30?J,"COMMODORE128"
40IFJ=5THENGOTO60
50GOTO20
60END
Younolongerhavetopressthe{stop}keytobreakoutofaloopingpro
gram.TheIFTHENstatementtellsthecomputertokeepprinting"COMMODORE
128"andincrementing(increasing)JuntilJ=5istrue.WhenanIFcondi
tionisfalse,thecomputerjumpstothenextlineoftheprogram,no
matterwhatcomesafterthewordTHEN.
NoticetheENDcommandinline60.ItisgoodpracticetoputanENDstate
mentasthelastlineinyourprogram.Ittellsthecomputerwheretostop
executingstatements.
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BelowisalistofcomparisonsymbolsthatmaybeusedintheIFstatement
andtheirmeanings:
SYMBOLMEANING
=EQUALS
>GREATERTHAN
<>NOTEQUALTO
>=GREATERTHANOREQUALTO
<=LESSTHANOREQUALTO
Youshouldbeawarethatthesecomparisonsworkinexpectedmathematical
wayswithnumbers.Therearedifferentwaystodetermineifonestringis
greaterthan,lessthan,orequaltoanother.Youcanlearnaboutthese
"stringhandling"functionsbyreferringtoChapterV,Basic7.0Encyclo
paedia.
Section5describessomepowerfulextensionsoftheIFTHENconcept,con
sistingoftheBASIC7.0commandsBEGIN,BENDandELSE.
4.1.1UsingtheColon
Averyusefultoolinprogrammingisthecolon(:).Youcanusethecolonto
separatetwo(ormore)BASICcommandsonthesameline.
Statementsafteracolononalinewillbeexecutedinorder,fromleftto
right.Inoneprogramlineyoucanputasmanystatementsyoucanfitinto
160characters,includingthelinenumber.Thisisequivalenttofourfull
screenlinesin40columnformat,andtwofulllinesin80columnformat.
ThisprovidesanexcellentoppurtunitytotakeadvantageoftheTHENpart
oftheIFTHENstatement.Youcantellthecomputertoexecuteseveralcom
mandswhenyouIFstatementistrue.
Clearthecomputer'smemoryandtypeinthefollowingprogam:
10N=1
20IFN<5THENPRINTN;"LESSTHAN5":GOTO40
30?N;"GREATERTHANOREQUALTO5"
40END
Nowchangeline10toreadN=20,andRUNtheprogramagain.Noticeyoucan
tellthecomputertoexecutemorethanonestatementwhenNislessthan5.
Youcanputanystatement(s)youwantaftertheTHENcommand.Rememberthat
theGOTO40willnotbereachedifNistrue.Anycommandthatshouldbe
followedwhetherornotthespecifiedconditionismetshouldappearona
separateline.
4.2LOOPSTheFORNEXTCommand
IntheprogramusedfortheIFTHENexample,wemadethecomputerprint
COMMODOREfivetimesbytellingittoincreaseor"increment"thevariable
Jbyunitsofone,untilthevalueofJequalledfive;thenweendedthe
program.ThereisasimplerwaytodothisinBASIC.WecanuseaFORNEXT
loop,likethis:
10FORJ=1TO5
20?J,"COMMODORE128"
30NEXTJ
40END
TypeandRUNthisprogramandcomparetheresultwiththeresultofthe
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IFTHENprogramtheyarethesame.Infact,thestepstakenbythecom
puterarealmostidenticalforthetwoprograms.TheFORNEXTloopisa
verypowerfulprogrammingtool.Youcanspecifythenumberoftimesthe
computershouldrepeatanaction.Let'stracethecomputer'sstepsforthe
programabove.
First,thecomputerassignsavalueof1tothevariableJ.The5inthe
FORstatementtellsthecomputertoexecuteallstatementsbetweentheFOR
statementandtheNEXTstatement,untilJisequalto5.Inthiscasethere
isjustonestatementthePRINTstatement.
Thecomputerfirstassigns1toJ,itthengoesontoexecutethePRINT
statement.WhenthecomputerreachestheNEXTJstatement,Jisincremented
andcomparedwith5.IfJhasnotexceeded5thecomputerloopsbacktothe
PRINTstatement.
AfterfiveexecutionsofthisloopthevalueofJexceeds5,theprogram
dropsdowntothestatementthatcomesimmediatelyaftertheNEXTstatement
andcontinuesfromthere.InthiscasethefollowingstatementistheEND
statement,sotheprogramstops.
4.2.1EmptyLoopsInsertingDelaysinaProgram
Beforeyouproceedanyfurther,itwillbehelpfultounderstandabout
loopsandsomewaystheyareusedtogetthecomputertodowhatyouwant.
Youcanusealooptoslowdownthecomputer(bynowyouhavewitnessedthe
speedwithwhichthecomputerexecutescommands).Seeifyoucanpredict
whatthisprogramwilldobeforeyourunit.
10A$="COMMODORE128"
20FORJ=1TO20
30PRINT
40FORK=1TO1500
50NEXTK
60PRINTA$
70NEXTJ
80END
Didyougetwhatyouexpected?
Theloopcontainedinline40and50tellsthecomputertocountto1500
beforeexecutingtheremainderoftheprogram.Thisisknownasadelay
loopandisoftenused.Becauseitisinsidethemainloopoftheprogram,
itiscalledanestedloop.Nestedloopscanbeveryusefulwhenyouwant
thecomputertoperformanumberoftasksinagivenorder,andrepeatthe
entiresequenceofcommandsacertainnumberoftimes.
Section5describesanadvancedwaytoinsertdelaysthroughtheuseofthe
newBASIC7.0command,SLEEP.
4.2.2TheSTEPCommand
Youcantellthecomputertoincrementyourcounterbyunits(e.g.10,0.5
oranyothernumber).YoudothisbyusingaSTEPcommandwiththeFOR
statement.Forexample,ifyouwantthecomputertocountbytensto1000,
type:
10FORX=0TO1000STEP10
20?X
30NEXT
NoticethatyoudonotneedtheXintheNEXTstatementifyouareonly
executingoneloopatatimethisisdiscussedlaterinthissection.
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Also,notethatyoudonothavetoincrease(or"increment")yourcounter
youcandecrease(or"decrement")itaswell.Forexample,changeline10
intheprogramabovetoread:
10FORX=100TO0STEP10
Thecomputerwillcountbackwardfrom100to0,inunitsof10.
Ifyoudon'tuseaSTEPcommandwithaFORstatement,thecomputerwill
automaticallyincrementthecounterbyunitsof1.
ThepartsoftheFORNEXTcommandsare:
FORwordusedtoindicatebeginningofloop.
Xcountervariable;anynumbervariablecanbeused.
1startingvalue;maybeanynumber,positive,negativeorzero.
TOconnectsstartingvaluetoendingvalue.
100endingvalue;maybeanynumber,positive,negativeorzero.
STEPindicatesanincrementotherthan1willbeused.
2increment;canbeanynumber,positive,negativeorzero.
Section5describesDO/LOOP,anew,morepowerfulBASIC7.0commandtoper
formasimilartasktotheSTEPcommand.
4.3INPUTTINGDATA
4.3.1TheINPUTCommand
4.3.1.1Assigningavaluetoavariable
Clearthecomputer'smemorybytypingNEWandpressing{return},andthen
typeandRUNthisprogram:
10K=10
20FORI=1TOK
30?"COMMODORE128"
40NEXT
InthisprogramyoucanchangethevalueofKinline10tomakethecom
puterexecutetheloopasmanytimesasyouwantitto.Youhavetodothis
whenyouaretypingintheprogram,beforeitisRUN.Whatifyouwantedto
beabletotellthecomputerhowmanytimestoexecutetheloopatthetime
theprogramisRUN?
Inotherwords,youwanttobeabletochangethevalueofthevariableK
eachtimeyouruntheprogram,withouthavingtochangetoprogramitself.
Wecallthistheabilitytointeractwiththecomputer.Youcanhavethe
computeraskhowmanytimesyouwantittoexecutetheloop.Todothis,
usetheINPUTcommand.Forexample,replaceline10intheprogramwith:
10INPUTK
NowwhenyouRUNtheprogram,thecomputerrepondswitha?toletyouknow
itiswaitingforyoutoenterwhatyouwantthevalueofKtobe.Type15
andpress{return}.Thecomputerwillexecutetheloop15times.
4.3.1.2PromptMessages
YoucanalsomakethecomputerprintamessageinanINPUTstatementto
tellyouwhatvariableit'swaitingfor.Replaceline10with:
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10INPUT"PLEASEENTERAVALUEFORK";K
Remembertoenclosethemessagetobeprintedinquotes.Thismessageis
calledaprompt.Also,noticethatyoumustuseasemicolon(;)betweenthe
endingquotemarksofthepromptandtheK.Youmayputanymessageyou
wantintheprompt,buttheINPUTstatementmustbe160charactersorless,
justasanyBASICcommandmust.
TheINPUTstatementcanalsobeusedwithstringvariables.Thesamerules
thatapplyfornumericvariablesapplyforstrings.Don'tforgettousethe
{$}toidentifyallyoustringvariables.
Clearyoucomputer'smemorybytypingNEWandpressing{return}.Thentype
thisprogram.
10INPUT"WHATISYOURNAME";NM$
20?"HELLO";N$
NowRUNtheprogram.Whenthecomputerprompts"WHATISYOURNAME?",then
typeyourname.Don'tforgettopress{return}afteryoutypeyourname.
Oncethevalueofavariable(numericorstring)hasbeeninsertedintoa
programthroughtheuseofINPUT,youcanrefertoitbyitsvariablename
anytimeintheprogram.Type?N${return}yourcomputerremembersyour
name!
4.3.2TheGETCommand
ThereareotherBASICcommandsyoucanuseinyourprogramtointeractwith
thecomputer.OneistheGETcommandandissimilartoINPUT.Toseehow
theGETcommandworks,clearthecomputer'smemoryandtypethisprogram:
10GETA$
20IFA$=""THEN10
30?A$
40END
WhenyoutypeRUNandpress{return},nothingseemstohappen.Thereason
isthatthecomputeriswaitingforyoutopressakey.TheGETcommand,in
effect,tellsthecomputertocheckthekeyboardandfindoutwhat
characterorkeyisbeingpressed.Thecomputerissatisfiedwithanull
character(thatis,nocharacter).Thisisthereasonforline20.This
linetellsthecomputerthatifitgetsanullcharacter,indicatedby
doublequoteswithnospaceinbetweenthem,itshouldgobacktoline10
andtrytoGETanothercharacter.Thisloopcontinuesuntilyoupressa
key.ThecomputerthenassignsthecharacteronthatkeytoA$.
TheGETcommandisveryimportantbecauseyoucanuseit,ineffect,to
programakeyonyourkeyboard.Theexamplebelowprintsamessageonthe
screenwhen{q}ispressed.TypetheprogramandRUNit.Thepress{q}and
seewhathappens.
10?"PRESSQTOVIEWMESSAGE"
20GETA$
30IFA$=""THEN20
40IFA$="Q"THEN60
50GOTO20
60FORI=1TO25
70?"NOWICANUSETHEGETSTATEMENT"
80NEXT
90END
Noticethatifyoutrytopressanykeyotherthanthe{q},thecomputer
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willnotdisplaythemessage,butwillgobacktoline20toGETanother
character.
Section5describeshowtousetheGETKEYstatement,whichisanewandmore
powerfulBASIC7.0commandthatcanbeusedtoperformasimilartask.
4.3.3SampleProgram
NowthatyouknowhowtousetheFORNEXTloopandtheINPUTcommand,clear
thecomputer'smemorybytypingNEW{return},thentypethefollowing
program:
10T=0
20INPUT"HOWMANYNUMBERS";N
30FORJ=1TON
40INPUT"PLEASEENTERANUMBER";X
50T=T+X
60NEXT
70A=T/N
80PRINT
90?"YOUHAVE";N"NUMBERSTOTALING"T
100?"AVERAGE=";A
110END
Thisprogramletsyoutellthecomputerhowmanynumbersyouwanttoave
rage.Youcanchangethenumberseverytimeyouruntheprogramwithout
havingtochangetheprogramitself.
Let'sseewhattheprogramdoes,linebyline:
Line10assignsavalueof0toT(whichwillbetherunningtotalof
thenumbers).
Line20letsyoudeterminehowmanynumberstoaverage,storedin
variableN.
Line30tellsthecomputertoexecutealoopNtimes.
Line40letsyoutypeintheactualnumberstobeaveraged.
Line50addseachnumbertotherunningtotal.
Line60tellsthecomputertoincrementthecounter(J)andloopback
toline30whilethecounter(J)<=N.
Line70dividesthetotalbytheamountofnumbersyoutypedin(N)
aftertheloophasbeenexecutedNtimes.
Line80printsablanklineonthescreen.
Line90printsthemessagethatgivesyoutheamountofnumbersand
theirtotal.
Line100printstheaverageofthenumbers.
Line110tellsthecomputerthatyourprogamisfinished.
4.3.4TheREADDATACommands
Thereisanotherpowerfulwaytotellthecomputerwhatnumbersorcharac
terstouseinyourprogram.YoucanusetheREADstatementinyourprogram
totellthecomputertogetanumberorcharacter(s)fromtheDATAstate
ment.Forexample,ifyouwantthecomputertofindtheaverageoffive
numbers,youcanusetheREADandDATAstatementsthisway:
10T=0
20FORJ=1TO5
30READX
40T=T+X
50NEXT
60A=T/5
70?"AVERAGE=";A
80END
90DATA5,12,1,34,18
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WhenyouRUNtheprogram,thecomputerwillprintAVERAGE=14.Theprogram
usesthevariableTtokeeparunningtotal,andcalculatestheaveragein
thesamewayastheINPUTaverageprogram.TheREADDATAaverageprogram,
however,findsthenumberstoaverageonaDATAline.Noticeline30,READ
X.TheREADcommandtellsthecomputertheremustbeaDATAstatementin
theprogram.ItfindstheDATAline,andusesthefirstnumberasthecur
rentvalueforthevariableX.Thenexttimethroughtheloopthesecond
numberintheDATAstatementwillbeusedasthevalueforX,andsoon.
YoucanputanynumberyouwantinaDATAstatement,butyoucannotput
calculationsinaDATAstatement.TheDATAstatementcanbeanywhereyou
wantintheprogramevenaftertheENDstatement,orasthefirstprogram
line.ThisisbecausethecomputerneverreallyexecutestheDATAstate
ment;itwilljustrefertoit.Besuretoseparateyourdataitemswith
commas,butbesurenottoputacommabetweenthewordDATAandthefirst
numberinthelist.
IfyouhavemorethanoneDATAstatementinyourprogram,thecomputerwill
startREADingfromthefirstDATAstatementintheprogramlistingwhenthe
programisRUN.Thecomputerusesapointertoreminditselfwhichpieceof
dataitreadlast.AfterthecomputerreadsthefirstnumberintheDATA
statement,thepointermovestothenextnumber.Whenthecomputercomes
totheREADstatementagain,itassignsthevaluethepointerindicatesto
thevariableintheREADstatement.
YoucanuseasmanyREADandDATAstatementasyouneedinaprogram,but
makesurethereisenoughdataintheDATAstatementsforthecomputerto
READ.RemoveoneofthenumbersfromtheDATAstatementinthelastprogram
andRUNitagain.Thecomputerrespondswith?OUTOFDATAERRORIN30.What
happenedisthatwhenthecomputerexecutedtheloopforthefifthtime,
therewasnodataforittoread.Thatiswhattheerrormessageistelling
you.PuttingtoomuchintotheDATAstatementdoesn'tcreateaproblemin
thisprogram,becausethecomputerneverrealizestheextradataexists.
4.3.5TheRESTORECommand
YoucanusetheRESTOREcommandinaprogramtoresetthedatapointerto
thefirstpieceofdataifyouneedto.ReplacetheENDstatement(line80)
intheprogramabovewith:
80RESTORE
andadd:
85GOTO10
NowRUNtheprogram.TheprogramwillruncontinuouslyusingthesameDATA
statement.
NOTE:IfthecomputergivesyouanOUTOFDATAerrormessage,itisbecause
youforgottoreplacethenumberthatyouremovedpreviouslyfromtheDATA
statement,sothedataisallusedbeforetheREADstatementhasbeenexe
cutedthespecificnumberoftimes.
4.3.5.1Assigningvaluestostringvariables
YoucanuseDATAstatementstoassignvaluestostringvariables.Thesame
rulesapplyasfornumericdata.Clearthecomputer'smemoryandtypethe
followingprogram:
10FORJ=1TO3
20READA$
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30?A$
40NEXT
50END
60DATACOMMODORE,128,COMPUTER
IftheREADstatementcallsforastringvariable,youcanplacelettersor
numbersintheDATAstatement.Noticehowever,thatsincethecomputeris
READingastring,numberswillbestoredasastringofcharacters,notas
avaluewhichcanbemanipulated.Numbersstoredasstringscanbeprinted,
butnotusedincalculations.AlsoyoucannotplacelettersinaDATA
statementiftheREADstatementcallsforanumbervariable.
4.3.6UsingArrays
YouhaveseenhowtouseREADDATAtoprovidemanyvaluesforavariable.
ButwhatifyouwantthecomputertorememberallthedataintheDATA
statementinsteadofreplacingthevalueofavariablewiththenewdata?
Whatifyouwanttobeabletorecallthethirdnumber,orthesecond
stringofcharacters?
Eachtimeyouassignanewvaluetoavariable,thecomputererasestheold
valueinthevariable'sboxinmemoryandstoresthenewvalueinits
place.Youcantellthecomputertoreservearowofboxesinmemoryand
storeeveryvaluethatyouassigntothatvariableinyourprogram.This
rowofboxesiscalledanarray.
4.3.6.1SubscriptedVariables
IfthearraycontainsallofthesevaluesassignedtothevariableXinthe
READDATAexample,itiscalledtheXarray.ThefirstvalueassignedtoX
intheprogramiscalledX(1),thesecondvalueisX(2),andsoon.These
arecalledsubscriptedvariables.Thenumbersintheparenthesesarecalled
subscripts.Youcanusethevalueofavariableortheresultofacalcu
lationasasubscript.Thefollowingisanotherversionoftheaveraging
program,thistimeusingsubscriptedvariables.
5DIMX(5)
10T=0
20FORJ=1TO5
30READX(J)
40T=T+X(J)
50NEXT
60A=T/5
70?"AVERAGE=";A
80END
90DATA5,12,1,34,18
Noticetherearenotmanychanges.Line5istheonlynewstatement.It
tellsthecomputertosetasidefiveboxesinmemoryfortheXarray.Line
30hasbeenchangedsothateachtimethecomputerexecutestheloop,it
assignsavaluefromtheDATAstatementtothepositionintheXarraythat
correspondstotheloopcounter(J).Line40calculatesthetotal,justas
itdidbefore,butyoumustuseasubsciptedvariabletodoit.
AfteryouRUNtheprogram,ifyouwanttorecallthethirdnumber,type:
?X(3){return}
ThecomputerrememberseverynumberinthearrayX.
Youcancreatestringarraystostorethecharachtersinstringvariables
thesameway.TryupdatingtheCOMMODORE128COMPUTERREADDATAprogramso
thecomputerwillremembertheelementsintheA$array.
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5DIMA$(3)
10FORJ=1TO3
20READA$(J)
30?A$(J)
40NEXT
50END
60DATACOMMODORE,128,COMPUTER
TIP:YoudonotneedtheDIMstatementinyourprogramunlessthearrayyou
usehasmorethan10elements,seethenextparagraaf,DimensioningArrays.
4.3.6.2DimensioningArrays
Arrayscanbeusedwithnestedloops,sothecomputercanhandledataina
moreadvancedway.Whatifyouhadalargechartwith10rowsand5numbers
ineachrow.Supposeyouwantedtofindtheaverageofthefivenumbersin
eachrow.Youcouldcreate10arraysandhavethecomputercalculatethe
averageofthefivenumbersineachone.Thisisnotnecessary,becauseyou
canputallthenumbersinatwodimensionalarray.Thisarraywouldhave
thesamedimensionsasthechartofnumbersyouwanttoworkwith10rows
by5columns.TheDIMstatementforthisarray(wewillcallitarrayX)
shouldbe:
10DIMX(10,5)
Thistellsthecomputertoreservespaceinitsmemoryforatwodimen
sionalarraynamedX.Thecomputerreservesenoughspacefor50numbers.
YoudonothavetofillanarraywithasmanynumbersasyouDIMensionedit
for,butthecomputerwillstillreserveenoughspaceforallthepositions
inthearray.
4.3.6.3SampleProgram
Nowitbecomesveryeasytorefertoanynumberinthechartbyitscolumn
androwposition.Refertothechartbelow.Findthethirdelementinthe
tenthrow(1500).YouwouldrefertothisnumberasX(10,3)inyourprogram.
Thefollowingprogramreadsthenumbersfromthechartintoatwodimen
sionalarray(X)andcalculatestheaverageofthenumbersineachrow.
Column
+
Row|12345
+
1|13579
2|246810
3|510152025
4|1020304050
5|20406080100
6|306090120150
7|4080120160180
8|50100150200250
9|100200300400500
10|5001000150020002500
10DIMX(10,5),A(10)
20FORR=1TO10
30T=0
40FORC=1TO5
50READX(R,C)
60T=T+X(R,C)
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70NEXTC
80A(R)=T/5
90NEXTR
100FORR=1TO10
110PRINT"ROW#";R
120FORC=1TO5
130PRINTX(R,C)
140NEXTC
150PRINT"AVERAGE=";A(R)
160FORD=1TO1000:NEXT
170NEXTR
180DATA1,3,5,7,9
190DATA2,4,6,8,10
200DATA5,10,15,20,25
210DATA10,20,30,40,50
220DATA20,40,60,80,100
230DATA30,60,90,120,150
240DATA40,80,120,160,200
250DATA50,100,150,200,250
260DATA100,200,300,400,500
270DATA500,1000,1500,2000,2500
280END
4.4PROGRAMMINGSUBROUTINES
4.4.1TheGOSUBRETURNCommands
Untilnow,theonlymethodyouhavehadtotellthecomputertojumpto
anotherpartofyourprogramistousetheGOTOcommand.Whatifyouwant
thecomputertojumptoanotherpartoftheprogram,executethestatements
inthatsection,thenreturntothepointitleftoffandcontinueexecu
tingtheprogram?
Thepartofprogramthatthecomputerjumpstoandexecutesiscalleda
subroutine.Clearyourcomputer'smemoryandentertheprogrambelow.
10A$="SUBROUTINE":B$="PROGRAM"
20FORJ=1TO5
30INPUT"ENTERANUMBER";X
40GOSUB100
50PRINTB$:PRINT
60NEXT
70END
100PRINTA$:PRINT
110Z=X^2:PRINTZ
120RETURN
Thisprogramwillsquarethenumbersyoutypeandprinttheresult.The
otherprintmessagestellyouwhenthecomputerisexecutingthesubroutine
orthemainprogram.Line40tellsthecomputertojumptoline100,exe
cuteitandthestatementsfollowingituntilitseesaRETURNcommand.The
RETURNstatementtellsthecomputertogobackintheprogramtotheline
immediatelyfollowingtheGOSUBcommandandcontinueexecuting.Thesubrou
tinecanbeanywhereintheprogramincludingaftertheENDstatement.
Also,rememberthattheGOSUBandRETURNcommandsmustalwaysbeusedto
getherinaprogram(likeFORNEXTandIFTHEN),otherwisethecomputer
willgiveanerrormessage.
4.4.2TheONGOTO/GOSUBCommands
Thereisanotherwaytomakethecomputerjumptoanothersectionofyour
program(calledbranching).UsingtheONstatement,youcanhavethecom
puterdecidewhatpartoftheprogramtobranchto,basedonacalculation
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orkeyboardinput.
TheONstatementisusedwitheithertheGOTOorGOSUBRETURNcommands,
dependingonwhatyouneedtheprogramtodo.Avariableorcalculation
shouldbeaftertoONcommand.AftertheGOTOorGOSUBcommand,there
shouldbealistoflinenumbers.Typeintheprogrambelowtoseehowthe
ONcommandworks.
10?"ENTERANUMBERBETWEENONEANDFIVE"
20INPUTX
30ONXGOSUB100,200,300,400,500
40END
100?"YOURNUMBERWASONE":RETURN
200?"YOURNUMBERWASTWO":RETURN
300?"YOURNUMBERWASTHREE":RETURN
400?"YOURNUMBERWASFOUR":RETURN
500?"YOURNUMBERWASFIVE":RETURN
WhenthevalueofXis1,thecomputerbranchestothefirstlinenumberin
thelist(100).WhenXis2,thecomputerbranchestothesecondnumberin
thelist(200),andsoon.
4.5USINGMEMORYLOCATION
4.5.1UsingPEEKandPOKEforRAMAccess
Eachareaofthecomputer'smemoryhasaspecialfunction.Forinstance,
thereisaverylargeareatostoreyourprogramsandthevariablesasso
ciatedwiththem.Thispartofmemory,calledRAM,isclearedwhenyouuse
theNEWcommand.Otherareasarenotaslarge,buttheyhaveveryspecia
lizedfunctions.Forinstance,thereisanareaofmemorylocationsthat
controlsthemusicfeaturesofthecomputer.
TherearetwoBASICkeywordsPEEKandPOKEthatyoucanusetoaccess
andmanipulatethecomputer'smemory.UseofthePEEKfunctionandthePOKE
commandcanbeapowerfulprogrammingdevicebecausethecontentsofthe
computer'smemorylocationsdetermineexactlywhatthecomputershouldbe
doingataspecifictime.
4.5.1.1UsingPEEK
PEEKcanbeusedtomakethecomputertellyouwhatvalueisbeingstored
inamemorylocation(amemorylocationcanstoreanyvaluebetween0and
255).YoucanPEEKthevalueofanymemorylocation(RAMorROM)inDIRECT
orPROGRAMmode.Type:
P=PEEK(2594){return}
?P{return}
Thecomputerassignsthevalueinmemorylocation2594tothevariableP
whenyoupress{return}afterthefirstline.Thenitprintsthevaluewhen
youpress{return}afterenteringthe?Pcommand.Memorylocation2594
determineswhetherornotkeysliketheSPACEBARandCRSRrepeatwhenyou
holdthemdown.A128inlocation2594tellsthecomputertorepeatthese
keyswhenyouholdthemdown.HolddowntheSPACEBARandwatchthecursor
moveacrossthescreen.
4.5.1.2UsingPOKE
TochangethevaluestoredinaRAMlocation,usethePOKEcommand.Type:
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POKE2594,96{return}
Thecomputerstoresthevalueafterthecomma(i.e.96)inthememoryloca
tionbeforethecomma(i.e.2594).A96inmemorylocation2594tellsthe
computernottorepeatkeysliketheSPACEBARandCRSRkeyswhenyouhold
themdown.NowholddowntheSPACEBARandwatchthecursor.Thecursor
movesonepositiontotheright,butitdoesnotrepeat.Toreturnyour
computertoitsnormalstate,type:
POKE2594,128{return}
Youcannotalterthevalueofallthememorylocationsinthecomputer
thevaluesinROMcanberead,butnotchanged.
NOTE:Theseexamplesassumeyouareinbank0.Seealsothedescrip
tionoftheBANKcommandinchapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaediafor
detailsonbanks.
4.6BASICFUNCTIONS
4.6.1WhatisaFunction?
AfunctionisapredefinedoperationoftheBASIClanguagethatgenerally
providesyouwithasinglevalue.Whenthefunctionprovidesthevalue,it
issaidto"return"thevalue.Forinstance,theSQR(square)functionisa
mathematicalfunctionthatreturnsthevalueofaspecificnumberwhenit
israisedtothesecondpoweri.e.,squared.
Therearetwokindsoffunctions:
Numericreturnsaresultwhichisasinglenumber.
Numericfunctionsrangefromcalculatingmathematicalvaluesto
specifyingthenumericvalueofamemorylocation.
Stringreturnsaresultwhichisacharacter.
Followingaredescriptionsofsomeofthemorecommonlyusedfunctions.For
acompletelist,seeSection18ofChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.
4.6.2TheINTEGERFunction(INT)
Whatifyouwanttoroundoffanumbertothenearestinteger?You'llneed
touseINT,theintegerfunction.TheINTfunctiontakesawayeverything
afterthedecimalpoint.Trytypingtheseexamples:
?INT(4.25){return}
?INT(4.75){return}
?INT(SQR(50)){return}
Ifyouwanttoroundofftothenearestwholenumber,thenthesecond
exampleshouldreturnavalueof5.Infact,youshouldroundupanynumber
withadecimalabove0.5.Todothis,youhavetoadd0.5tothenumber
beforeusingtheINTfunction.Inthisway,numberswithdecimalportions
equaltoorabove0.5willbeincreasedby1beforeroundingdownbythe
INTfunction.Trythis:
?INT(4.75+0.5){return}
Thecomputeradded0.5to0.75beforeitexecutedtheINTfunction,sothat
itrounded5.25downto5fortheresult.Ifyouwanttoroundoffthe
resultofacalculation,dothis:
?INT((100/6)+0.5){return}
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Youcansubstituteanycalculationforthedivisionshownintheinner
parenteses.
Whatifyouwanttoroundoffnumberstothenearestof0.01?Insteadof
adding0.5toyournumber,add0.005,thenmultiplyby100.Let'ssayyou
wanttoround2.876tothenearest0.01.Usingthismethod,youstartwith:
?(2.876+0.005)*100{return}
NowusetheINTfunctiontogetridofeverythingafterthedecimalpoint
(whichmovestwoplacestotherightwhenyoumultiplyby100).Youare
leftwith:
?INT((2.876+0.005)*100){return}
whichgivesyouavalueof288.Allthat'slefttodoisdivideby100to
getthevalueof2.88,whichistheansweryouwant.Usingthistechnique,
youcanroundoffcalculationslikethefollowingtothenearestof0.01:
?INT(((2.876+1.29+16.19.534)+0.005)*100){return}
4.6.3GeneratingRandomNumbersTheRNDFunction
TheRNDfunctiontellsthecomputertogeneratearandomnumber.Thiscan
beusefulinsimulatinggamesofchance,andincreatinginteresting
graphicsormusicprograms.Allrandom(RND)numbersareninedigits,in
decimalform,betweenthevalue0.000000001and0.999999999.Type:
?RND(0){return}
Multiplyingtherandomlygeneratednumberbysixmakestherangeofgene
ratednumbersincreasetogreaterthan0andlessthansix.Inordertoin
clude6(andexcludezero)amongthenumbersgenerated,weaddonetothe
resultofRND(0)*6.Thismakestherange1
10R=(INT(RND(1)*6+1)
20?R
30GOTO10
Eachnumbergeneratedrepresentsonetossofadie.Tosimulateapairof
dice,usetwocommandsofthisnature.Eachnumberisgeneratedseparately,
andthesumofthetwonumbersrepresentsthetotalofthedice.
4.6.4TheASCandCHR$Functions
EverycharacterthattheCommodore128candisplay(includinggraphic
characters)hasanumberassignedtoit.Thisnumberiscalledacharacter
stringcode(CHR$)andthereare255ofthemintheCommodore128.There
aretwofunctionsassociatedwiththisconceptthatareveryuseful.
ThefirstistheASCfunction.Type:
?ASC(Q){return}
Thecomputerrespondswith81.81isthecharacterstringcodeforthe{q}
key.Substituteanykeyfor{q}inthecommandabovetofindouttheCom
modoreASCIIcodenumberforanycharacter.
ThesecondfunctionistheCHR$function.Type:
?CHR$(81){return}
ThecomputerrespondswithQ.Ineffect,theCHR$functionistheopposite
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oftheASCfunction.Theybothrefertothetableofcharacterstringcodes
inthecomputer'smemory.CHR$valuescanbeusedtoprogramfunctionkeys.
SeeSection5formoreinformationabouttheuseofthesefunctions.See
AppendixEofthisGuideforalistingofASCandCHR$codes.
4.6.5ConvertingStringsandNumbers
Sometimesyoumayneedtoperformcalculationsonnumericcharactersthat
arestoredasstringvariablesinyourprogram.Othertimes,youmaywant
toperformstringoperationsonnumbers.TherearetwoBASICfunctionsyou
canusetoconvertyourvariablesfromnumerictostringtypeandvice
versa.
4.6.5.1TheVALFunction
TheVALfunctionreturnsanumericvalueforastringargument.Clearthe
computer'smemoryandtypeinthisprogram:
10A$="64"
20A=VAL(A$)
30?"THEVALUEOF";A$;"IS";A
40END
4.6.5.2TheSTR$Function
TheSTR$functionreturnsthestringrepresentationofanumericvalue.
Clearthecomputer'smemoryandtypethisprogram:
10A=65
20A$=STR$(A)
30?A"ISTHEVALUEOF";A$
4.6.6TheSquareRootFunction(SQR)
ThesquarerootfunctionisSQR.Forexample,tofindthesquarerootof
50,type:
?SQR(50){return}
Youcanfindthesquarerootofanypositivenumberinthisway.
4.6.7TheAbsoluteValueFunction(ABS)
Theabsolutevalue(ABS)isveryusefulindealingwithnegativenumbers.
Youcanusethisfunctiontogetthepositivevalueofanynumber,positive
ornegative.Trytheseexamples:
?ABS(10){return}
?ABS(5)"ISEQUALTO"ABS(5){return}
4.7THESTOPANDCONT(CONTINUE)COMMANDS
Youcanmakethecomputerstopaprogram,andresumerunningitwhenyou
areready.TheSTOPcommandmustbeincludedintheprogram.Youcanputa
STOPcommandanywhereyouwanttoinaprogram.Whenthecomputer"breaks"
fromtheprogram(thatis,stopsrunningtheprogram),youcanuseDIRECT
modecommandstofindoutexactlywhatisgoingonintheprogram.
Forexample,youcanfindthevalueofaloopcounterorothervariable.
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Thisisapowerfuldevicewhenyouare"debugging"orfixingyourprogram.
Clearthecomputer'smemoryandtypetheprogambelow.
10X=INT(SQR(630))
20Y=(.025*80)^2
30X=INT(X*Y)
40STOP
50FORJ=0TOZSTEPY
60?"STOPANDCONTINUE"
70NEXT
80END
NowRUNthisprogram.ThecomputerrespondswithBREAKIN40.Atthis
point,thecomputerhascalculatedthevaluesofX,YandZ.Ifyouwantto
beabletofigureoutwhattherestoftheprogramissupposedtodo,tell
thecomputertoPRINTX;Y;Z.
Oftenwhenyouaredebuggingalargeprogram(oracomplexsmallone),
you'llwanttoknowthevalueofavariableatacertainpointinthe
program.
Onceyouhavealltheinformationyouneed,youcantypeCONT(for
CONTinue)andpress{return}assumingyouhavenoteditinganythingonthe
screen.ThecomputerthenCONTinueswiththeprogram,startingwiththe
statementaftertheSTOPcommand.
***************************************************************************
Thissectionandtheprecedingonehavebeendesignedtofamiliarizeyou
withtheBASICprogramminglanguageanditscapabilities.Theremaining
foursectionsofthischapterdescribecommandsthatareuniquetoCom
modore128mode.SomeCommodore128modecommandsprovidecapabilitiesthat
arenotavailableinC64mode.OtherCommodore128modecommandsletyoudo
thesamethingsasacertainC64command,butmoreeasily.Thesyntaxfor
allCommodore7.0commandsisgiveninChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.
SECTION5
5.SomeBASICCommandsandKeyboardOperationsUniquetoC128
5.1INTRODUCTION
5.2ADVANCEDLOOPING
5.2.1TheDO/LOOPStatement
5.2.1.1UNTIL
5.2.1.2WHILE
5.2.1.3EXIT
5.2.2TheELSEClausewithIFTHEN
5.2.3TheBEGIN/BENDSequencewithIFTHEN
5.2.4TheSLEEPCommand
5.3FORMATTINGOUTPUT
5.3.1ThePRINTUSINGCommand
5.3.2ThePUDEFCommand
5.4SAMPLEPROGRAM
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5.5INPUTTINGDATAWITHTHEGETKEYCOMMAND
5.6PROGRAMMINGAIDS
5.6.1EnteringPrograms
5.6.1.1AUTO
5.6.1.2RENUMBER
5.6.1.3DELETE
5.6.2IdentifyingProblemsinYourPrograms
5.6.2.1HELP
5.6.2.2ErrorTrappingTheTRAPCommand
5.6.2.3ProgramTracingTheTRONandTROFFCommands
5.7WINDOWING
5.7.1UsingtheWINDOWCommandtoCreateaWindow
5.7.2UsingtheESCKeytoCreateaWindow
5.82MHZOPERATION
5.8.1TheFASTandSLOWCommands
5.9KEYSUNIQUETOC128MODE
5.9.1FunctionKeys
5.9.2RedefiningFunctionKeys
5.9.3OtherKeysUsedinC128ModeOnly
5.9.3.1HELP
5.9.3.2NOSCROLL
5.9.3.3CAPSLOCK
5.9.3.440/80DISPLAY
5.9.3.5ALT
5.9.3.6TAB
5.9.3.7LINEFEED
5.1INTRODUCTION
ThissectionintroducesyoutosomepowerfulBASICcommandsandstatements
thatyouprobablyhavenotseenbefore,evenifyouareanexperienced
BASICprogrammer.IfyouarefamiliarwithprogramminginBASIC,youhave
probablyencounteredmanysituationsinwhichyoucouldhaveusedthese
commandsandstatements.Thissectionexplainstheconceptsbehindeach
commandandgivesexamplesofhowtouseeachcommandinaprogram.(Acom
pletelistandanexplanationofthesecommandsandstatementsmaybefound
inChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.)Thissectionalsodescribeshowto
usethespecialkeysthatareavailabletoyouinC128mode.
5.2ADVANCEDLOOPING
5.2.1TheDO/LOOPStatement
TheDO/LOOPstatementprovidesmoresophisticatedwaystocreatealoop
thandotheGOTO,GOSUBorFOR/NEXTstatements.TheDO/LOOPstatementcom
binationbringstotheBASIClanguageaverypowerfulandversatiletech
niquenormallyonlyavailableinstructuredprogramminglanguages.We
discussjustafewpossibleusesofDO/LOOPinthisexplanation.
Ifyouwanttocreateaninfiniteloop,youstartwithaDOstatement,then
enterthelineorlinesthatspecifytheactionyouwantthecomputerto
perform.ThenendwithaLOOPstatementlikethis:
100DO
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110PRINT"REPETITION"
120LOOP
Pressthe{run/stop}keytostoptheprogram.
ThedirectionsfollowingtheDOstatementarecarriedoutuntiltheprogram
reachestheLOOPstatement(line120);controlisthentransferredbackto
theDOstatement(line100).ThusanystatementsinbetweenDOandLOOPare
performedindefinitely.
5.2.1.1UNTIL
AnotherusefultechniqueistocombinetheDO/LOOPwiththeUNTILstate
ment.TheUNTILstatementsetsupaconditionthatdirectstheloop.The
loopwillruncontinuallyunlesstheconditionforUNTILhappens.
100DO:INPUT"DOYOULIKEYOURCOMPUTER";A$
110LOOPUNTILA$="YES"
120PRINT"THANKYOU"
TheDO/LOOPstatementisoftenusedtorepeatanentireroutineindefinite
lyinthebodyofaprogram,asinthefollowing:
10PRINT"PROGRAMCONTINUESUNTILYOUTYPE'QUIT'"
20DOUNTILA$="QUIT"
30INPUT"DEGREESFAHRENHEIT";F
40C=(5/9)*(F32)
50PRINTF;"DEGREESFAHRENHEITEQUALS";C;"DEGREESCELCIUS"
60INPUT"AGAINORQUIT";A$
70LOOP
80END
AnotheruseofDO/LOOPisasacounter,wheretheUNTILstatementisused
tospecifyacertainnumberofrepetitions.
10N=2*2
20PRINT"TWODOUBLEDEQUALS";N
30DOUNTILX=25
40X=X+1
50N=N*2
60PRINT"DOUBLED";X+1;"TIMES...";N
70LOOP
80END
Noticethatifyouleavethecounterstatementout(theUNTILX=25partin
line30),thenumberisdoubledindefinitelyuntilanOVERFLOWerror
occurs.
5.2.1.2WHILE
TheWHILEstatementworksinasimilarwaytoUNTIL,buttheloopisre
peatedonlywhiletheconditionisineffect,suchasinthereworkingof
thelastbriefprogram:
100DO:INPUT"DOYOULIKEYOURCOMPUTER";A$
110LOOPWHILEA<>"YES"
120PRINT"THANKYOU"
5.2.1.3EXIT
AnEXITstatementcanbeplacedwithinthebodyofaDO/LOOP.WhentheEXIT
statementisencountered,theprogramjumpstothenextstatementfollowing
theLOOPstatement.
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5.2.2TheELSEClausewithIFTHEN
TheELSEclauseprovidesawaytotellthecomputerhowtorespondifthe
conditionoftheIFTHENstatementisfalse.Ratherthancontinuingtothe
nextprogramline,thecomputerwillexecutethecommandorbranchtothe
programlinementionedintheELSEclause.Forexample,ifyouwantedthe
computertoprintthesquareofanumber,youcouldusetheELSEclause
likethis:
10INPUT"TYPEANUMBERTOBESQUARED";N
20IFN<100THENPRINTN*N:ELSE40
30END
40?"NUMBERMUSTBE<100":GOTO10
Noticethatyoumustuseacolon(:)betweentheIFTHENstatementandthe
ELSEclause.
5.2.3TheBEGIN/BENDSequencewithIFTHEN
BASIC7.0allowsyoutotaketheIFTHENconditiononestepfurther.The
BEGIN/BENDsequencepermitsyoutoincludeanumberofprogramlinestobe
executediftheIFconditionistrue,ratherthanonesimpleactionor
GOTO.Thecommandisconstructedlikethis:
IFconditionTHENBEGIN:
(programlines):
BEND:ELSE
Besuretoplaceacolon(:)betweenBEGINandanyinstructiontothecom
puter,andagainbetweenthelastcommandinthesequenceandtheword
BEND.BEGIN/BENDcanbeusedwithoutanELSEclause,orcanbeusedfol
lowingtheELSEclausewhenonlyasinglecommandfollowsTHENandmultiple
commandsfollowtheELSEclause(ofcourseBEGIN/BENDcanalsobeusedboth
afterTHENandELSE).Trythisprogram:
10INPUTA
20IFA<100THENBEGIN:?"YOURNUMBERWAS"A
30SLEEP2:REMDELAY
40FORX=1TOA
50?"THISISANEXAMPLEOFBEGIN/BEND"
60NEXTX
70?"THAT'SENOUGH":BEND:ELSE?"TOOMANY"
80END
Thisprogramasksforanumberfromtheuser.IFthenumberislessthan
100,thestatementbetweenthekeywordsBEGINandBENDareperformed,along
withanystatementsonthesamelineasBEND(exceptforELSE).Themessage
"YOURNUMBERWAS"nappearsonthescreen.Line30isadelayusedtokeep
themessageonthescreenlongenoughsoitcanbereadeasily.Thena
FOR/NEXTloopisusedtodisplayamessagethenumberoftimesspecifiedby
theuser.Ifthenumberisgreaterthanorequalto100,thepartafterthe
THENconditionisskipped,andpartaftertheELSEcondition(printing
"TOOMANY")iscarriedout.TheELSEkeywordmustbeonthesamelineas
BEND.
5.2.4TheSLEEPCommand
NotetheuseoftheSLEEPcommandinline30oftheprogramjustdiscussed.
SLEEPprovidesaneasier,moreaccuratewayofinsertingandtimingadelay
inprogramoperation.TheformatoftheSLEEPcommandis:
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SLEEPn
wherenindicatesthenumberofseconds(roundeddowntoawholenumberof
seconds),intherangeof0to65535,thatyouwanttheprogramtodelay.
Inthecommandshowninline30,the2specifiesadelayoftwoseconds.
5.3FORMATTINGOUTPUT
5.3.1ThePRINTUSINGCommand
Supposeyouwerewritingasalesprogramthatcalculatedadollaramount.
Totalsalesdividedbynumberofsalespeopleequalsaveragesales.Butper
formingthiscalculationmightresultindollaramountswithfourorfive
decimalplaces!Youcanformattheresultthecomputerprintssothatonly
twodecimalplacesaredisplayed.Thecommandwhichperformsthisfunction
isPRINTUSING.
PRINTUSINGletsyoucreateaformatforyouroutput,usingspaces,commas,
decimalpointsanddollarsigns.Hashmarks(the{#}sign)areusedtore
presentspacesorcharactersinthedisplayedresult.Forexample:
PRINTUSING"#$######.##";A
tellsthecomputerthatwhenAisprinted,itshouldbeintheformgiven,
withuptosixplacestotheleftofthedecimalpoint,andtwoplacesto
theright.Thehashmarkinfrontofthedollarsignindicatesthatthe{$}
shouldfloat,thatis,itshouldalwaysbeplacednexttotheleftmost
numberintheformat.
Ifyouwantacommatoappearbeforethelastthreedollarplaces(asin
$1,000.00),includethecommainthePRINTUSINGstatement.Rememberyou
canformatoutputwithspaces,commas,decimalpoints,anddollarsigns.
ThereareseveralotherspecialcharactersforPRINTUSING,seeparagraph
17.68oftheBASICEncyclopaediaformoreinformation.
5.3.2ThePUDEFCommand
Ifyouwantformattedoutputrepresentingsomethingotherthandollarsand
cents,usethePUDEF(PrintUsingDEFine)command.Youcanreplaceanyof
fourformatcharacterswithanycharacteronthekeyboard.
ThePUDEFcommandhasfourpositions,butyoudonothavetoredefineall
four.Thecommandlookslikethis:
PUDEF",.$"
1234
Here:
*position1isthefillercharacter.Ablankwillappearifyoudo
notredefinethisposition.
*position2isthecommacharacter.Defaultisthecomma.
*position3isthedecimalpoint.
*position4isthedollarsign.
IfyouwroteaprogramthatconvertedadollaramounttoEnglishpounds,
youcouldformattheoutputwiththesecommands:
10PUDEF",.{pound}"
20PRINTUSING"#$####.##";X
5.4SAMPLEPROGRAM
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Thisprogramcalculatesinterestandloanpayments,usingsomeofthecom
mandsandstatementsyoujustlearned.Itsetsaminimumvaluefortheloan
usingtheELSEclausewithanIFTHENstatement,andsetsupadollarand
centsformatwithPRINTUSING.
10INPUT"LOANAMOUNTINDOLLARS";A
20IFA<100THEN70:ELSEP=.15
30I=A*P
40?"TOTALPAYMENTEQUALS";
50PRINTUSING"#$#####.##";A+1
60GOTO80
70?"LOANSUNDER$100ARENOTAVAILABLE"
80END
5.5INPUTTINGDATAWITHTHEGETKEYCOMMAND
YouhavelearnedtousetheINPUTandGETcommandstoenterDATAduringa
program.AnotherwayforyoutoenterdatawhileaprogramisbeingRUNis
withtheGETKEYstatement.TheGETKEYstatementacceptsonlyonekeyata
time.GETKEYisusuallyfollowedbyastringvariable(A$forexample).Any
keythatispressedisassignedtothatstringvariable.GETKEYisuseful
becauseitallowsyoutoenterdataonecharacteratatimewithouthaving
topresstheRETURNkeyaftereachcharacter.TheGETKEYstatementmayonly
beusedinaprogram.
HereisanexampleofusingGETKEYinaprogram:
1000PRINT"PLEASECHOOSEA,B,C,D,EORF"
1010GETKEYK$
1020PRINTA$;"WASTHEKEYYOUPRESSED."
Thecomputerwaitsuntilasinglekeyispressed;whenthekeyispressed,
thecharacterisassignedtovariableA$,andprintedoutinline1020.
ThefollowingprogramfeaturestheGETKEYinmorecomplexanduseful
fashions:foransweringmultiplechoicequestionandalsoaskingifthe
questionshouldberepeated.Iftheanswergivenisincorrect,theuserhas
theoptiontotryagainbypressingthe{y}key(line80).Thekeypressed
forthemultiplechoiceanswerisassignedtovariableA$whilethe"TRY
AGAIN"answerisassignedtoB$,throughtheGETKEYstatementsinline60
and90.IF/THENstatementsareusedforloopsintheprogramtogetthe
propercomputerreactiontothedifferentkeyboardinputs.
10PRINT"WHOWROTE'THERAVEN'?"
20PRINT"A.EDGARELLENPOE"
30PRINT"B.EDGARALLENPOE"
40PRINT"C.IGORALLENPOE"
50PRINT"D.ROBRAVEN"
60GETKEYA$
70IFA$="B"THEN150
80PRINT"WRONG.TRYAGAIN?(YORN)"
90GETKEYB$
100IFB$="Y"THENPRINT"A,B,CORD":GOTO60
110IFB$="N"THEN140
120PRINT"TYPEEITHERYORNTRYAGAIN"
130GOTO90
140PRINT"THECORRECTANSWERISB."
145GOTO160
150PRINT"CORRECT!"
160END
GETKEYisverysimilartoGET,exceptGETKEYwillwaitforakeytobe
pressed.
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5.6PROGRAMMINGAIDS
Inearliersectionsyoulearnedhowtomakechangesinyourprograms,and
correcttypingmistakeswith{inst/del}.BASICalsoprovidesothercommands
andfunctionswhichhelpyoulocateactualprogrammingerrors,andcommands
whichyoucanusetomakeprogrammingsessionsflowmoresmoothly.
5.6.1EnteringPrograms
5.6.1.1AUTO
C128BASICprovidesanautonumberingprocess.Youdeterminetheincrement
forthelinenumbers.Sayyouwanttonumberyourprogramintheusualman
ner,bytens.Beforeyoubegintoprogram,whileinDIRECTmode,type:
AUTO10{return}
Thecomputerautomaticallynumbersyourprogramsbytens.Afteryouentera
lineandpressthe{return}key,thenextlinenumberappears,andthecur
sorisinthecorrectplaceforyoutotypethenextstatement.Youcan
choosetohavethecomputernumberthecommandswithanyincrement;you
mightchoose5oreven50.JustplacethenumberafterthewordAUTOand
press{return}.Toturnofftheautonumberingfeature,typeAUTOwithno
increment,andpress{return}.
5.6.1.2RENUMBER
Ifyouwriteaprogramandlateraddstatementstoit,sometimestheline
numberingcanbeawkward.UsingtheRENUMBERcommandyoucanchangethe
linenumberstoanevenincrementforpartorallofyourprogram.The
RENUMBERcommandhasseveraloptionalparameters,aslistedbelowin
brackets:
RENUMBER[newstartingline][,[increment][,oldstartingline]]
Thenewstartinglineiswhatthefirstprogramlinewilbenumberedafter
theRENUMBERcommandisused.Ifyoudonotspecify,thedefaultis10.The
incrementisthespacingbetweenlinenumbers,anditalsodefaultsto10.
Theoldstartinglinenumberisthelinenumberwheretherenumberingisto
begin.Thisfeatureallowsyoutorenumberaportionofyourprogram,
ratherthanallofit.Itdefaultstothefirstlineoftheprogram.For
example:
RENUMBER40,,80
tellsthecomputertorenumbertheprogramstartingatline80,inincre
mentsof10.Line80becomesline40.
Noticethatthiscommand,likeAUTO,canonlybeexecutedinDIRECTmode.
5.6.1.3DELETE
Youknowhowtodeleteprogramlinesbytypingthelinenumberandpressing
the{return}key.Thiscanbetediousifyouwanttoeraseanentirepor
tionofyourprogram.TheDELETEcommandcansaveyoutimebecauseyoucan
specifyarangeofprogramlinestoeraseallatonce.Forexample:
DELETE1050
willeraseline10,50,andanyinbetween.TheuseofDELETEissimilarto
thatofLIST,inthatyoucanspecifyarangeoflinesuptoagivenline,
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orfollowingit,orasinglelineonly,asintheseexamples:
DELETE120
erasesalllinesuptoandincluding120
DELETE120
erasesline120andanylineafterit
DELETE120
erasesline120only
5.6.2IdentifyingProblemsinYourPrograms
Whenaprogramdoesnotworkthewayyouexpected,anerrormessageusual
lyoccurs.Sometimesthemessagesarevague,however,andyoustilldonot
understandtheproblem.TheCommodore128computerhasseveralwaysof
helpingyoulocatetheproblem.
5.6.2.1HELP
TheCommodore128providesaHELPcommandthatspecifiesthelineinwhich
aproblemhasoccurred.ToactuatetheHELPcommand,justpressthespecial
{help}keyontherowofkeyslocatedabovethemainkeyboard.
Typethefollowingstatement.Itcontainsanintentionalerror,sotypeit
justasis:
10?3;4:5;6
WhenyouRUNthisonelineprogram,thecomputerprints3and4asexpec
ted,butthenresponds?SYNTAXERRORIN10.Supposeyoucannotseethe
error(acoloninsteadofasemicolonbetween4and5).Youpressthe
{help}key.(YoucanalsotypeHELPandpress{return}.)Thecomputerdis
playsthelineagain,butthe5;6ishighlightedtoshowtheerrorisin
thatpartoftheline:
10?3;4:5;6
5.6.2.2ErrorTrappingTheTRAPCommand
Usually,ifanerroroccursinaprogram,theprogram"crashes"(stopsrun
ning).Atthatpoint,youcanpressthe{help}keytotrackdowntheerror.
However,youcanusetheBASIC7.0TRAPcommandtoincludeanerror
trappingcapabilitywithinyourprogram.TheTRAPcommandadvisesyouto
locateandcorrectanerror,thenresumeprogramoperation.Usually,the
errortrappingfunctionissetinthefirstlineofaprogram:
5TRAP100
tellsthecomputerthatifanerroroccurstogotoacertainline(inthis
case,line100).Line100appearsattheendoftheprogram,andsetsupa
contingency.NeitherlineisexecutedUNLESSthereisanerror.Whenan
erroroccurs,thelinewiththeTRAPstatementisenacted,andcontrolis
directedtoanotherpartoftheprogram.Youcanusesthesestatementsto
catchanticipatederrorsinenteringdata,resumeexecution,orreturnto
textmodefromgraphicsmode,tonamejustafewoptions.Ifyourunthe
lastDO/LOOPexample(withdoublednumbers)withoutanUNTILstatement,you
cangetanOVERFLOWerrorandtheprogramcrashes.Youcanpreventthat
fromhappeningbyaddingtwolines,oneatthebeginningandoneatthe
end.Forexample,youmightaddthesetwolines:
5TRAP100
100IFN<1THENEND
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EventhoughNhasbeenmuchgreaterthanonefortheentireprogram,the
statementisnotconsidereduntilthereisanerror.Whenthenumber
"overflows"(isgreaterthanthecomputercanaccept),theTRAPstatement
goesintoeffect.SinceNisgreaterthanone,theprogramisdirectedto
END(ratherthancrashing).
Hereisanexampleinwhichtrappingisusedtopreventazerofrombeing
inputfordivision.
10TRAP1000
100INPUT"ICANDIVIDEBYANYNUMBER,GIVEMEANUMBERTODIVIDE";D
110INPUT"WHATSHOULDIDIVIDEITBY";B
120A=D/B
130PRINTD;"DIVIDEDBY";B;"EQUALS";A
140END
1000IFB=0THENPRINT"EVENICAN'TDOTHAT"
1100INPUT"PICKADIFFERENTNUMBER";B:RESUME120
NoticetheRESUMEinline1100.Thistellsthecomputertoreturntothe
linementioned(inthiscase,120)andcontinue.Dependingontheerror
thatwastrapped,resumingexecutingmayormaynotbepossible.
Foradditionalinformationonerrortrapping,seetheerrorfunctionsERR$
(paragraph18.8),ELandER(paragraph19.1),describedinChapterV,BASIC
7.0Encyclopaedia.
5.6.2.3ProgramTracingTheTRONandTROFFCommands
Whenaprobleminaprogramoccurs,oryoudonotgettheresultyouex
pect,itcanbeusefultomethodicallyworkthroughtheprogramanddo
exactlywhatthecomputerwoulddo.Thisprocessiscalledtracing.Draw
variableboxesandupdatethevaluesaccordingtotheprogramstatements.
Performcalculationsandprintresultsfollowingeachinstruction.(All
donebyhand,usingtheprogramlistingasaguideline.)
Thiskindoftracingmayshowyou,forexample,thatyouhaveusedaGOTO
withanincorectlinenumber,orcalculatedaresultbutneverstoreditin
avariable.Manyprogramerrorscanbelocatedbypretendingtobethecom
puter,andfollowingonlyoneinstructionatatime.
YourC128canperformatypeoftraceusingthespecialcommandsTRONand
TROFF(shortforTRaceONandTRaceOFF).Whentheprogramisrun,with
TRaceON,thecomputerprintsthelinenumbersintheordertheyareexe
cuted.Inthisway,youmaybeabletoseewhyyourprogramisnotgiving
theresultsyouexpected.
Typeanyshortprogramwehaveusedsofar,oruseoneofyourowndesign.
Toactivatetracemode,typeTRONinDIRECTmode.Whenyouruntheprogram,
noticehowlinenumbersappearinbracketsbeforeanyresultsaredis
played.Trytofollowthelinenumbersandseehowmanystepsthecomputer
neededtoarriveatacertainpoint.TRONwillbemoreinterestingifyou
pickaprogramwithmanybranches,suchasGOTO,GOSUBandIFTHENline
number.TypeTROFFtoturntracemodeoffbeforecontinuing.
Youdonothavetotraceanentireprogram.YoucanplaceTRONwithina
programasalinepriortotheprogramsectioncausingproblems.Putthe
wordTROFFasaprogramlineafterthetroublesomesection.Whenyourun
theprogram,onlythelinesbetweenTRONandTROFFwillbebracketedinthe
results.
5.7WINDOWING
Windowsareaspecificareaonthescreenthatyoudefineasyourwork
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space.Everythingyoutype(linesyoutype,listingsofprograms,etc.)
aftersettingawindow,appearswithinthewindow'sbounderies,notaffec
tingthescreenoutsidethewindowarea.TheCommodore128providestwo
methodsofcreatingwindows:theWINDOWcommandand{esc}keyfunctions.
5.7.1UsingtheWINDOWCommandtoCreateaWindow
TheCommodore128BASIC7.0languagefeaturesacommandthatallowsyouto
createandmanipulatewindows:theWINDOWcommand.Thecommandformatis:
WINDOWtopleftcolumn,topleftrow,bottomrightcolumn,
bottomrightrow[,clearoption]
ThefirsttwonumbersafterWINDOWspecifythecolumnandrownumberof
whereyouwantthetopleftcornerofthewindowtobe;thenexttwonum
bersarethecoordinatesforthebottomrightcorner.Rememberthatthe
screenformat(40or80columns)dictatestheacceptablerangeofthese
coordinates.Youcanalsoincludeaclearoptionwiththiscommand.Ifyou
add1ontotheendofthecommand,thewindowscreenareaiscleared,asin
thisexample:
WINDOW10,10,20,20,1
Here'sasampleprogramthatcreatesfourwindowsonthescreen,ineither
40or80columnformat.
10SCNCLR:REMCLEARSCREEN
20WINDOW0,0,39,24:REMSETWINDOWTOFULLSCREEN
30COLOR0,13:COLOR4,13:REMSET40SCREENTOMED.GREY
40A$="ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST"
50COLOR5,5:REMSELECTPURPLETEXT
60FORI=1TO25:REMFILLSCREENWITHCHARACTERS
70PRINTA$;A$:NEXTI
80WINDOW1,1,7,20:REMDEFINEWINDOW1
90COLOR5,3:REMSELECTREDTEXT
100PRINTCHR$(18);A$;:REMPRINTA$INREVERSEREDTEXT
110WINDOW15,15,39,20,1:REMDEFINESECONDWINDOW
120COLOR5,7:REMSELECTBLUETEXT
130FORI=1TO6:PRINTA$;:NEXT:REMFILLWINDOW2WITHCHARACTERS
140WINDOW30,1,39,22,1:REMDEFINETHIRDWINDOW
150COLOR5,8:LIST:REMLISTINYELLOWTEXT
160WINDOW5,5,33,18,1:REMDEFINEFOURTHWINDOW
170COLOR5,2:REMSELECTWHITETEXT
180PRINTA$:LIST:REMPRINTA$ANDLISTINWHITETEXT
190END
5.7.2UsingtheESCKeytoCreateaWindow
Tosetawindowwiththe{esc}(Escape)key,followthesesteps:
1.Movethecursortothescreenpositionyouwantasthetopleft
cornerofthewindow.
2.Pressthe{esc}keyandreleaseit,andthenpress{t}.
3.Movethecursortothepositionyouwanttobethebottomright
cornerofthewindow.
4.Press{esc}andrelease,then{b}.Yourwindowisnowset.
Youcanmanipulatethewindowandthetextinsideusingthe{esc}key.
Screeneditingfunctions,suchasinsertinganddeletingtext,scrolling,
andchangingthesizeofthewindow,canbeperformedbypressing{esc}
followedbyanotherkey.Touseaspecificfunction,press{esc}andre
leaseit.Thenpressanyofthefollowingkeyslistedforthedesiredfunc
tion:
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@Eraseeverythingfromcursortoendofscreenwindow.
AAutomaticinsertmode.
BSetthebottomrightcornerofthescreenwindow(atthecurrent
cursorlocation)
CCancelautomaticinsertmode.
DDeletecurrentline.
ESetcursortononflashingmode.
FSetcursortoflashingmode.
GEnablebell(by{ctrlg}).
HDisablebell.
IInsertaline.
JMovetothebeginningofthecurrentline.
KMovetotheendofthecurrentline.
LTurnonscrolling.
MTurnoffscrolling.
NReturntonormal(nonreversevideo)screendisplay(80column
only).
OCancelinsertandquotemodes.
PEraseeverythingfromthebeginningofthelinetothecursor.
QEraseeverythingfromthecursortotheendoftheline.
RReversescreendisplay(80columnonly).
SChangetoblockcursor.
TSetthetopleftcornerofthescreenwindow(atthecurrentcursor
location).
UChangetounderlinecursor.
VScrollscreenuponeline.
WScrollscreendownoneline.
XTogglesbetween40and80columns
YRestoredefaultTABstops.
ZClearallTABstops.
Experimentwiththe{esc}apekeyfunctions.Youwillprobablyfindcertain
functionsmoreusefulthanothers.Notethatyoucanusetheusual
{inst/del}keytoperformtexteditinginsideawindowaswell.
Whenawindowissetup,allscreenoutputiscontinuedtothe"box"you
havedefined.Ifyouwanttoclearthewindowarea,press{shift}and
{clr/home}together.Tocancelthewindow,pressthe{clr/home}twice.The
windowisthenrestoredtoitsmaximumsizeandthecursorisplacedinthe
topleftcornerofthescreen.Ifyousubsequentlywanttoclearthescreen,
press{shift}and{clr/home}together.Windowsareparticularlyusefulin
writing,listingandrunningprograms,becausetheyallowyoutoworkin
oneareaofthescreen,whiletherestofthescreenstaysasitis.
5.82MHZOPERATION
5.8.1TheFASTandSLOWCommands
The2Mhzoperationmodeallowsyoutorunnongraphicprogramsin80
columnformatattwicethenormalspeed.Youcanswitchnormalandfast
operationbyusingtheFASTandSLOWcommands.
TheFASTcommandplacestheCommodore128in2Mhzmode.Theformatofthis
commandis:
FAST
TheSLOWcommandreturnstheCommodore128to1Mhzmode.Theformatof
thiscommandis:
SLOW
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5.9KEYSUNIQUETOC128MODE
5.9.1FunctionKeys
ThefourkeysontheCommodore128keyboardontherightsideabovethe
numerickeypadarespecialfunctionkeysthatletyousavetimebyper
formingrepetitivetaskswiththestrokeofjustonekey.Thefirstkey
readsF1/F2,thesecondF3/F4,thethirdF5/F6andthelastF7/F8.Youcan
usefunctions1,3,5and7bypressingthekeyitself.Tousethefunc
tions2,4,6and8,press{shift}andthefunctionkey.
Herearethestandardfunctionsforeachkey:
F1F2F3F4
GRAPHICDLOAD"DIRECTORYSCNCLR
F5F6F7F8
DSAVE"RUNLISTMONITOR
Hereiswhateachfunctioninvolves:
KEY1entersoneoftheGRAPHICsmodeswhenyousupplythenumberof
thegraphicsareaandpress{return}.TheGRAPHICscommandis
necessaryforgivinggraphicscommandssuchasCIRCLEorPAINT.
Formoreongraphics,seeSection6.
KEY2printsDLOAD"onthescreen.Allyoudoisentertheprogram
nameandhit{return}toloadtheprogramfromdisk,insteadof
typingoutDLOADyourself.
KEY3listsaDIRECTORYoffilesonthediskinthediskdrive.
KEY4clearsthescreenusingtheSCNCLRcommand.
KEY5printsDSAVE"onthescreen.Allyoudoisentertheprogram
name,andpress{return}tosavethecurrentprogramondisk.
KEY6RUNsthecurrentprogram.
KEY7displaysaLISTingofthecurrentprogram.
KEY8letsyouentertheMachineLanguageMonitor.
5.9.2RedefiningFunctionKeys
Youcanredefineorprogramanyofthesekeystoperformafunctionthat
suitsyourneeds.Redefiningiseasy,usingtheKEYcommand.Youcanre
definethekeysfromBASICprograms,orchangethematanytimeinDIRECT
mode.Asitutationwhereyoumightwanttoredefineafunctionkeyiswhen
youuseacommandfrequently,andwanttosavetimeinsteadofrepeatedly
typinginthecommand.Thenewdefinitionsareerasedwhenyouturnoffthe
computer.Youcanredefineanyofthefunctionkeysansasmanytimesas
youwant.
IfyouwanttoreprogramtheF7functionkeytoreturnyoutotextmode
fromhighresolutionormulticolorgraphicsmodes,forexample,youwould
usethekeycommandinthisfashion:
KEY7,"GRAPHIC0"+CHR$(13)
CHR$(13)istheASCIIcodecharacterfor{return}.Sowhenyoupressthe
{f7}keyafterredefiningthekey,whathappensisthecommand"GRAPHIC0"
isautomaticallytypedoutandenteredintothecomputerwith{return}.
Entirecommandsorseriesofcommandsmaybeassignedtoafunctionkey.
5.9.3OtherKeysUsedinC128ModeOnly
5.9.3.1HELP
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Asnotedpreviously,whenyoumakeanerrorinaprogram,yourcomputer
displaysanerrormessagetotellyouwhatyoudidwrong.Theseerrormes
sagesarefurtherexplainedinAppendixAofthismanual.Youcangetmore
assistancewitherrorsbyusingthe{help}key.Afteranerrormessage,
pressthe{help}keytolocatetheexactpointwheretheerroroccurred.
Whenyoupress{help},thelinewiththeerrorishighlightedonthescreen
inreversevideo(in40column)orunderlined(in80column).
Forexample:
?SYNTAXERRORINLINE10Yourcomputerdisplaysthis.
HELPYoupressedthe{help}key.
10PRONT"COMMODORECOMPUTERS"Thelinewiththemistakeishigh
lightedinreverseifin40columnout
putorunderlinedin80columnoutput.
5.9.3.2NOSCROLL
Pressthiskeydowntostopthetextfromscrollingwhenthecursorreaches
thebottomofthescreen.Thiskeyturnsoffscrollinguntilyoupressa
key(anycharacterkeywilldo).
5.9.3.3CAPSLOCK
Thiskeyletsyoutypeinallcapitalletterswithoutusingthe{shift}
key.The{capslock}keylocksinwhenyoupressit,andmustbepressed
againtobereleased.{capslock}onlyeffectstheletteredkeys.
5.9.3.440/80DISPLAY
The40/80keyselectsthemain(default)screenformat:either40or80
column.Theselectedscreendisplaysallthemessagesandoutputatpower
up,orwhenthe{reset}button,orthekeycombination{run/stoprestore}
ispressed.The40/80keymaybeusedtosetthedisplayformatonlybefore
turningonorresettingthecomputer.Youcannotchangemodeswiththiskey
afterthecomputeristurnedon,unlessyouusethe{reset}buttonatthe
rightsideofthecomputer,orthekeycombination{run/stoprestore}.Sec
tion8providesanexplanationof40/80columnmodes.
5.9.3.5ALT
The{alt}allowsprogramstoassignaspecialmeaningtoagivenkeyorset
ofkeys.
Unlessthespecificapplicationprogramredefinesit,holdingdownthe
{alt}keyandanyotherkeyhasnoeffect.
5.9.3.6TAB
ThiskeyworksliketheTABkeyonatypewriter.Itmaybeusedtosetor
cleartabstopsonthescreenandtomovethecursortothecolumnswhere
thetabsareset.
5.9.3.7LINEFEED
Pressingthiskeyadvancesthecursortothenextline,similartothe
{crsrdown}key.
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***************************************************************************
FORMOREINFORMATION
Thissectioncoversonlysomeoftheconcepts,keysandcommandsthatmake
theCommodore128aspecialmachine.Youcanfindfurtherexplanationof
theBASIClanguageintheBASIC7.0EncyclopaediainChapterV.
SECTION6
6.Color,AnimationandSpriteGraphicsStatementsUniquetotheC128
6.1GRAPHICSOVERVIEW
6.1.1GraphicsFeatures
6.1.2CommandSummary
6.2GRAPHICSPROGRAMMINGONTHECOMMODORE128
6.2.1ChoosingColors
Figure61.SourceNumbers.
Figure62.ColorNumbersin40ColumnFormat.
6.2.2TypesofScreenDisplay
6.2.3SelectingtheGraphicMode
Figure64.GraphicModes.
Figure65.ClearParameters.
6.2.4DisplayingGraphicsontheScreen
6.2.4.1DrawingaCircleTheCIRCLECommand
Figure66.Arrangementofxandycoordinates.
6.2.4.2DrawingaBoxTheBOXCommand
6.2.4.3DrawingLines,PointsandOtherShapesTheDRAWCommand
6.2.4.4PaintingOutlinedAreasThePAINTCommand
6.2.4.5DisplayingCharactersonaBitMappedScreenTheCHARCommand
6.2.4.6CreatingaGraphicsSampleProgram
6.2.4.7ChangingtheSizeofGraphicsImagesTheSCALECommand
6.3SPRITES:PROGRAMMABLE,MOVABLEOBJECTBLOCKS
6.3.1SpriteCreation
6.3.2UsingSpriteStatementsinaProgram
6.3.3DrawingtheSpriteImage
6.3.4StoringtheSpriteDatawithSSHAPE
6.3.5SavingthePictureDatainaSprite
6.3.6TurningonSprites
6.3.7MovingSpriteswithMOVSPR
Figure67.VisibleSpritecoordinates.
6.3.8CreatingaSpriteProgram
6.3.9SpriteDefinitionModeTheSPRDEFCommand
6.3.10SpriteCreationProcedureinSPRiteDEFinitionMode
6.3.11AdjoiningSprites
6.3.12StoringSpriteDatainBinaryFiles
Figure68.SpriteDataRequirements.
Figure69.MemoryAddressRangesforSpriteStorage.
6.3.12.1BSAVE
6.3.12.2BLOAD
6.1GRAPHICSOVERVIEW
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InC128mode,theCommodore128BASIC7.0languageprovidesmaynewand
powerfulcommandsandstatementsthatmakegraphicsprogrammingmuch
easier.EachofthetwoscreenformatsavailableinC128mode(40columns
and80columns)iscontrolledbyaseperatemicroprocessorchip.The40
columnchipiscalledtheVideoInterfaceController,orVICforshort.The
80columnchipisreferredtoasthe8563,orVideoDisplayController
(VDC).TheVICchip,whichprovides16colors,controlsallthehighlyde
tailedgraphicscalledbitmappedgraphics.The80columnchip,whichalso
offers16colors,onlydisplayscharactersandcharactergraphics.Thus,
alldetailedgraphicprogramsinC128modemustbedonein40column
format.
6.1.1GraphicsFeatures
AspartofitsimpressiveC128modegraphicscapabilities,theCommodore
128provides:
*13specializedgraphicscommands
*16colors
*Sixdifferentdisplaymodes
*EightprogrammablemovableobjectscalledSPRITES
*Combinedgraphics/textdisplays
Alltheseformatscanbeintegratedtoprovideaversatile,easytouse
graphicssystem.
6.1.2CommandSummary
Hereisabriefexplanationofeachgraphiccommand:
BOXDrawsrectanglesonthebitmapscreen.
CHARDisplayscharactersonthebitmapscreen.
CIRCLEDrawscircles,ellipsesandothergeometricshapesonthe
bitmapscreen.
COLORSelectscolorsforscreenborder,foreground,backgroundand
characters.
DRAWDrawslinesandpointsonthebitmapscreen.
GRAPHICSelectsascreendisplay(text,bitmaporsplitscreenbit
map).
GSHAPEPlacestheimagestoredintoatextstringvariableonthe
bitmapscreen.
PAINTFillareasonthebitmapscreenwithcolor.
SCALESetstherelativesizeoftheimagesonthebitmapscreen.
SPRDEFEntersspritedefinitionsmodetoeditsprites.
SPRITEEnables,colors,setsspritescreenpriorities,andexpands
asprite.
SPRSAVStoresatextstringvariableintoaspritestorageareaand
viceversa.
SSHAPEStorestheimageofaportionofthebitmapscreenintoa
textstringvariable.
Mostofthesecommandsaredescribedintheexamplesinthissection.See
ChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaediafordetailedformatandinformationon
allgraphiccommands,andBASICFunctionsforallgraphicfunctionsdiscus
sedinthissection.
6.2GRAPHICSPROGRAMMINGONTHECOMMODORE128
Thisfollowingsectiondescribesastepbystepgraphicsprogramming
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example.Asyoulearneachgraphicscommand,addittoaprogram,youwill
buildasyoureadthissection.Whenyouarefinished,youwillhaveacom
pletegraphicsprogram.
6.2.1ChoosingColors
Thefirststepingraphicsprogrammingistochoosecolorsforthescreen
background,foregroundandborder.Toselectcolors,type:
COLORsource,color
wheresourceisthesectionofthescreenyouarecoloring(background,
foreground,border,etc.)andcoloristhecolorcodeforthesource.
SeeFigure61forsourcenumbers,Figure62for40columnformatcolor
numbers,andFigure63for80columnformatcolornumbers.
NumberSource
040columnbackgroundcolor(VIC)
1Foregroundforthegraphicsscreen(VIC)
2Foregroundcolor1forthemulticolorscreen(VIC)
3Foregroundcolor2forthemulticolorscreen(VIC)
440column(VIC)border(whetherintextorgraphicsmode)
5Charactercolorfor40or80columntextscreen
680columnbackgroundcolor(8563)
Figure61.SourceNumbers.
ColorCodeColorColorCodeColor
1Black9Orange
2White10Brown
3Red11LightRed
4Cyan12DarkGray
5Purple13MediumGray
6Green14LightGreen
7Blue15LightBlue
8Yellow16LightGray
1Black9DarkPurple
2White10Brown
3DarkRed11LightRed
4LightCyan12DarkCyan
5LightPurple13MediumGray
7DarkBlue15LightBlue
8LightYellow16LightGray
6.2.2TypesofScreenDisplay
YourC128hasseveraldifferentwaysofdisplayinginformationonthe
screen;theparameter"source"intheCOLORcommandpertainstodifferent
modesofscreendisplay.Thetypesofvideodisplayfallintothreecate
gories.
Thefirstoneistextdisplay,whichdisplaysonlycharacters,suchaslet
ters,numbers,specialsymbolsandthegraphicscharactersonthefront
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facesofmostC128keys.TheC128candisplaytextinboth40columnand
80columnscreenformats.
Thesecondcategoryofdisplaymodeisusedforhighlydetailedgraphics,
suchaspicturesandintricatedrawings.Thistypeofdisplaymodeincludes
standardbitmapmodeandmulticolorbitmapmode.Bitmapmodesallowyou
tocontroleachandeveryindividualscreendotorpixel(pictureelement).
Thisallowsconsiderabledetailindrawingpicturesandothercomputerart.
The80columndisplayisintendedtodisplaytext.
Thedifferencebetweentextandbitmapliesinthewayinwhicheach
screenaddressesandstoresinformation.Thetextscreencanonlymanipu
lateentirecharacters,eachofwhichcoversanareaof8by8pixelson
yourscreen.Themorepowerfulbitmapmodeexercisescontrolovereachand
everypixelonyourscreen.
Thethirdtypeofscreendisplay,splitscreen,isamixtureofthefirst
twotypes.Thesplitscreendisplayoutputspartofthescreenastextand
partinbitmapmode(eitherstandardormulticolor).TheC128iscapable
ofthisbecauseitusestwoseperateanddifferentpartsofthecomputer's
memorytostorethetwoscreens:onepartforthetext,andtheotherfor
thegraphicsscreen.
Typethefollowingshortprogram:
10COLOR0,1:REMTEXTBACKGROUNDCOLOR=BLACK
20COLOR1,3:REMFOREGROUNDCOLORFORBITMAPSCREEN=RED
30COLOR4,1:REMBORDERCOLOR=BLACK
Thisexamplecolorsthebackgroundblack,theforegroundredandtheborder
black.
6.2.3SelectingtheGraphicMode
Thenextgraphicsprogrammingstepistoselecttheappropriategraphic
mode.ThisisdoneusingtheGRAPHICcommand,whoseformatisasfollows:
GRAPHIC<mode[,c][,s]/CLR>
wheremodeisadigitbetween0and5,ciseitheran0or1andsisa
valuebetween0and25.Figure64showsthevaluescorrespondingtothe
graphicmodes.
ModeDescription
040column(VIC)standardtext
1Standardbitmap
2Standardbitmap(splitscreen)
3Multicolorbitmap
4Multicolorbitmap(splitscreen)
580columntext
Figure64.GraphicModes.
TheparametercstandsforCLEAR.Figure65explainsthevaluesassociated
withCLEAR.
CValueDescription
0Donotclearthegraphicsscreen
1Clearthegraphicsscreen
Figure65.ClearParameters.
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Whenyoufirstrunyourprogram,youstillwanttoclearthegraphics
screenforthefirsttime,sosetcequalto1intheGRAPHICcommand.If
yourunitasecondtime,youmaywantyourpictureonthescreen,instead
ofdrawingitalloveragain.Inthiscase,setcequalto0.
Thesparameterspecifiesinsplitscreenmodeatwhichlinenumberthe
textscreenstarts(linenumbersstartcountingatzero,soline10isthe
eleventhline).Ifyouomitthesparameterandselectasplitscreen
graphicmode(2or4),thetextscreenportionisdisplayedinrows19
through24;theportionaboveisbitmapped.Thesparameterallowsyouto
changethestartinglineofthetextscreentoanylineonthescreen,
rangingfrom1through24.Azeroassparameterindicatesthescreenis
notsplit,andallistext.
ThefinalGRAPHICcommandparameterisCLR.Whenyoufirstissueabitmap
GRAPHICcommand,theCommodore128allocatesa9Kareaforyourbitmapped
screeninformation.8Kisreservedforthedataforyourbitmapandthe
additional1Kisdedicatedforthecolordata(videomatrix).Since9Kisa
substantialblockofmemory,youmaywanttouseitagainforanotherpur
poselaterinyourprogram.ThisisthepurposeofCLR.Itreorganizesthe
Commodore128memoryandgivesyoubackthe9Kofmemorythatwasdedicated
tothebitmapscreen,soyoucanuseitforotherpurposes.
TheformatforCLRisasfollows:
GRAPHICCLR
Whenusingthisformat,omitallotherGRAPHICcommandparameters.
Addthefollowingcommandtoyourprogram.ItplacestheC128instandard
bitmapmodeandallocatesan8Kbitmapscreen(and1Kofcolordata)for
youtocreategraphics.
40GRAPHIC1,1
Thesecond1inthiscommandclearsthebitmapscreen.Ifyoudonotwant
toclearthescreen,changetosecond1to0(oromititcompletely).
NOTE:Ifyouareinbitmapmodeandareunabletoreturntothetext
screen,pressthe{run/stop}and{restore}keysatthesametime,or
pressthe{esc}keyfollowedby{x},toreturntothe80column
screen.EventhoughyoucanonlydisplaygraphicswiththeVIC(40
column)chip,youcanstillwritegraphicprogramsin80column
format.IfyouhavetheCommodore1901andyouwanttoviewyour
graphicsprogramwhileitisrunning,youmustselectthe40column
outputbyswitchingtheslideswitchonthemonitorto40column
output.
6.2.4DisplayingGraphicsontheScreen
Sofar,youhaveselectedagraphicsmodeandthecolorsyouwant.Nowyou
canstartdisplayinggraphicsonthescreen.Startwithacircle.
6.2.4.1DrawingaCircleTheCIRCLECommand
Todrawacircle,usetheCIRCLEstatementasfollows:
60CIRCLE1,160,100,40,40
Thisdisplaysacircleinthecenterofthescreen.TheCIRCLEstatement
hasnineparametersyoucanselecttoachievevarioustypesofcirclesand
geometricshapes.Forexample,bychangingthenumbersintheCIRCLEstate
mentinline60youcanobtaindifferentsizecirclesorvariationsinthe
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shape(e.g.anoval).TheCIRCLEstatementaddspowerandversatilityin
programmingCommodore128graphicsinBASIC.Themeaningofthenumbersin
theCIRCLEstatementisexplainedundertheCIRCLElistinginChapterV,
BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.
OnyourCommodore128screen,thepointwherex=0andy=0isatthetop
leftcornerofthescreenandisreferredastheHOMEposition.Instan
dardgeometryhowever,thepointwherexandyequal0isinthebottom
leftcornerofagraph.Figure66showsthearrangementofx(horizontal)
andy(vertical)screencoordinatesandthefourpointsatthecornersof
theC128screen.
XCoordinate
0,0++319,0
||
||
||
||
YCoordinate||
||
||
||
0,199++319,199
Figure66.Arrangementofxandycoordinates.
Here'swhatthenumbersmean:
*1isthecolorsource(inthiscasetheforeground).
*160isthestartingx(horizontal)coordinate.
*100isthestartingy(vertical)coordinate.
*40istheradius.
6.2.4.2DrawingaBoxTheBOXCommand
Nowtryabox.Todrawabox,type:
80BOX1,20,60,100,140,0,1
Thisdrawsasolidboxtotheleftofthecircle.Tofindoutwhatthe
numbersintheBOXstatementmean,consultCommandsandStatements.TheBOX
statementhassevenparametersyoucanselectandmodifytoproducedif
ferenttypesofboxes.Changetheforegroundcolorandrawtheoutlineofa
boxtotherightoftheCIRCLEwiththesestatements:
90COLOR1,9:REMCHANGEFOREGROUNDCOLOR
100BOX1,220,60,300,140,0,0
ExperimentwiththeBOXstatementtoproducedifferentvariationsofrec
tanglesandboxes.
6.2.4.3DrawingLines,PointsandOtherShapesTheDRAWCommand
Younowknowhowtoselectgraphicmodesandcolorsandhowtodisplaycir
clesandboxesonthescreen.Anothergraphicsstatement,DRAW,letsyou
drawlinesonthescreenjustasyouwouldwithapencilandapieceof
paper.Thefollowingstatementdrawsalinebelowtheboxesandcircle.
120DRAW1,20,180TO300,180
Toeraseadrawnline,changethesource(1)intheDRAWstatementto0.
Thelineisdrawnwiththebackgroundcolorwhichactuallyerasestheline.
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Tryusingdifferentcoordinatesandothersourcestobecomeaccustomedto
theDRAWstatement.
TheDRAWstatementcantakeanotherformthatallowsyoutoDRAWaline,
changedirectionandthenDRAWanotherline,sothelinesarecontinuous.
Forexample,trythisstatement:
130DRAW1,250,0TO30,0TO40,40TO250,0
ThisstatementDRAWsatriangleonthetopofthescreen.Thefourpairsof
numberrepresentthexandycoordinatesforthethreepointsonthetri
angle.Noticethefirstandlastcoordinatesarethesame,sinceyoumust
finishdrawingthetriangleonthesamepointyoustarted.Thisformof
DRAWstatementgivesyouthepowertoDRAWalmostanygeometricshape,such
astrapezoids,parallellogramsandpolygons.
TheDRAWstatementalsohasathirdform.
YoucanDRAWonepointatatimebyspecifyingthestartingxandyvalues
asfollows:
150DRAW1,160,160
Asyoucansee,theDRAWstatementhasversatilefeatureswhichgiveyou
thecapabilitytocreateshapes,lines,pointsandavirtuallyunlimited
numberofcomputerdrawingsonyourscreen.
6.2.4.4PaintingOutlinedAreasThePAINTCommand
TheDRAWstatementallowsyoutooutlineareasonthescreen.Whatifyou
wanttofillareaswithinyourdrawnlines?That'swherethePAINTstate
mentcomesin.ThePAINTstatementdoesexactlywhatthenameimplies
itfillsin,orPAINTs,outlinedareaswithcolor.Justasapainter
coversthecanvaswithpaint,thePAINTstatementcoverstheareasofthe
screenwithoneofthe16colors.Forexample,type:
160PAINT1,150,97
Line160PAINTSthecircleyouhavedrawninline60.ThePAINTstatement
fillsadefinedareauntilaspecificbounderyisdetectedaccordingto
whichcolorsourceisindicated.WhentheCommodore128finishesPAINTing,
itleavesthepixelcursoratthepointwherePAINTingbegan(inthiscase,
atpoint150,97).
HerearetwomorePAINTstatements:
180PAINT1,50,25
200PAINT1,255,125
Line180PAINTsthetriangleandline200PAINTstheemptybox.
*IMPORTANTPAINTINGTIP:IfyouchooseastartingpointinyouPAINT
statementwhichisalreadycoloredfromthesamecolorsource,Com
modore128willnotPAINTthearea.Youmustchooseastartingpoint
whichisentirelyinsidethebounderyoftheshapeyouwanttoPAINT.
Thestartingpointcannotbeonthebounderylineofapixelthatis
coloredfromthesamesource.IfyouspecifyaPAINTcoordinatethat
isthesamecoloryouarePAINTing,nothinghappens.
6.2.4.5DisplayingCharactersonaBitMappedScreenTheCHARCommand
Sofar,theexampleprogramhasoperatedinstandardbitmapmode.Bitmap
modeusesacompletelydifferentareaofmemorytostorethescreendata
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thantextmode(themodeinwhichyouenterprogramsandtext).Ifyou
enterbitmapmode,andtrytotypecharactersontothescreen,nothing
happens.Thisisbecausethecharactersyouaretypingarebeingdisplayed
onthetextscreenandyouarelookingatthebitmapscreen.Sometimesit
isnecessarytodisplaycharactersonthebitmapscreen,whenyouare
creatinganplottingchartsandgraphs.TheCHARcommandisdesigned
especiallyforthispurpose.Todisplaystandardcharactersonabitmap
screen,usetheCHARstatementasfollows:
220CHAR1,11,24,"GRAPHICEXAMPLE"
Thisdisplaysthetext"GRAPHICEXAMPLE"startingatline25,column12.
TheCHARcommandcanalsobeusedintextmode,howeveritisprimarily
designedforthebitmapscreen.
6.2.4.6CreatingaGraphicsSampleProgram
Sofar,youhavelearnedseveralgraphicstatements.Nowtietheprogram
togetherandseehowthestatementsworkatthesametime.Here'showthe
programlooksnow.Thecolorstatementsinlines70,110,140,170,190and
210areaddedtodisplayeachobjectinadifferentcolor.
10COLOR0,1:REMSELECTBACKGROUNDCOLOR
20COLOR1,3:REMSELECTFOREGROUNDCOLOR
30COLOR4,1:REMSELECTBORDERCOLOR
40GRAPHIC1,1:REMSELECTBITMAPMODE
60CIRCLE1,160,100,40,40:REMDRAWACIRCLE
80BOX1,20,60,100,140,0,1:REMDRAWABLOCK
100BOX1,220,62,300,140,0,0:REMDRAWABOX
120DRAW1,20,180TO300,180:REMDRAWALINE
130DRAW1,250,0TO30,0TO40,40TO250,0:REMDRAWATRIANGLE
150DRAW1,160,160:REMDRAWAPOINT
160PAINT1,150,97:REMPAINTINCIRCLE
180PAINT1,50,25:REMPAINTINTRIANGLE
200PAINT1,225,125:REMPAINTINEMPTYBOX
220CHAR1,11,24,"GRAPHICEXAMPLE":REMDISPLAYTEXT
230FORI=1TO5000:NEXT:GRAPHIC0,1:COLOR1,2
Here'swhattheprogramdoes:
*Lines10through30selectaCOLORforthebackground,foreground
andborder,respectively.
*Line40choosesagraphicmode.
*Line60displaysaCIRCLE.
*Line80drawsacoloredinBOX.
*Line100drawsaoutlineofaBOX.
*Line120DRAWsastraightlineatthebottomofthescreen.
*Line130DRAWsatriangle.
*Line150DRAWsasinglepointbelowthecircle.
*Line160PAINTsthecircle.
*Line180PAINTsthetriangle.
*Line200PAINTstheemptybox.
*Line220printstheCHARacters"GRAPHICSEXAMPLE"atthebottomof
thescreen.
*Line230delaystheprogramsoyoucanwatchthegraphicsonthe
screen,switchesbacktotextmodeandcolorsthecharactersblack.
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Ifyouwantthegraphicstoremainonthescreen,omittheGRAPHICstate
mentinline230.
6.2.4.7ChangingtheSizeofGraphicsImagesTheSCALECommand
TheCommodore128hasanothergraphicsstatementwhichoffersadditional
powertoyourgraphicssystem.TheSCALEstatementofferstheabilityto
scaledown(reduce)thesizeofgraphicimagesonyourscreen.TheSCALE
statementalsoaccomplishesanothertask,whichcanbeexplainedasfol
lows.
Instandardbitmapmode,the40columnscreenhas320horizontalcoordi
natesand200verticalcoordinates.Inmulticolorbitmapmode,the40
columnscreenhasonlyhalfthehorizontalresolutionofstandardbitmap
mode,whichis160by200.Thisreductioninresolutioniscompensatedfor
bytheadditionalcapabilityofusingtwoadditionalcolorsforatotalof
fourcolors,withinan8by8charactermatrix.Standardbitmapmodecan
onlydisplaytwocolorswithinan8by8charactermatrix.
WhenyouusetheSCALEstatement,bothstandardbitmapandmulticolorbit
mapmodeshavecoordinateswhichareproportionaltoanother.Thescale
rangesfor0throughamaximumof1023horizontalcoordinates.Thisistrue
regardlessofwhetheryouareinstandardbitmapormulticolormode.
TheSCALEyourscreen,use:
SCALE1,x,y
andthescreencoordinatesrangefrom65535whetheryouareinstandardor
multicolorhiresmode.
ToturnoffSCALEing,type:
SCALE0
andthecoordinatesreturntotheirnormalvalues.
ToseetheeffectofSCALEingonyourprogramaddinline50:
50SCALE1,500,500
andRUNtoseetheeffect.
SeeSection17,paragraph17.81,ofChapterVformoredetailsontheSCALE
command.
NOTE:SCALEcomesafterGRAPHICanddoesnotaffectCHAR.
Herearesomeadditionalexampleprogramsusingthegraphicsstatementsyou
justlearned:
10COLOR0,1
20COLOR1,8
30COLOR4,1
40GRAPHIC1,1
50FORI=80TO240STEP10
60CIRCLE1,I,100,75,75
70NEXTI
80COLOR1,5
100CIRCLE1,I,100,50,50
110NEXTI
120COLOR1,7
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140CIRCLE1,I,100,25,25
150NEXTI
160FORI=1TO7500:NEXTI
170GRAPHIC0,1:COLOR1,2
10GRAPHIC1,1
20COLOR0,1
30COLOR4,1
40FORI=1TO50
50Z=INT(((RND(1))*16)+1)*1
60COLOR1,Z
70X=INT(((RND(1))*30)+1)*10
80Y=INT(((RND(1))*20)+1)*10
90U=INT(((RND(1))*30)+1)*10
100V=INT(((RND(1))*20)+1)*10
110DRAW1,X,YTOU,V
120NEXTI
130SCNCLR
140GOTO40
10COLOR4,7:COLOR0,7:COLOR1,1
20GRAPHIC1,1
30FORI=400TO1STEP5
40DRAW1,150,100TOI,1
50NEXTI
60FORI=1TO400STEP5
70DRAW1,150,100TO1,I
80NEXTI
90FORI=40TO320STEP5
100DRAW1,150,100TOI,320
110NEXTI
130DRAW1,150,100TO320,I
140NEXTI
160GRAPHIC0,1:COLOR1,1
Typetheexamplesintoyourcomputer.RUNandSAVEthemforfuturerefe
rence.Oneofthebestwaystolearnprogrammingistostudyprogramexam
plesandseehowthestatementsperformtheirfunctions.You'llsoonbe
abletousegraphicsstatementstocreateimpressivegraphicswithyour
Commodore128.
IfyouneedmoreinformationonanyBASICstatementorcommand,consult
ChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.
Younowhaveasetofgraphiccommandsthatallowsyoutocreateanalmost
unlimitednumberofgraphicsdisplays.ButCommodore128graphicsabilities
donotendhere.TheCommodore128hasanothersetofstatements,knownas
SPRITEgraphics,whichmakethecreationandcontrolofgraphicimages
fast,easyandsophisticated.Thesehighlevelstatementsallowyouto
createspritesmovablegraphicobjectstheC128hasitsownbuiltin
SPRiteDEFinitionability.Thesestatementsrepresentthenewtechnology
forcreatingandcontrollingsprites.Readthenextsectionandtakeyou
firststepinlearningcomputeranimation.
6.3SPRITES:PROGRAMMABLE,MOVABLEOBJECTBLOCKS
YoualreadyhavelearnedaboutsomeoftheCommodore128'sexceptional
graphiccapabilities.You'velearnedhowtousethefirstsetofhighlevel
graphicsstatementstodrawcircles,boxes,linesanddots.Youhavealso
learnedhowtocolorthescreen,switchgraphicmodes,paintobjectsonthe
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screenandscalethem.Nowit'stimetotakethenextstepingraphics
programmingspriteanimation.
IfyouhaveworkedwiththeCommomdore64,youalreadyknowsomethingabout
sprites.Forthoseofyouwhoarenotfamiliarwiththesubject,asprite
isamovableobjectthatyoucanformintoanyshapeorimage.Youcan
colorspritesinuptooneof16colors.Spritescanevenbemulticolor.
Thebestpartisthatyoucanmovethemonthescreen.Spritesopenthe
doortocomputeranimation.
Hereisthesetofspritestatementsyouwilllearnaboutinthissection:
MOVSPR
SPRDEF
SPRITE
SPRSAV
SSHAPE
6.3.1SpriteCreation
Thefirststepinprogrammingspritesisdesigningthewaythesprites
look.Forexample,supposeyouwanttodesignarocketshiporaracingcar
sprite.Beforeyoucancolorormovethesprite,youmustfirstdesignthe
image.InC128mode,youcancreatespritesinthesethreeways:
1.UsingSPRITEstatementswithinaprogram
2.UsingSPRiteDEFinitionmode(SPRDEF)
3.UsingthesamemethodastheCommodore64
6.3.2UsingSpriteStatementsinaProgram
Thismethodusesbuiltinstatementssoyoudon'thavetouseanyaidsout
sideyourprogramtodesignyourspritesastheothertwomethodsrequire.
Thismethodusessomeofthegraphicsstatementsyoulearnedinthepre
vioussection.Here'sthegeneralprocedure.Thedetailswillbeaddedas
youprogress.
1.Drawapicturewiththegraphicsstatementsyoulearnedinthelast
section,suchasDRAW,CIRCLE,BOXandPAINT.Makethedimensions
ofthepicture24pixelswideby21pixelstallinstandardbitmap
modeor12pixelswideby21tallinmulticolorbitmapmode.
2.UsetheSSHAPEstatementtostorethepicturedataintoastring
variable.
3.Tranfserthepicturedatafromthestringvariableintoasprite
withtheSPRSAVstatement.
4.Turnonthesprite,colorit,selecteitherstandardormulticolor
modeandexpandit,allwiththeSPRITEstatement.
5.MovethespritewiththeMOVSPRstatement.
6.3.3DrawingtheSpriteImage
Herearetheactualstatementsthatperformthespriteoperations.Whenyou
arefinishedwiththissection,youwillhavewrittenyourfirstsprite
program.You'llbeabletoRUNtheprogramasmuchasyoulike,andSAVEit
forfuturereference.
Thefirststepistodrawapicture(24by21pixels)onthescreenusing
DRAW,CIRCLE,BOXorPAINT.Thisexampleisperformedinstandardbitmap
mode,usingablackbackground.Here'sthestatementsthatsetthegraphic
modeandcolorthescreenbackgroundblack.
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5COLOR0,1:REMCOLORBACKGROUNDBLACK
10GRAPHIC1,1:REMSETSTNDBITMAPMODE
ThefollowingstatementsDRAWapictureofaracingcarintheupperleft
cornerofthescreen.Youalreadylearnedthesestatementsinthelastsec
tion.
5COLOR0,1:COLOR4,1:COLOR1,2:REMSETCOLORS
10GRAPHIC1,1:REMSETHIRESGRAPHICMODE
15BOX1,2,2,45,45:REMPICTUREFRAME
20DRAW1,17,10TO28,10TO26,30:REMCARBODY
22DRAWTO19,30TO17,10:REMCARBODY
24BOX1,11,10,15,18:REMUPPERLEFTWHEEL
26BOX1,30,10,34,18:REMUPPERRIGHTWHEEL
28BOX1,11,20,15,28:REMLOWERLEFTWHEEL
30BOX1,30,20,34,28:REMLOWERRIGHTWHEEL
32DRAW1,26,28TO19,28:REMGRILLE
34BOX1,20,14,26,18,90,1:REMCARSEAT
36BOX1,150,35,195,40,90,1:REMWHITELINES
42BOX1,50,180,300,195:REMFINISHOUTLINE
44CHAR1,18,23,"FINISH":REMDISPLAYFINISH
RUNtheprogram.Youhavedrawnawhiteracingcar,enclosedinabox,in
theupperleftcornerofthescreen.Youhavealsodrawnaracewaywitha
finishlineatthebottomofthescreen.Atthispoint,theracingcaris
stillonlyastationarypicture.Thecareisn'taspriteyet,butyouhave
justcompletedthefirststepinspriteprogrammingcreatingtheimage.
6.3.4StoringtheSpriteDatawithSSHAPE
Thenextstepistosavethepictureintoatextstring.Here'stheSSHAPE
statementthatdoesit:
45SSHAPEA$,11,10,34,30:REMSAVETHEPICTUREINASTRING
TheSSHAPEcommandstoresthescreenimage(bitpattern)intoastring
variableforlaterprocessing,accordingtothespecifiedscreencoordi
nates.
Thenumbers11,10,34,30arethecoordinatesofthepicture.Youmust
positionthecoordinatesinthecorrectplaceortheSSHAPEstatementcan't
storeyourpicturedatacorrectlyintothestringvariableA$.Ifyouposi
tiontheSSHAPEstatementonanemptyscreenlocation,thedatastringis
empty.Whenyoulatertransferitintoasprite,you'llrealizethereisno
datapresent.
MakesureyoupositiontheSSHAPEstatementcorrectlyonthecorrectcoor
dinates.Alsobesuretocreatethepicturewiththedimensions24pixels
wideby21pixelstall,thesizeofasinglesprite.
TheSSHAPEstatementtransformsthepictureoftheracingcarintoadata
stringthatthecomputerinterpretsaspicturedata.Thedatastring,A$,
storesastringofzerosandonesinthecomputer'smemorythatmakeupthe
pictureonthescreen.
Asinallcomputergraphics,thecomputerhasawayitcanrepresentvisual
graphicswithbitsinitsmemory.Eachdotonthescreen,calledapixel,
hasabitinthecomputer'smemorythatcontrolsit.Instandardbitmap
mode,ifthebitinmemoryinequaltoan1(on),thenthepixelonthe
screenisturnedon.Ifthecontrollingbitinmemoryisequalto0(off),
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thenthepixelisturnedoff.
6.3.5SavingthePictureDatainaSprite
Yourpictureisnowstoredinastring.Thenextstepistotransferthe
picturedatafromthedatastring(A$)intothespritedataareasoyoucan
turnitonandanimateit.ThestatementthatdoesthisisSPRSAV.Hereare
thestatements:
50SPRSAVA$,1:REMSTOREDATASTRINGINSPRITE1
55SPRSAVA$,2:REMSTOREDATASTRINGINSPRITE2
Yourpictureistransferredintosprite1andsprite2.Bothspriteshave
thesamedata,sotheylookexactlythesame.Youcan'tseethesprites
yet,becauseyouhavetoturnthemon.
6.3.6TurningonSprites
TheSPRITEstatementturnsonaspecificsprite(numbered1through8),
colorsit,specifiesitsscreenpriority,expandsthesprite'ssizeand
determinesthetypeofspritedisplay.Thescreenpriorityrefersto
whetherthespritepassesinfrontoforbehindtheobjectsonthescreen.
Spritescanbeexpandedtotwicetheiroriginalsizeineitherhorizontal
orverticaldirections.Thetypeofspritedisplaydetermineswhetherthe
spriteisastandardbitmappedspriteoramulticolorbitmappedsprite.
Herearethetwostatementsthatturnonsprites1and2.
60SPRITE1,1,7,0,0,0,0:REMTURNONSPR1
70SPRITE2,1,3,0,0,0,0:REMTURNONSPR2
Here'swhateachofthenumbersintheSPRITEstatementsmean:
SPRITE#,O,C,P,X,Y,M
#Spritenumber(1to8)
OTurnOn(O=1)orOff(O=0)
CColor(116)
PPriorityifP=0,spriteisinfrontofobjectsonthescreen
ifP=1,spriteisbehindobjectsonthescreen
XifX=1,expandsspriteinhorizontal(X)direction
ifX=0,spriteinnormalhorizontalsize
YifY=1,expandsspriteinvertical(Y)direction
ifY=0,spriteinnormalverticalsize
MifM=1,spriteismulticolor
ifM=0,spriteisstandard
Asyoucansee,theSPRITEstatementispowerful,givingyoucontrolover
manyspritequalities.
6.3.7MovingSpriteswithMOVSPR
Nowthatyourspriteisonthescreen,allyouhavetodoismoveit.The
MOVSPRstatementcontrolsthemotionofaspriteandallowsyoutoanimate
itonthescreen.TheMOVSPRstatementcanbeusedintwoways.First,the
MOVSPRstatementcanplaceaspriteatanabsolutelocationonthescreen,
usingtheverticalandhorizontalcoordinates.Addthefollowingstate
mentstoyourprogram:
70MOVSPR1,240,70:REMPOSITIONSPRITE1X=240,Y=70
80MOVSPR2,120,70:REMPOSITIONSPRITE2X=120,Y=70
Line70positionssprite1atspritecoordinates(240,70).Line80places
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sprite2atspritecoordinates(120,70).YoucanalsousetheMOVSPRstate
menttomovespritesrelativetotheiroriginallocations.Forexample,
placesprites1and2atthecoordinatesasinlines70and80.Youwantto
movethemfromtheiroriginallocationstoanotherlocationonthescreen.
Usethefollowingstatementstomovethespritesalongaspecificrouteon
thescreen:
85MOVSPR1,180#6:REMMOVESPRITE1FROMTHETOPTOTHEBOTTOM
87MOVSPR2,180#7:REMMOVESPRITE2FROMTHETOPTOTHEBOTTOM
Thefirstnumberinthisstatementisthespritenumber.Thesecondnumber
isthedirectionexpressedasthenumberofdegreestomoveinclockwise
direction,relativetotheoriginalpositionofthesprite.Thehashsign
(#)signifiesthatthespriteismovedatthespecificangleandspeed
relativetoastartingposition,insteadofanabsolutelocation,asin
lines70and80.Thefinalnumberspecifiesthespeedinwhichthesprite
movesalongitsrouteonthescreen,whichrangesfrom0through15.
TheMOVSPRcommandhastwoalternativeforms.SeeSection17,paragraph
17.59,ofChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaediaforthesenotations.
Spritesuseanentirelydifferentcoordinateplanefrombitmapcoordi
nates.Thebitmapcoordinatesrangefrompoints(0,0)(thetopleftcor
ner)to319,199(thebottomrightcorner).Thevisiblespritecoordinates
startatpoint(50,24)andendatpoint(250,344).Therestofthesprite
coordinatesareoffthescreenandarenotvisible,butthespritestill
movesaccordingtothem.TheOFFscreenlocationsallowspritestomove
smoothlyontoandoffthescreen.Figure67illustratesthespritecoor
dinatesandthevisiblespritepositions.
0($00)24($18)296($128)344($158)
||
||++8($08)
29($1D)|++||
|||||
50($32)+++++50($32)
||||||
+++|||
|VISIBLEVIEWINGAREA|||
|+++
|40COLUMNS|
|25ROWS|
208($D0)+++|
||||
|||+++229($E5)
||||||
250($FA)++++++250($FA)
|||||
|||++
++||
488($1E8)
|320($140)344($158)
24($18)
Figure67.VisibleSpritecoordinates.
NowRUNtheentireprogramwithallthestepsincluded.Youhavejustwrit
tenyoufirstspriteprogram.Youhavecreatedaracewaywithtworacing
cars.Tryaddingmorecarsandmoreobjectsonthescreen.Experimentby
drawingotherspritesandincludethemintheraceway.Youarenowwelon
thewayinspriteprogramming.Useyourimaginationandthinkofother
scenesandobjectsyoucananimate.Soonyoucancreateallkindsofani
matedcomputer"movies".
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6.3.8CreatingaSpriteProgram
Younowhaveaworkingspriteprogramexample.Here'sthecompleteprogram
listing.
5COLOR0,1:COLOR4,1:COLOR1,2:REMSETCOLORS
10GRAPHIC1,1:REMSETHIRESGRAPHICMODE
15BOX1,2,2,45,45:REMPICTUREFRAME
20DRAW1,17,10TO28,10TO26,30:REMCARBODY
22DRAWTO19,30TO17,10:REMCARBODY
24BOX1,11,10,15,18:REMUPPERLEFTWHEEL
26BOX1,30,10,34,18:REMUPPERRIGHTWHEEL
28BOX1,11,20,15,28:REMLOWERLEFTWHEEL
30BOX1,30,20,34,28:REMLOWERRIGHTWHEEL
32DRAW1,26,28TO19,28:REMGRILLE
34BOX1,20,14,26,18,90,1:REMCARSEAT
42BOX1,50,180,300,195:REMFINISHOUTLINE
44CHAR1,18,23,"FINISH":REMDISPLAYFINISH
45SSHAPEA$,11,10,34,30:REMSAVEPICTUREINTOA$
50SPRSAVA$,1:REMSTOREA$INSPRITE1
55SPRSAVA$,2:REMSTOREA$INSPRITE2
60SPRITE1,1,7,0,0,0,0:REMTURNONSPRITE1
65SPRITE2,1,3,0,0,0,0:REMTURNONSPRITE2
70MOVSPR1,240,70:REMSPRITE1X=240,Y=70
80MOVSPR2,120,70:REMSPRITE2X=120,Y=70
85MOVSPR1,180#6:REMMOVSPR1DOWNSCREEN
87MOVSPR2,180#7:REMMOVSPR2DOWNSCREEN
99GRAPHIC0,1
Here'swhattheprogramdoes:
*Line5COLORsthescreenblack.
*Line10setsstandardhighresolutionGRAPHICmode.
*Line15drawsaBOXinthetopleftcornerofthescreen.
*Lines20to32drawtheracingcar.
*Lines35to44drawtheracingcarlanesandafinishline.
*Line45transfersthepicturedatafromtheracingcarintoastring
variable.
*Lines50and55transferthecontentsofthestringvariableinto
sprites1and2.
*Lines60and65turnonsprites1and2.
*Lines70and80positionsthespritesatthetopofthescreen.
*Lines85and87animatethespritesasthoughthetwocarsare
racingeachotheracrossthefinishline.
Inthissection,youhavelearnedhowtocreatesprites,usingthebuiltin
C128graphicsstatementssuchasDRAWandBOX.Youlearnedhowtocontrol
thesprites,usingtheCommodore128spritestatements.TheCommodorehas
twootherwaysofcreatingsprites.ThefirstisthebuiltinSPRite
DEFinitionability,asdescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.Theother
methodofcreatingspritesissimilartothatusedfortheCommodore64;
seetheC64Programmer'sReferenceGuidefordetailsonthissprite
creationtechnique.
6.3.9SpriteDefinitionModeTheSPRDEFCommand
TheCommodore128hasabuiltinSPRiteDEFinitionmodewhichenablesyou
tocreatespritesonyourCommodore128.Youmaybefamiliarwiththe
Commodore64methodofcreatingsprites,inwhichyourequiredtoeither
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haveanadditionalspriteeditor,ordesignaspriteonapieceofgraph
paperandthenREADthecodedspriteDATAandPOKEitintoanavailable
spriteblock.WiththenewCommodorespritedefinitioncommandSPRDEF,you
canconstructandedityourownspritesinaspecialspriteworkarea.
ToentertheSPRDEFmode,type:
SPRDEF
andpress{return}.TheCommodore128displaysaspritegridonthe40
columnscreen.Inaddition,thecomputerdisplaystheprompt:
SPRITENUMBER?
Enteranumberbetween1and8.Thecomputerdisplaysthecorresponding
spriteintheupperrightcornerofthescreen.Fromnowon,wewillrefer
tothespritegridastheworkarea.
Theworkareahasthedimensionsof24characterswideby21characters
tall.Eachcharacterpositionwithintheworkareacorrespondsto1pixel
withinthesprite,sinceaspriteis24pixelswideby21pixelstall.
WhilewithintheworkareainSPRDEFmode,youhaveseveraleditingcom
mandsavailabletoyou.Here'sasummaryofthecommands:
SpriteDefintionModeCommandSummary
{clr}keyErasestheentireworkarea
{m}keyTurnson/offmulticolorsprite
{ctrl}{1}{8}Selectsspriteforegroundcolor18
{C=}{1}{8}Selectsspriteforegroundcolor916
{1}keyTurnsonpixelsinbackgroundcolor
{2}keyTurnsonpixelsinforegroundcolor
{3}keyTurnsonareasinmulticolor1
{4}keyTurnsonareasinmulticolor2
{a}keyTurnson/offautomaticcursormovement
{crsr}keysMovesthecursor(+)withintheworkarea
{return}movescursortothestartofthenextline
{home}keyMovescursortothetopleftcorneroftheworkarea
{x}keyControlshorizontalexpansion
{y}keyControlsverticalexpansion
{shift}{return}SavesspritefromworkareaandreturnstoSPRITE
NUMBERprompt
{c}keycopiesonespritetoanother
{stop}keyTurnsoffdisplayedspriteandreturnstoSPRITENUMBER
promptwithoutchangingthesprite
{return}key(attheSPRITENUMBERprompt)ExitsSPRDEFmode
6.3.10SpriteCreationProcedureinSPRiteDEFinitionMode
Here'sthegeneralproceduretocreateaspriteinSPRiteDEFinitionmode:
1.Cleartheworkareabypressingthe{shift}and{clr/home}keysatthe
sametime.
2.Ifyouwantamulticolorsprite,pressthe{m}keyandanadditional
cursorappearsnexttotheoriginalone.Twocursorsappearsince
multicolormodeactuallyturnsontwopixelsforeveryoneinstandard
spritemode.Thisiswhymulticolormodeisonlyhalfthehorizontal
resolutionofstandardhiresmode.
3.Selectacolorforyoursprite.Forcolorsbetween{1}and{8},hold
downthe{ctrl}keyandpressakeybetween{1}and{8}.Toselect
colorcodesbetween9and16,holddowntheCommodore({C=})keyand
pressakeybetween{1}and{8}.
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4.Nowyourarereadytostartcreatingtheshapeofyoursprite.Thenum
beredkeys{1}through{4}fillinthespriteandgiveitshape.Fora
singlecolorsprite,usethe{2}tofillacharacterpositionwithin
theworkarea.Pressthe{1}keytoerasewhatyouhavedrawnwiththe
{2}key.Ifyouwanttofillonecharacterpositionatatime,press
the{a}key.Nowyouhavetomovethecursormanuallywiththecursor
keys.Ifyouwantthecursortomoveautomaticallytotherightwhile
youholditdown,donotpressthe{a}keysinceitisalreadysetto
automaticcursormovement.Asyoufillinacharacterpositionwithin
theworkarea,youcanseethecorrespondingpixelinthedisplayed
spriteturnon.Spriteeditingoccursassoonasyoueditthework
area.
Inmulticolormode,the{3}keyfillstwocharacterpositionswithin
theworkareawiththemulticolor1color,the{4}keyfillstwo
characterpositionswiththemulticolor2.
Youcanturnoff(colorthepixelinthebackgroundcolor)filledareas
withintheworkareawiththe{1}key.Inmulticolormode,the{1}key
turnsofftwocharacterpositionsatatime.
5.Whileconstructingyoursprite,youcanmovefreelyintheworkarea
withoutturningonoroffanypixelsusingthe{return},{home}and
cursorkeys.
6.Atanytime,youmayexpandyourspriteinboththeverticalandhori
zontaldirections.Toexpandvertically,pressthe{y}key.Toexpand
horizontally,pressthe{x}key.Toreturntothenormalsizesprite
display,pressthe{x}or{y}keyagain.
WhenakeyturnsonANDoffthesamecontrol,itisreferredtoas
toggling,sothe{x}and{y}keystoggletheverticalandhorizontal
expansionofthesprite.
7.Whenyouarefinishedcreatingyourspriteandhappywiththewayit
looks,saveitbyholdingdownthe{shift}keyandpressingthe
{return}key.TheCommodore128SAVEsthespritedataintheappro
priatespritestoragearea.Thedisplayedspriteintheupperright
cornerofthescreenisturnedoffandcontrolisreturnedtothe
SPRITENUMBERprompt.Ifyouwanttodisplaytheoriginalspriteinthe
workareaagain,entertheoriginalspritenumber.Ifyouwanttoexit
SPRiteDEFinitionmode,simplypress{return}attheSPRITENUMBER
prompt.
8.Youcancopyonespriteintoanotherwiththe{c}key.
9.IfyoudonotwanttoSAVEyoursprite,pressthe{stop}key.TheCom
modore128turnsoffthedisplayedspriteandreturnstotheSPRITE
NUMBERprompt.
10.ToEXITSPRiteDEFinitionmode,pressthe{return}keywhiletheSPRITE
NUMBERpromptisdisplayedonthescreenwhennospritenumberfollows
it.Youcanexitundereitherofthefollowingconditions:
ImmediatelyafteryouSAVEyoursprite({shift}{return}).
Immediatelyafteryoupressthe{stop}key.
OnceyouhavecreatedaspriteandhaveexitedSPRiteDEFinitionmode,your
spritedataisstoredintheappropriatespritestorageareaintheCom
modore128'smemory.SinceyouarenowbackincontroloftheBASIClan
guage,youhavetoturnonyourspriteinordertoseeitonthescreen.To
turnitonagain,usetheSPRITEcommandyoulearnedpreviously.For
exampleifyoucreatedsprite1inSPRDEFmode.ToturnitoninBASIC,
coloritblueandexpanditinboththeXandYdirectionsenterthis
command:
SPRITE1,1,7,0,1,1,0
NowusetheMOVSPRcommandtomoveitasfollows:
MOVSPR1,45#5
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NowyouknowallaboutSPRDEFmode.First,createthesprite,savethe
spritedataandexitfromSPRDEFmodetoBASIC.Nextturnonyoursprite
withtheSPRITEcommand.MoveitwiththeMOVSPRcommand.Whenyou're
finishedprogramming,SAVEyourspritedatainabinaryfilewiththeBSAVE
commandasfollows:
BSAVE"filename",B0,P3584TOP4096
Whenyouwanttousethespritedataagainfromdisk,loadthepreviously
BSAVEdbinaryfilewiththeBLOADcommandasfollows:
BLOAD"filename"[,B0,P3584]
Theportioninbracketsisoptional.BLOADloadsdataintotheaddressfrom
whichitwassavediftheoptionalportionisnotspecified.
Nowyouknowthenewmethodforcreatingsprites.Soyoucanusethefol
lowingtwomethods:1)SSHAPE,SPRSAV,SPRITE,MOVSPR,2)SPRDEFmode.
Experimentwithbothmethodsandmasterspriteanimation.
Seeparagraph16.3.12,"StoringSpriteDatainBinaryFiles",laterinthis
sectionformoreinformation.
6.3.11AdjoiningSprites
Youhavelearnedhowtocreate,color,turnonandanimateasprite.Anoc
casionmayarisewhenyouwanttocreateapicturethatistoodetailedor
toolargetofitintoasinglesprite.Inthiscase,youcanjointwoor
morespritessothepictureislargerandmoredetailedthanwithasingle
sprite.Byjoiningsprites,eachonecanmoveindependentlyofoneanother.
Thisgivesyoumuchmorecontroloveranimationthanwithasinglesprite.
Thissectionincludesanexampleusingadjoiningsprites.Here'sthegene
ralprocedure(algorithm)forwritingaprogramwithtwoormoreadjoining
sprites.
1.DrawapictureonthescreenwithCommodore128graphicsstatements,
suchasDRAW,BOXandPAINT,justasyoudidintheracewayprogramin
thelastsection.Thistime,makethepicturetwiceaslargeasa
singlespritewiththedimensions48pixelswideby21pixelstall.
2.UsetwoSSHAPEstatementstostorethespritesintotwoseparatedata
strings.PositionthefirstSSHAPEstatementcoordinatesoverthe24by
21pixelsareaofthefirsthalfofthepictureyoudrew.Thenposi
tionthesecondSSHAPEstatementcoordinatesoverthesecond24by21
pixelarea.Makesureyoustoreeachhalfofthepicturedatainadif
ferentstring.Forexample,thefirstSSHAPEstatementstoresthefirst
halfofthepictureintoA$,andthesecondSSHAPEstatementstoresthe
secondhalfofthepictureintoB$.
3.Transferthepicturedatafromeachdatastringintoaseparatesprite
withtheSPRSAVstatement.
4.TurnoneachspritewiththeSPRITEstatement.
5.Positionthespritessothebeginningofonespritestartsatthepixel
nexttowherethefirstspriteends.Thisisthestepthatactually
joinsthesprites.Forexample,drawapicture48by21pixels.Posi
tionthefirstsprite(1,forexample)atlocation10,10withthis
statement:
100MOVSPR1,10,10
wherethefirstnumberisthespritenumber,thesecondnumberisthe
horizontal(X)coordinateandthethirdnumberisthevertical(Y)
coordinate.Positionthesecondsprite24pixelstotherightof
sprite1withthisstatement:
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200MOVSPR2,34,10
Atthispoint,thetwospritesaredisplayeddirectlynexttoeachother.
Theylookexactlylikethepictureyoudrewinthebeginningofthepro
gram,usingtheDRAW,BOXandPAINTstatements.
6.Nowyoucanmovethespritesanywayyoulike,againusingtheMOVSPR
statement.Youcanmovethemtogetheralongthesamepathorindif
ferentdirections.Asyoulearnedinthelastsection,theMOVSPR
statementallowsyoutomovespritestoaspecificlocationonthe
screen,ortoalocationrelativetothesprite'soriginalposition.
Thefollowingprogramisanexampleofadjoiningsprites.Theprogram
createsanouterspaceenvironment.Itdrawsstars,aplanetandaspace
craftsimilartoApollo.Thespacecraftisdrawn,thenstoredintotwodata
strings,A$andB$.Thefrontofthespaceship,thecapsule,isstoredin
sprite1.Thebackhalfofthespaceship,theretrorocket,isstoredin
sprite2.Thespacecraftfliesslowlyacrossthescreen.Sinceitistra
velingsoslowlyandisveryfarfromEarth,itneedstobelaunchedearth
wardwiththeretrorockets.Afterawhile,theretrorocketsfireand
propelthecapsulesafelytoEarth.
Here'stheprogramlisting:
5COLOR4,1:COLOR0,1:COLOR1,2:REMSELECTCOLORS
10GRAPHIC1,1:REMSETHIRESMODE
17FORI=1TO40
18X=INT(RND(1)*320)+1
19Y=INT(RND(1)*200)+1
21DRAW1,X,Y:NEXTI:REMDRAWSTARS
22BOX0,0,5,70,40,,1:REMCLEARBOX
23BOX1,1,5,70,40:COLOR1,8:REMBOXINSPACESHIP
24CIRCLE1,190,90,35,25:PAINT1,190,95:REMDRAWANDPAINTTHEPLANET
25FORI=90TO96STEP3:CIRCLE1,190,I,65,10:NEXTI
26DRAW1,10,17TO16,17TO32,10TO33,20TO32,30TO16,23TO10,23TO10,17
28DRAW1,19,24TO20,21TO27,25TO26,28:REMBOTTOMWINDOW
35DRAW1,20,19TO20,17TO29,13TO30,18TO28,23TO20,19:REMTOPWINDOW
38PAINT1,13,20:REMPAINTSPACESHIP
40DRAW1,34,10TO36,20TO34,30TO45,30TO46,20TO45,10TO34,10
42DRAW1,45,10TO51,12TO57,10TO57,17TO51,15TO46,17:REMENGINE1
43DRAW1,46,22TO51,24TO57,22TO57,29TO51,27TO45,29:REMENGINE2
44PAINT1,40,15:PAINT1,47,12:PAINT1,47,26:DRAW0,45,30TO46,20TO45,10
45DRAW0,34,14TO44,14:DRAW0,34,21TO44,21:DRAW0,34,28TO44,28
47SSHAPEA$,10,10,33,32:REMSAVESPRITEINA$
48SSHAPEB$,34,10,57,32:REMSAVESPRITEINB$
50SPRSAVA$,1:REMSPRITE1DATA
55SPRSAVB$,2:REMSPRITE2DATA
60SPRITE1,1,3,0,0,0,0:REMENABLESPRITE1INRED
65SPRITE2,1,7,0,0,0,0:REMENABLESPRITE2INBLUE
82MOVSPR1,150,150:REMPOSITIONSPRITE1
83MOVSPR2,172,150:REMPOSITIONSPRITE2
85MOVSPR1,270#5:REMANIMATESPRITE1
87MOVSPR2,270#5:REMANIMATESPRITE2
92MOVSPR1,150,150:REMRETROPOSITION
93MOVSPR2,174,150
95MOVSPR1,270#10:REMSPLITSPRITES1&2
96MOVSPR2,90#5:REM
98SPRITE2,0:REMTURNOFFSPRITE2
100GRAPHIC0,1:REMRETURNTOTEXT
Here'sanexplanationoftheprogram:
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*Line5COLORsthebackgroundblackandtheforegroundwhite.
*Line10selectsstandardhighresolutionmodeandclearsthehires
screen.
*Line23BOXesinadisplayareaforthepictureofthespacecraftin
thetopleftcornerofthescreen.
*Lines17through21DRAWthestars.
*Line24drawsandPAINTStheplanet.
*Line25drawstheCIRCLEsaroundtheplanet.
*Line26DRAWstheoutlineofthecapsuleportionofthespacecraft.
*Line28DRAWsthebottomwindowofthespacecapsule.
*Line35DRAWsthetopwindowofthespacecapsule.
*Line38PAINTsthespacecapsulewhite.
*Line40DRAWstheoutlineoftheretrorocketportionofthespace
craft.
*Lines42and43DRAWtheretrorocketenginesonthebackofthe
spacecraft.
*Line44PAINTstheretrorocketenginesandDRAWsanoutlineofthe
backoftheretrorocketinthebackgroundcolor.
*Line45DRAWslinesontheretrorocketportionofthespacecraftin
thebackgroundcolor.(Atthispoint,youhavedisplayedonlypic
turesonthescreen.Youhavenotusedanyspritestatements,so
yourrocketshipisnotyetasprite.)
*Line47positionstheSSHAPEcoordinatesabovethefirsthalf(24by
21pixels)ofthecapsuleofthespacecraftandstoresitina
datastring,A$.
*Line48positionstheSSHAPEcoordinatesabovethesecondhalf(24
by21pixels)ofthespacecraftandstoresitinadatastring,B$.
*Line50transfersthedatafromA$intosprite1.
*Line55transfersthedatafromB$intosprite2.
*Line60turnsonsprite1andcolorsitred.
*Line65turnsonsprite2andcolorsitblue.
*Line82positionssprite1atcoordinates(150,150).
*Line83positionssprite224pixelstotherightofthestarting
coordinateofsprite1.
*Lines82and83actuallyjointhetwosprites.
*Lines85and87movethejoinedspritesacrossthescreen.
*Line90delaystheprogram.Thistimedelayisnecessaryforthe
spritestocompletethetwotripsacrossthescreen.Ifyouleave
outthedelay,thespritesdonothaveenoughtimetomoveacross
thescreen.
*Lines92and93positionthespritesinthecenterofthescreen,
andpreparethespacecrafttofiretheretrorockets.
*Line95propelssprite1,thespacecapsule,forward.Thenumber10
inline95specifiesthespeedatwhichthespritemoves.Thespeed
rangesfrom1,whichisstop,to15,whichislightningfast.
*Line96movestheexpiredretrorocketportionofthespacecraft
backwardsandoffthescreen.
*Line97isanothertimedelaysotheretrorocket,sprite2,has
timetomoveoffthescreen.
*Line98turnsoffsprite2,onceitisoffthescreen.
*Line100returnsyoutotextmode.
Workingwithadjoiningspritescanbemoreinterestingthanworkingwitha
singlesprite.Themainpointstorememberare:(1)Makesureyouposition
theSSHAPEcoordinatesatthecorrectlocationsonthescreen,soyousave
thepicturedataproperly;and(2)becertaintopositionthespritecoor
dinatesinthecorrectlocationwhenyouarejoiningthemwiththeMOVSPR
statement.Inthisexampleyoupositionedsprite2atalocation24pixels
totherightofsprite1.
Onceyoumasterthetechniqueofjoiningtwosprites,trymorethantwo.
Themorespritesyoujoin,thebetterthedetailandanimationwillbein
yourprograms.
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TheC128hastwoadditionalspritecommands,SPRCOLORandCOLLISION,which
arenotcoveredinthesection.Tolearnaboutthesecommands,referto
ChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.
6.3.12StoringSpriteDatainBinaryFiles
NOTE:Thefollowingexplanationassumessomeknowledgeofmachine
language,memorylocations,binaryfilesandobjectcodefiles.
TheCommodore128hastwonewcommandsBLOADandBSAVE,whichmakehandling
spritedataneatandeasy.The"B"inBLOADandBSAVEstandsforBINARY.
TheBSAVEandBLOADcommandssaveandloadbinaryfilestoandfromdisk.
Abinaryfileconsistsofeitheraportionofmachinelanguageprogram,or
acollectionofdatawithinaspecifiedaddressrange.
YoumaybefamiliarwiththeSAVEcommandwithinthebuiltinmachine
languagemonitor.whenyouusethisSAVEcommand,theresultingfileon
diskisconsideredabinaryfile.Abinaryfileiseasiertoworkwiththan
anobjectcodefilesinceyoucanloadabinaryfilewithoutanyfurther
preparation.Anobjectcodefilemustbeloadedwithaloader,asinthe
Commodore64AssemblerDevelopmentSystem;thentheSYSTEMcommand(SYS)
mustbeusedtoexecuteit.
Whenloadingbinaryfiles,remembertoloadthemineitherofthesetwo
ways:
LOAD"binaryfilename",8,1
or
BLOAD"binaryfilename",B0,PStart
wherestartis3584ifyouareloadingspritedatafiles.
Inthefirstmethodyoumustspecifythe,1attheendorelsethecomputer
treatsitasaBASICprogramfileandloadsitatthebeginningofBASIC
text.The,1tellsthecomputertoloadthebinaryfileintothesameplace
fromwhichitwasstored.
You'reprobablywonderingwhatthishastodowithsprites.Here'sthecon
nection.TheCommodore128hasadedicatedportionofmemoryrangingfrom
theaddress3584($0E00)throught4095($0FFF),wherespritedatais
stored.Thisportionofmemorytakesup512bytes.Asyouknow,aspriteis
24pixelswideand21pixelstall.Eachpixelrequiresonebitofmemory.
Ifthebitinaspriteisoff(equalto0),thecorrespondingpixelonthe
screenisconsideredoffandtakesthecolorofthebackground.Ifapixel
withinaspriteison(equalto1),thecorrespondingpixelonthescreen
isturnedonintheforegroundcolor.Thecombinationofzeroesandones
producetheimageyouseeonthescreen.
Sinceaspriteis24by21pixelsandeachpixelrequiresabitofstorage
inmemory,onespriteuses63bytesofmemory.SeeFigure68tounderstand
thestoragerequirementsforasprite'sdata.
123456781234567812345678
1........................
2........................
3........................
4........................
5........................
6........................
7........................
8........................
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9........................
10........................
11........................
12........................
13........................
14........................
15........................
16........................
17........................
18........................
19........................
20........................
21........................
EachRow=24bits=3bytes
Figure68.SpriteDataRequirements.
Aspriterequires63bytesofdata.Eachspriteblockisactuallymadeup
of64bytes;theextrabyteisnotused.SincetheCommodore128haseight
spritesandeachoneconsistsofan64bytespriteblock,thecomputer
needs512(8x64)bytestorepresentthedataofalleightspriteimages.
Theentireareawherealleightspriteblocksresidestartsatmemoryloca
tion3584($0E00)andendsatlocation4095($0FFF).Figure69liststhe
memoryaddressrangeswhereeachindividualspritestoresitsdata:
$0FFF(4095decimal)
]Sprite8
$0FC0
]Sprite7
$0F80
]Sprite6
$0F40
]Sprite5
$0F00
]Sprite4
$0EC0
]Sprite3
$0E80
]Sprite2
$0E40
]Sprite1
$0E00(3584Decimal)
Figure69.MemoryAddressRangesforSpriteStorage.
6.3.12.1BSAVE
OnceyouexitfromtheSPRDEFmode,youcansaveyourspritedatainbinary
spritefiles.Thisway,youcanloadanycollectionofspritesbackinto
theCommodore128neatlyandeasily.Usethiscommandtosaveyoursprite
dataintoabinaryfile:
BSAVE"filename",B0,P3584TOP4096
The"B0"specifiesthatyouaresavingthespritedatafrombank0.Thepara
metersP3584TOP4096signifyyouaresavingtheaddressrange3584($0E00)
through4095($0FFF),whichistherangewhereallthespritedatais
stored.
YoudonothavetodefineallofthespriteswhenyouBSAVEthem.The
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spritesyoudodefineareBSAVEdfromthecorrectspriteblock.Theunde
finedspritesarealsoBSAVEdinthebinaryfilefromtheappropriate
spriteblock,buttheydonotmattertothecomputer.ItiseasiertoBSAVE
theentire512bytesofalleightsprites,regardlessifallthesprites
areused,ratherthanBSAVEeachspriteblockindividually.
6.3.12.2BLOAD
Lateron,whenyouwanttousethespritesagain,justBLOADtheentire
512bytesforallofthespritesintotherangestartingat3584($0E00)
andendingat4095($0FFF).Here'sthecommandtoaccomplishthis:
BLOAD"filename"[,B0,P3584]
UsethesamefilenamewhichyouBSAVEdyouroriginalspritedata.TheB0
standsforbanknumber0andtheP3584specifiesthestartinglocation
wherethebinaryspritedataisloaded.Thelasttwoparametersare
optional.
***************************************************************************
InthissectionyouhaveseenhowmuchthenewCommodore7.0BASICcommands
cansimplifytheusuallycomplexprocessofcreatingandanimatinggraphic
images.ThenextsectiondescribessomeothernewBASIC7.0commandsthat
dothesameformusicandsound.
SECTION7
7.SoundandMusicinC128Mode
7.1INTRODUCTION
7.2THESOUNDSTATEMENT
7.2.1WritingaSOUNDProgram
7.2.2RandomSounds
7.3ADVANCEDSOUNDANDMUSICINC128MODE
7.3.1Abriefbackground:TheCharacteristicsofSound
Figure71.SineWave.
Figure72.Frequenciesandharmonics.
Figure73.SoundWaveformTypes.
7.3.2MakingMusicontheCommodore128
7.3.2.1TheENVELOPEStatement
Figure74.ADSRPhases.
Figure75.DefaultParametersforENVELOPEStatement.
7.3.2.2TheTEMPOStatement
7.3.2.3ThePLAYStatement
Figure76.SoundSynthesizerControlCharacters.
7.3.2.4TheSIDFilter
Figure77.LowpassFilter.
Figure78.HighpassFilter.
Figure79.BandpassFilter.
7.3.2.5TheFILTERStatement
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7.3.3TyingyourMusicProgramTogether
7.3.4AdvancedFiltering
Figure710.NotchRejectFilter.
7.4CODINGASONGFROMSHEETMUSIC
Figure711.MusicalStaff.
Figure712.PartofBach'sInvention13.
7.1INTRODUCTION
TheCommodore128hasoneofthemostsophisticatedbuiltinsoundsynthe
sizersavailableinamicrocomputer.Thesynthesizer,calledSoundInter
faceDevice(SID),isachipcapableofproducingthreeindependentvoices
(sounds)simultaneously.Eachofthevoicescanbeplayedinoneoffour
typesofsounds,calledwaveforms.TheSIDchipalsohasprogrammable
Attack,Decay,SustainandRelease(ADSR)parameters.Theseparametersde
finethequalityofasound.Inaddition,thesynthesizerhasafilteryou
canusetochoosecertainsounds.Inthissectionyouwilllearnhowto
controltheseparameterstoproducealmostanykindofsound.
Tomakeiteasyforyoutoselectandmanipulatethemanycapabilitiesof
theSIDchip,CommodorehasdevellopednewandpowerfulBASICmusicstate
ments.
HerearethenewsoundandmusicstatementsavailableontheCommodore128:
SOUND
ENVELOPE
VOL
TEMPO
PLAY
FILTER
Thissectionexplainsthesesoundstatements,oneatatime,intheprocess
constructingasamplemusicalprogram.Whenyouarefinishedwiththissec
tion,youwillknowtheingredientsthatgointoamusicalprogram.You'll
beabletoexpandontheexampleandwriteprogramsthatplayintricate
musicalcompositions.Eventually,you'llbeabletoprogramyourownmusi
calscores,makeyourownsoundeffectsandplayworksofthegreatclas
sicalmasterssuchasBeethovenandcontemporaryartistsliketheBeatles.
Youcanevenaddcomputergeneratedmusictoyourgraphicsprogramsto
createyourown"videos."
7.2THESOUNDSTATEMENT
TheSOUNDstatementisdesignedprimarilyforquickandeasysoundeffects
inyourprograms.Youwilllearnamoreintricatewayofplayingcomplete
musicalarragementswiththeothersoundstatementslaterinthissection.
TheformatfortheSOUNDstatementisasfollows:
SOUNDvc,freq,dur[,dir[,min[,sv[,wf[,pw]]]]]
Here'swhattheparametersmean:
VCSelectvoice1,2or3
FREQSetthefrequencylevelofsound(065535)
DURSetdurationofthesound(insixtiethsofasecond)
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DIRSetthedirectioninwhichthesoundisincremented/decre
mented:
0=Incrementthefrequencyupward
1=Decrementthefrequencydownward
2=Oscillatethefrequencyupanddown
MINSelecttheminimumfrequency(065535)ifthesweep(DIR)is
specified
SVChoosethestepvalueforthesweep(065535)
WFSelectthewaveform(03):
0=Triangle
1=Sawtooth
2=VariablePulse(square)
3=WhiteNoise
PWSetthepulsewidth,thewidthofthevariablepulsewaveform
NotethattheDIR,MIN,SVandPWparametersareoptional.
Thefirstparameter(VC)intheSOUNDstatementselectswhichvoicewillbe
played.Thesecondparameter(FREQ)determinesthefrequencyofthesound,
whichrangesfrom0through65535.Thethirdsetting(DUR)ismeasuredin
60thsofasecond.Ifyouwanttoplayasoundforonesecond,setthe
durationto60,since60times1/60equals1.Toplaythesoundfortwo
seconds,specifythedurationtobe120.Toplaythesoundtenseconds,
maketheduration600,andsoon.
Thefourthparameter(DIR)selectsthedirectioninwhichthefrequencyor
thesoundisincrementedordecremented.Thisisreferredtoasthesweep.
Thefifthsetting(MIN)setstheminimumfrequencywherethesweepbegins.
Thesixthparameter(SV)isthestepvalueofthesweep.Itissimilarto
thestepvalueinaFOR...NEXTloop.IftheDIR,MINandSVvaluesare
specifiedintheSOUNDcommand,thesoundisplayedfirstattheoriginal
levelspecifiedbythefreqparameter.Thenthesynthesizersweepsthrough
andplayseachleveloftheentirerangeoffrequencyvaluesstartingat
theminfrequency.Thesweepisincrementedordecrementedbythestep
value(SV)andthefrequencyisplayedatthenewlevel.
Theseventhparameter(WF)intheSOUNDcommandselectsthewaveformfor
thesound.(Waveformsareexplainedindetailinparagraphtitled,"Ad
vancedSoundandMusicinC128Mode.")
ThefinalsettingintheSOUNDcommanddeterminesthewidthofthepulse
waveformifitisselectedasthewaveformparameter.(Seethediscussionin
paragraph7.3,"AdvancedSoundandMusicinC128Mode",foranillustration
ofthepulsewaveform.)
7.2.1WritingaSOUNDProgram
Nowit'stimetowriteyourfirstSOUNDprogram.Here'sanexampleofthe
SOUNDstatement:
10VOL5
20SOUND1,4096,60
RUNthisprogram.TheCommodore128playsashortbeep.Youmustsetthe
volumebeforeyoucanplaythesoundstatement,soline10setstheVOLume
ofthesoundchip.Line20playsvoice1atafrequencyof4096foradura
tionof1second(60times1/60).Changethefrequencywiththisstatement:
30SOUND1,8192,60
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Noticeline30playsahighertonethanline20.Thisshowsthedirect
relationshipbetweenthefrequencysettingandtheactualfrequencyofthe
sound.Asyouincreasethefrequencysetting,theCommodore128increases
thepitchofthetone.Nowtrythisstatement:
40SOUND1,0,60
ThisshowsthataFREQvalueof0playsthelowestfrequency(whichisso
lowitisinaudible).AFREQvalueof65535playsthehighestpossible
frequency.
NowtryplacingthesoundstatementwithinaFOR...NEXTloop.Thisallows
youtoplaythecompleterangeoffrequencieswithintheloop.Addthese
statementstoyourprogram:
60SOUND1,I,1
70NEXT
Thisprogramsegmentplaysthevariablepulsewaveformintherangeof
frequenciesfrom1to65535,inincrementsof100,fromthelowestfrequen
cytothehighest.Ifyoudon'tspecifythewaveform,thecomputerselects
thedefaultvalueofwaveform2,thevariablepulsewaveform.
Nowchangethewaveformwiththefollowingprogramline(60)andtrythe
programagain:
60SOUND1,I,1,0,0,0,0,0
Nowtheprogramplaysvoice1,usingthetrianglewaveform,fortherange
offrequencybetween1and65535inincrementsof100.Thissoundslikea
typicalsoundeffectinpopulararcadegames.Trywaveform1,thesawtooth
waveform,andseehowitsoundswiththisline:
60SOUND1,I,1,0,0,0,1,0
Thesawtoothwaveformsoundssimilartothetrianglewaveformthoughithas
lessbuzz.Finally,trythewhitenoisewaveform(3).Substituteline60
forthisline:
60SOUND1,I,1,0,0,0,3,0
Nowtheprogramloopplaysthewhitenoisegeneratorfortheentirerange
offrequencies.Asthefrequencyincreasesintheloopthepitchincreases
andsoundslikearockettakingoff.
NoticethatsofarwehavenotspecifiedalloftheparametersintheSOUND
statement.Takeline60forexample:
60SOUND1,I,1,0,0,0,3,0
Thethreezerosfollowing1,I,1pertaintothesweepparameterswithinthe
SOUNDstatement.Sincenoneoftheparametersisspecified,theSOUNDdoes
notsweep.Addthislinetoyourprogram:
100SOUND1,49152,240,1,0,100,1,0
^^^^^^^^
||||||||
Voice+|||||||
Frequency+||||||
Duration+|||||
SweepDirection+||||
MinimumSweepFrequency+|||
StepValueforSweep+||
Waveform+|
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PulseWidthforvariablewidth|
waveform+
Line100startsthesweepfrequencyat49152anddecrementsthesweepby
100inthedownwarddirection,untilitreachestheminimumsweepfrequency
at0.Voice1,usingthesawtoothwaveform(#1),playseachSOUNDforfour
seconds(240*1/60s).Line100soundslikeabombdropping,asinmay
"shoot'emup"arcadegames.
Nowtrychangingsomeoftheparametersinline100.Forinstance,change
thedirectionofthesweepto2(oscilate);changetheminimumfrequencyof
thesweepto32768;andincreasethestepvalueto3000.YournewSOUND
commandlookslikethis:
110SOUND1,49152,240,2,32768,3000,1
Line110makesasirensoundasthoughthepolicewererightonyourtail.
Foramorepleasantsound,trythis:
110SOUND1,65535,250,0,32768,3000,2,2600
ThisshouldremindyouofapopularspaceageTVshow,whenthespacecrew
unleashedtheirfuturisticweaponsontheunsuspectingaliens.
Untilnow,youhavebeenprogrammingonlyonevoice.Youcanproduceinter
estingsoundeffectswiththeSOUNDstatementusinguptothreevoices.
Experimentandcreateaprogramwhichutilizesallthreevoices.
Here'sasampleprogramthatwillhelpyouunderstandhowtoprogramthe
Commodore128synthesizerchip.Theprogram,whenRUN,asksforeachpara
meter,andthenplaysthesound.Here'stheprogramlisting.Typeitinto
yourcomputerandRUNit.
10SCNCLR:PRINT"SOUNDPLAYER":PRINT:PRINT:PRINT
20PRINT"INPUTSOUNDPARAMETERSTOPLAY":PRINT:PRINT
30INPUT"VOICE(13)";V
40INPUT"FREQUENCY(065535)";F
50INPUT"DURATION(032767)";D
60INPUT"DOYOUWANTTOSPECIFYOPTIONALPARAMETERSY/N";B$:PRINT
70IFB$="N"THEN130
80INPUT"SWEEPDIRECTION(0=UP,1=DOWN,2=OSCILL)";DIR
90INPUT"MINIMUMSWEEPFREQUENCY(065535)";M
100INPUT"SWEEPSTEPVALUE(032767)";S
110INPUT"WAVEFORM(0=TRI,1=SAW,2=VARPUL,3=NOISE)";W
120IFW=2THENINPUT"PULSEWIDTH(04096)";P
130SOUNDV,F,D,DIR,M,S,W,P
140INPUT"DOYOUWANTTOHEARTHESOUNDAGAINY/N";A$
150IFA$="Y"THEN130
160RUN
Here'saquickexplanationoftheprogram.Lines10and20PRINTtheintro
ductorymessagesonthescreen.Lines30through50INPUTthevoice,
frequencyanddurationparameters.Line60asksifyouwanttoenterthe
optionalSOUNDparameters,suchasthesweepsettingsandwaveform.Ifyou
don'twanttospecifytheseparameters,pressthe{n}andthenthe{return}
keyandtheprogramjumpstoline130andplaysthesound.Iyoudowantto
specifytheoptionalSOUNDsettings,pressthe{y}andthenthe{return}
keyandtheprogramcontinueswithline80.Lines80through110specify
thesweepdirection,minimumsweepfrequency,sweepstepvalueandwave
form.Line120INPUTsthepulsewidthofthevariablepulsewaveformonly
ifwaveform2(variablepulse)isselected.Line130playstheSOUNDaccor
dingtotheparametersthatyouspecifiedearlierintheprogram.
Line140asksifyouwanttoheartheSOUNDagain.Ifyoudo,pressthe{y}
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andthenthe{return}key.Ifyoudid,programcontrolisreturnedtoline
130andtheprogramplaystheSOUNDagain.Ifyoupressanyotherkeyas
the{y}key,theprogramcontinueswithline160.Line160rerunsthepro
gram.TostoptheSoundPlayerprogram,pressthe{run/stop}and{restore}
keysatthesametime.
7.2.2RandomSounds
ThefollowingprogramgeneratesrandomsoundsusingtheRNDfunction.Each
SOUNDparameteriscalculatedrandomly.Typetheprogramintoyourcomputer
andSAVEitandRUNit.Thisprogramillustrateshowmanythousandsof
soundsyoucanproducebyspecifyingvariouscombinationsoftheSOUND
parameters.
10PRINT"VCFRQDIRMINSVWFPW":VOL5
20PRINT""
30V=INT(RND(1)*3)+1:REMVOICE
40F=INT(RND(1)*65536):REMFREQUENCY
50D=INT(RND(1)*240):REMDURATION
60DIR=INT(RND(1)*3):REMSTEPDIRECTION
70M=INT(RND(1)*65536):REMMINIMUMFREQUENCY
80S=INT(RND(1)*32678):REMSTEPVALUE
90W=INT(RND(1)*4):REMWAVEFORM
100P=INT(RND(1)*4096):REMPULSEWIDTH
110PRINTV;F;DIR;M;S;W;P:PRINT:PRINT:REMDISPLAYVALUE
120SOUNDV,F,D,DIR,M,S,W,P:REMPLAYSOUND
130SLEEP4:REMWAITABIT
140SOUNDV,0,0,DIR,0,0,W,P:REMSWITCHSOUNDOFF
150GOTO10
Lines10and20PRINTparametercolumnheadingsandtheunderline.Lines30
through100calculateeachSOUNDparameterwithinitsspecificrange.For
example,line30calculatesthevoicenumberasfollows:
30V=INT(RND(1)*3)+1
ThenotationRND(1)specifiestheseedvalueoftherandomnumber.Theseed
isthebasenumbergeneratedbythecomputer.The1tellsthecomputerto
generateanewseedeachtimethecommandisencountered.SincetheCommo
dore128hasthreevoices,thenotation*3tellsthecomputertogenerate
arandomnumberwithintherange0through3.Noticehoweverthereisno
voice0,sothe+1tellsthecomputertogeneratearandomnumbersuch
that1<=Number<4.Theprocedureforgeneratingarandomnumberina
specificrangeistomultiplythegivenrandomnumbertimesthemaximum
valueoftheparameter(inthiscase,3).Iftheminimumvalueofthepara
meterisgreaterthanzero,addtotherandomnumberavaluethatwill
specifytheminimumvalueoftherangeofnumbersyouwanttogenerate(in
thiscase,1).Forinstance,line40generatesarandomnumbersuchthat
0<=Number<65535.Sincetheminimumvalueiszerointhiscase,youdo
notneedtoaddavaluetothegeneratedrandomnumber.
Line110PRINTsthevaluesoftheparameters.Line120playstheSOUND
specifiedbytherandomnumbersgeneratedinlines30through100.Line130
delaystheprogramfor4secondswhilethesoundisplaying.Line140turns
offtheSOUND(afterthe4secondsdelay).Allsoundsgeneratedbythis
programareallturnedoffafter4secondswithline140.Finally,line150
returnscontroltoline10,andtheprocessisrepeateduntilyoupressthe
{run/stop}and{restore}keysatthesametime.
SofaryouhaveexperimentedwithsampleprogramsusingonlytheSOUND
statement.AlthoughyoucanusetheSOUNDstatementtoplaymusicalscores,
itisbestsuitedforquickandeasysoundeffectsliketheonesinthe
dogfightprogram.TheCommodore128hasotherstatementsdesignedspeci
ficallyforsongplaying.Thefollowingparagraphsdescribetheadvanced
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soundandmusicstatementsthatenableyoutoplaycomplexmusicalscores
andarrangementswithyourCommodore128synthesizer.
7.3ADVANCEDSOUNDANDMUSICINC128MODE
7.3.1Abriefbackground:TheCharacteristicsofSound
Everysoundyouhearisactuallyasoundwavetravelingthroughtheair.
Likeanywave,asound(sine)wavecanberepresentedgraphicallyand
mathematically(seeFigure71).
++
++++
/\/\
./.......\......./.......\.
\/
++
+
Figure71.SineWave.
Thesoundwavemoves(oscillates)ataparticularrate(frequency)which
determinestheoverallpitch(thehighnessorlownessofthesound).
Thesoundisalsomadeupofharmonics,whichareaccompanyingmultiplesof
thetheoverallfrequencyofthesoundornote.Thecombinationofthese
harmonicsoundwavesgivethenoteitsqualities,calledtimbre.Figure72
showstherelationshipofbasicsoundfrequenciesandharmonics.
[FIGUREISMISSING]
Figure72.Frequenciesandharmonics.
Thetimbreofamusicaltone(i.e.thewayatonesounds)isdeterminedby
thetone'swaveform.TheCommodore128cangeneratefourtypesofwave
forms:triangle,sawtooth,variablepulseandnoise.SeeFigure73fora
graphicrepresentationofthesefourwaveforms.
++
/\/\
/\/\
/\/\
TRIANGLE./.......\......./.......\.
\/
\/
\/
+
+++
/|/|/|
/|/|/|
/|/|/|
SAWTOOTH./...|.../...|.../...|.....
|/|/|/
|/|/|/
|/|/|/
+++
++++++|
|||||||
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|||||||
|||||||
VARIABLE.|....|..|....|..|....|..|.
PULSE|||||||
|||||||
|||||||
|++++++
<>
PULSEWIDTH
...
.....
....
NOISE...........................
....
....
...
Figure73.SoundWaveformTypes.
7.3.2MakingMusicontheCommodore128
7.3.2.1TheENVELOPEStatement
Thevolumeofasoundchangesthroughoutthedurationofthenote,from
whenyoufirsthearituntilitisnolongeraudible.Thesevolumequali
tiesarereferredtoasAttack,Decay,SustainandRelease(ADSR).Attack
istherateatwhichamusicalnotereachesitspeakvolume.Decayisthe
rateatwhichamusicalnotdecreasesfromitspeakvolumetoitsmidranged
(sustain)level.Sustainisthelevelatwhichamusicalnoteisplayedat
itsmidrangedvolume.Releaseistherateatwhichamusicalnotedecreases
fromitssustainleveltozerovolume.TheENVELOPEgeneratorcontrolsthe
ADSRparametersofsound.SeeFigure74foragraphicalrepresentationof
ADSR.TheCommodore128canchangeeachADSRparameterto16different
rates.Thisgivesyouabsoluteflexibilityovertheenvelopegeneratorand
theresultingpropertiesofthevolumewhenthesoundisoriginated.
+
/\
/\
/\
SUSTAINLEVEL../....++
/\
/\
/\
|||||
|A|D|S|R|
Figure74.ADSRPhases.
OneofthemostpowerfulCommodore128soundstatementstheonethatcon
trolstheADSRandwaveformistheENVELOPEstatement.TheENVELOPE
statementsetsthedifferentcontrolsinthesynthesizerchipwhichmakes
eachsoundunique.TheENVELOPEgivesyouthepowertomanipulatetheSID
synthesizer.WithENVELOPE,youcanselectparticularADSRsettingsand
chooseawaveformforyouownmusicandsoundeffects.Theformatforthe
ENVELOPEstatementisasfollows:
ENVELOPEe[,a[,d[,s[,r[,wf[,pw]]]]]]
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Here'swhatthelettersmean:
eenvelopenumber(09).
aattackrate(015)
ddecayrate(015)
ssustainlevel(015)
rreleaserate(015)
wfwaveform0=triangle
1=sawtooth
2=pulse(square)
3=noise
4=ringmodulation
pwpulsewidth(04095)
Herearethedefinitionsoftheparametersnotpreviouslydefined:
EnvelopeThepropertiesofamusicalnotespecifiedbythewaveformand
theattack,decay,sustainandreleasesettingofthenote.Forexample,
theenvelopeforaguitarnothasadifferentADSRandwaveformthana
flute.
WaveformThetypeofsoundwavecreatedbythecombinationofaccom
panyingmusicalharmonicsofatone.Theaccompanyingharmonicsoundwaves
aremultiplesof,andarebasedontheoverallfrequencyofthetone.The
qualitiesofthetonegeneratedbyeachwaveformarerecognizablydifferent
fromoneanotherandarerepresentedgraphicallyinFigure73.
PulsewidthThelengthoftimebetweennotes,generatedbypulsewaveform.
NowyoucanrealizethepoweroftheENVELOPEstatement.Itcontrolsmost
ofthemusicalqualitiesofthenotesbeingplayedbythesoundsynthe
sizer.TheCommodore128has10predefinedenvelopesfor10different
musicalinstruments.Inusingthepredefinedenvelopesyoudonothaveto
specifytheADSRparameters,waveformandpulsewidthsettingsthisis
alreadydoneforyou.Allyouhavetodoisspecifytheenvelopenumber.
TherestoftheparametersarechoseautomaticallybytheCommodore128.
Herearethepreselectedenvelopesfordifferenttypesofmusicalinstru
ments:
EnvelopeWave
NumberInstrumentAttackDecaySustainReleaseformWidth
0Piano090021536
1Accordion1201201
2Calliope001500
3Drum05503
4Flute94400
5Guitar09211
6Harpsicord09002512
7Organ099022048
8Trumpet89412512
9Xylophone09000
Figure75.DefaultParametersforENVELOPEStatement.
NowthatyouhavealittlebackgroundontheENVELOPEstatement,beginan
otherexamplebyenteringthisstatementintoyourCommodore128:
10ENVELOPE0,5,9,2,2,2,1700
ThisENVELOPEstatementredefinesthedefaultpianoenvelope(0)tothe
following:Attack=5,Decay=9,Sustain=2,Release=2,waveformremains
thesame(2)andpulsewidthofthevariablepulsewaveformisnow1700.
Thepianoenvelopewillnottakeonthesepropertiesuntilitisselected
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byaPLAYstatement,whichyouwilllearnlaterinthissection.
Thenextstepinprogrammingmusicissettingthevolumeofthesoundchip
asfollows:
20VOL8
TheVOLstatementsetsthevolumeofthesoundchipbetween0and15,where
15isthemaximumand0isoff(novolume).
7.3.2.2TheTEMPOStatement
ThenextstepinCommodore128musicprogrammingiscontrollingthetempo,
orspeedofyourtune.TheTEMPOstatementdoesthisforyou.Here'sthe
format:
TEMPOn
wherenisadigitbetween0and255(and255isthefastesttempo).Ifyou
donotspecifytheTEMPOstatementinyourprogram,theCommodore128auto
maticallysetsthetempoto8.Addthisstatementtoyourmusicalexample
program:
30TEMP10
7.3.2.3ThePLAYStatement
Nowit'stimetolearnhowtoplaythenotesinyoursong.Youalreadyknow
howthePRINTstatementworks.Youplaythenotesinyourtunethesameway
asPRINTingatextstringtothescreen,exceptyouusethePLAYstatement
inplaceofPRINT.PRINToutputstext,PLAYoutputsmusicalnotes.
Here'sthegeneralformatfortheplaystatement:
PLAY"stringofsynthesizercontrol
charactersandmusicalnotes"
Thetotalnumberofcharacters(includingthemusicalnotesandsynthesizer
controlcharacters)thatcanbeputintoaPLAYcommandis255.However,
sincethisexceedsthemaximumnumberofcharacters(160)allowedfora
singleprogramlineinBASIC7.0,youhavetoconcatenate(thatis,addto
gether)atleasttwostringstoreachthislength.Youcanavoidtheneed
toconcatenatestringsbymakingsureyourPLAYcommandsdonotexceed160
characters,i.e.oneprogramlinelength.(Thisisequivalentwithfour
screenlinesin40columnmode,andtwoscreenlinesin80columnmode.)By
doingthis,youwillproducePLAYcommandstringsthatareeasiertounder
standanduse.
Toplaymusicalnotes,enclosetheletterofthenoteyouwanttoplay
withinquote.Forexample,here'showtoplaythemusicalscale(alsoknown
asdoremifasollasi):
40PLAY"CDEFGAB"
ThisplaysthenotesC,D,E,F,G,AandBinthepianoenvelope,whichis
envelope0.AftereachtimeyouRUNthisexampleprogramyourarecreating,
holddownthe{run/stop}keyandpressthe{restore}keytoresetthesyn
thesizerchip.
Youhavetheoptionofspecifyingthedurationofthenotebyprecedingit
inquoteswithoneofthefollowingnotations:
WWholenote
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HHalfnote
QQuarternote
IEighthnote
SSixteenthnote
Thedefaultsetting,ifthedurationisnotspecified,istheWhole(W)
notes.
YoucanPLAYarest(nosound)byincludingthefollowinginthePLAY
string:
RRest
Youcaninstructthecomputertowaituntilallvoicescurrentlyplaying
reachtheendofameasurebyincludingthefollowinginquotes:
MWaitforendofmeasure
TheCommodore128alsohassynthesizercontrolcharactersyoucaninclude
inaPLAYstring.Thisgivesyouabsolutecontrolovereachnoteandallows
youtochangesynthesizercontrolswithinastringofnotes.Followthe
controlcharacterwithanumberintheallowablerangeforthatcharacter.
ThecontrolcharactersandtherangeofnumbersareshowninFigure76.
The{n}followingthecontrolcharacterreferstothenumberyouselect
fromthespecifiedrange.
ControlDefault
CharacterDescriptionRangeSetting
VnVoice131
OnOctave064
TnEnvelope090
UnVolume0159
XnFilter0=off0
1=on
Figure76.SoundSynthesizerControlCharacters.
AlthoughtheSIDchipcanprocessthesecontrolcharactersinanyorder,
forbestresults,placethecontrolcharactersinyourstringintheorder
thattheyappearinFigure76.
Youdon'tabsolutelyhavetospecifyanyofthecontrolcharacters,butyou
shouldtomaximizethepowerfromyoursynthesizer.TheCommodore128auto
maticallysetsthesynthesizercontrolstothedefaultsettingsinFigure
76.Ifyoudon'tassignspecialcontrolcharacters,theSIDchipcanPLAY
onlyoneenvelope,onevoiceandoneoctavewithoutanyFILTERing.Specify
thecontrolcharacterstoexercisethemostcontroloverthenoteswithin
yourPLAYstring.
IfyouspecifyanENVELOPEstatementandselectyourownsettingsinstead
ofusingthedefaultparametersfromFigure75,theenvelopecontrol
characternumberinyourPLAYstringmustmatchthenumberinyourENVELOPE
statementinordertoassumetheparametersyouassigned.Youdon'thave
thespecifytheENVELOPEstatementatallifyoujustwanttoPLAYthe
defaultsettingsfromFigure76.Inthiscase,simplyselectanenvelope
numberwiththe(T)controlcharacterinthePLAYstatement.
Here'sanexampleofthePLAYstatementusingtheSIDchipcontrolcharac
terswithinastring.Addthislinetoyourprogramandnoticethedif
ferencebetweenthisstatementandthePLAYstatementinline40.
50PLAY"MV2O5T7U5X0CDEFGAB"
ThisstatementPLAYsthesamenotesasinline40,butvoice2isselected,
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thenotesareplayedoneoctavehigher(5)thanline40,thevolumeset
tingisturneddownto5andtheFILTERisspecifiedasoff.Fornow,leave
thefilteroff.WhenyoulearnaboutFILTERinginthenextsection,youcan
comebackandturnthefilterontoseehowitaffectsthenotesbeing
played.Noticeline50selectsanewinstrument,theorganenvelope,with
theT7controlcharacter.NowyourprogramPLAYstwodifferentinstruments
intwooftheindependentvoices.AddthisstatementtoPLAYthethird
voice:
60PLAY"MV3O6U7T6X0CDEFGAB"
Here'showline60controlsthesynthesizer.TheV3selectsthethird
voice,O6placesvoice3oneoctavehigher(6)thanvoicetwo,T6selects
theharpsichordenvelope,U7setsthevolumeto7andX0leavesthefilter
offforallthreevoices.Nowyourprogramplaysthreevoices,eachoneoc
tavehigherthanttheother,inthreeseperateinstruments,piano,organ
andharpsichord.
Sofar,yourPLAYstatementsonlyplayedwholenotes.Addnotesofdiffe
rentdurationbyplacingcontrolcharactersinyouPLAYstringasfollows:
70PLAY"MV2O6T0U7X0HCDQEFIGASB"
Line70PLAYsvoice2inoctave6atvolumelevel7withtheredefined
pianoenvelope(0)onandfilterturnedoff.ThisstatementPLAYsthenote
CandDashalfnotes,EandFasquarternotes,GandAaseighthnotes
andBasasixteenthnote.Noticethedifferencebetweenthepianoenvelope
inline40andtheredefinedpianoenvelopeinline70.Line40actually
soundsmorelikeapianothanline70.
YoucanPLAYsharp,flatanddottednotesbyprecedingthenoteswithin
quoteswiththefollowingcharacters:
#Sharp(halfatonehigher).
$Flat(halfatonelower).
.Dotted(halfadurationlonger).
Adottednoteplaysoneandahalftimesthedurationofanotethatisnot
dotted.
Nowtryaddingsharp,flatanddottednoteswiththisstatement:
80PLAY"MV1O4T4U8X0.HCDQ#EFI$GA.S#B"
Line80PLAYsvoice1inoctave4atvolumelevel8withthefluteenvelope
turnedonandthefilterturnedoff.ItalsoPLAYsCandDasdottedhalf
notes,EandFassharpquarternotes,GandAasflateighthnotesandB
asasharpdottedsixteenthnote.Youcanaddrests(R)atanyplacewithin
yourPLAYstring.
Upuntilnowyourstatementexampleshaveleftthefilteroffwithinthe
soundsynthesizerandhavenotrealizedthetruepowerbehindit.Nowthat
youhavedigestedmostofthesoundandmusicstatementsandtheSIDcon
trolcharacters,moveontothenextsectiontolearnhowtoenhanceyour
musicalqualitywiththeFILTERstatement.
7.3.2.4TheSIDFilter
OnceyouhaveselectedtheENVELOPE,ADSR,VOLumeandTEMPO,usetheFILTER
toperfectyoursynthesizedsounds.Inyourprogram,theFILTERstatement
willprecedethePLAYstatement.Firstyoushouldbecomecomfortablewith
generatingthesoundandworryaboutFILTERinglast.SincetheSIDchiphas
onlyonefilter,itappliestoallthreevoices.Yourcomputerizedtunes
willplaywithoutFILTERing,buttotakefulladvantageofyourmusicsyn
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thesizer,usetheFILTERstatementtoincreasethesharpnessandqualityof
thesound.
Inthefirstparagraphofthissection(TheCharacteristicsofSound)we
definedasoundasasoundwavetraveling(oscilating)throughtheairata
particularrate.Therateatwhichasoundoscillatesiscalledthewave's
frequency.Recallthatasoundwaveismadeupofanoverallfrequencyand
accompanyingharmonics,whicharemultiplesoftheoverallfrequency.See
Figure72.Theaccompanyingharmonicsgivethesounditstimbre,thequa
litiesofthesoundwhicharedeterminedbythewaveform.Thefilterwithin
theSIDchipgivesyoutheabilitytoaccentandeliminatetheharmonicsof
awaveformandchangeitstimbre.
TheSIDchipfilterssoundsinthreeways:lowpass,highpassandband
passfiltering.Thesefiltersareadditive,meaningyoucanusemorethan
onefilteratatime.Thisisdiscussedinthenextsection.Lowpassfil
tersoutfrequenciesaboveacertainlevelyouspecify,calledthecutoff
frequency.Thecutofffrequencyisthedividinglinethatmarkstheboun
deryofwhichfrequencylevelwillbeplayedandwhichwillnot.Inlow
passfiltering,theSIDchipplaysallfrequenciesbelowthecutoff
frequencyandfiltersoutthefrequenciesaboveit.Asthenameimplies,
thelowfrequenciesareallowedtopassthroughthefilterandhighones
arenot.Thelowpassfilterproducesfull,solidsounds.SeeFigure77.
|
AMOUNT|+
PASSED|\
|\
|\
+|
FREQUENCY
Figure77.LowpassFilter.
Conversly,thehighpassfilterallowsallfrequenciesabovethecutoff
frequencytopassthroughthechip.Alltheonesbelowitarefilteredout.
SeeFigure78.Thehighpassfilterproducestinny,hollowsounds.
|
AMOUNT|+
PASSED|/
|/
|/
+|
FREQUENCY
Figure78.HighpassFilter.
Thebandpassfilterallowsarangeoffrequenciespartiallyaboveand
belowthecutofffrequencytopassthroughtheSIDchip.Allotherfrequen
ciesaboveandbelowthebandsurroundingthecutofffrequencyarefiltered
out.SeeFigure79.
|
AMOUNT|+
PASSED|/\
|/\
|/\
+|
FREQUENCY
Figure79.BandpassFilter.
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7.3.2.5TheFILTERStatement
TheFILTERstatementspecifiesthecutofffrequency,thetypeoffilter
beingusedandtheresonance.Theresonanceisthepeakingeffectofthe
soundwavefrequencyasitapproachesthecutofffrequency.Theresonance
determinesthesharpnessandclearnessofasound:thehigherthereso
nance,thesharperthesound.
ThisistheformatoftheFILTERstatement:
FILTERcf,lp,bp,hp,res
Here'swhattheparametersmean:
cfCutofffrequency(02047)
lpLowpassfilter(0=off,1=on)
bpBandpassfilter(0=off,1=on)
hpHighpassfilter(0=off,1=on)
resResonance(015)
Youcanspecifythecutofffrequencytobeanyvaluebetween0and2047.
Turnonthelowpassfilterbyspecifyinga1asthesecondparameterin
theFILTERstatement.Turnonthebandpassfilterbyspecifyinga1asthe
thirdparameterandenablethehighpassfilterwitha1inthefourth
parameterposition.Turnoffanyofthethreefiltersbyplacinga0inthe
respectivepositionofthefilteryouwanttodisable.Youcanenableor
disableone,twoorallthreeofthefiltersatthesametime.
NowthatyouhavesomebackgroundontheFILTERstatement,addthislineto
yoursoundprogram,butdonotRUNtheprogramyet:
45FILTER1200,1,0,0,10
Line45setsthecutofffrequencyat1200,turnsonthelowpassfilter,
disablesthehighpassandbandpassfiltersandassignsa10tothereso
nancelevel.NowgobackandturnthefilteroninyourPLAYstatementsby
changingalltheX0controlcharacterstoX1.Resetthesoundchipbypres
singthe{run/stop}and{restore}keysandRUNyoursoundprogramagain.
Noticethedifferencebetweenthewaythenotessoundandhowtheysounded
withoutthefilter.Changeline45to:
45FILTER1200,0,1,0,10
Thenewline45turnsoffthelowpassfilterandenablesthebandpassfil
ter.Press{run/stop}and{restore}andRUNyoursoundprogramagain.
Noticethedifferencebetweenthelowpassandbandpassfilters.Change
line45againto:
45FILTER1200,0,0,1,10
ResetthesoundchipandRUNyourexampleprogramagain.Noticethediffe
rencebetweenthehighpassfilterandthelowpassandbandpassfilters.
Experimentwithdifferentcutofffrequencies,resonancelevelsandfilters
toperfectthemusicandsoundinyouownprograms.
7.3.3TyingyourMusicProgramTogether
Yourfirstmusicalprogramiscomplete.Nowyoucanprogramyourfavorite
songs.Let'stieallthecomponentstogether.Here'stheprogramlisting.
Don'tbealarmed,thisisthesameprogramyoubuiltinthissectionexcept
theprintstatementsareaddedsoyouknowwhichprogramlinesarebeing
played.
10ENVELOPE0,5,9,2,2,2,1700
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15VOL8
20TEMPO10
25PRINT"LINE30"
30PLAY"CDEFGAB"
35FILTER1200,0,0,1,10
40PRINT"LINE45FILTEROFF"
45PLAY"V2O5T7U5X0CDEFGAB"
50PRINT"SAMEASLINE45FILTERON"
85PLAY"V2O6T0U7X0HCDQEFIGASB"
95PLAY"V2O6T0U7X1HCDQEFIGASB"
105PLAY"V1O4T4U8X0H.CDQ#EFI$GAS.B"
115PLAY"V1O4T4U8X1H.CDQ#EFI$GAS.B"
Line10,theENVELOPEstatement,specifiestheenvelopeforthepiano(0),
whichsetstheattackto5,decayto9,sustainto2andreleaseto2.It
alsoselectsthevariablepulsewaveform(2),withapulsewidthof1700.
Line15setstheVOLumeto8.Line20choosestheTEMPOtobe10.
Line35FILTERsthenotesthatareplayedinlines30to115.Itsetsthe
FILTERcutofffrequencyto1200.Inaddition,line35turnsoffthelow
passandbandpassfilterswiththetwozerosfollowingthecutofffrequen
cy(1200).Thehighpassfilteristurnedonwiththe1followingthetwo
zeros.Theresonaceissetto10bythelastparameterintheFILTER
statement.
Line30PLAYsthenotesC,D,E,F,G,A,Binthatorder.Line45PLAYs
thesamenotesasline30,butitspecifiestheSIDcontrolcharacterU5as
volumelevel5,V2asvoice2andO5asoctave5.Remember,theSIDcontrol
charactersallowyoutochangethesynthesizercontrolswithinastringand
exercisethemostcontroloverthesynthesizer.ThecontrolcharacterT7
selectstheorganenvelope.Line65specifiesthecontrolcharactersU7for
volumelevel7,V3forvoice3,O6foroctave6,T6fortheharpsichord
envelopeandX0toturnoffthefilter.Line65PLAYsthesamenotesas
line30and45,butinadifferentvolume,voice,octaveandinstrument
envelope.
Line85hasthesamevolume,voice,octaveandenvelopeasline65,andit
specifieshalfnotesforthenotesCandD,quarternotesforthenotesE
andF,eighthnotesforthenotesGandAandasixteenthnotefortheB
note.Line105setsthevolumeat8,voice1,octave4,fluteenvelope(4)
andturnsoffthefilter.ItalsospecifiestheCandDnotesasdotted
halfnotes,EandFassharpquarternotes,GandAasflateighthnotes
andBasadottedsixteenthnote.Line115isthesameasline105,but
withthefilterturnedon.
7.3.4AdvancedFiltering
EachofthepreviousFILTERingexamplesusedonlyonefilteratatime.
YoucancombinetheSIDchip'sthreefilterswitheachothertoachieve
differentfilteringeffects.Forexample,youcanenablethelowpassand
highpassfiltersatthesametimetoformanotchrejectfilter.Anotch
rejectfilterallowsthefrequenciesbelowandabovethecutofftopass
throughtheSIDchip,whilefrequenciesclosetothecutofffrequencyare
filtered.SeeFigure710foragraphicalrepresentationofanotchreject
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filter.
|
AMOUNT|++
PASSED|\/
|\/
|+
+|
FREQUENCY
Figure710.NotchRejectFilter.
Youcanalsoaddeitherthelowpassorhighpassfiltertothebandpass
filtertoobtaininterestingeffects.Bymixingthebandpassfilterwith
thelowpassfilter,youcanselectthebandoffrequenciesbeneaththe
cutofffrequencyandbelow.Therestarefilteredout.
Bymixingthebandpassandthehighpassfilters,youcanselecttheband
offrequenciesabovethecutofffrequencyandhigher.Allfrequenciesbelow
thecutofffrequencyarefilteredout.
Experimentwiththedifferentcombinationsoffilterstoseeallthedif
ferenttypesofaccentsyoucanplaceonyourmusicalnotesandsound
effects.Thefiltersaredesignedtoperfectthesoundscreatedbyother
componentsoftheSIDchip.Onceyouhavecreatedthemusicalnotesor
soundeffectswiththeSIDchip,gobackandaddFILTERingtoyourprograms
tomakethemascrispandcleanaspossible.
Nowyouhavealltheinformationyouneedtowriteyourownmusicalpro
gramsinCommodore128BASIC.Experimentwiththedifferentwaveforms,ADSR
settings,TEMPOsandFILTERing.Lookinabookofsheetmusicandenterthe
notesfromamusicalscaleinsequencewithinaplaystring.Accentthe
notesinthestringwiththeSIDcontrolcharacters.Youcancombineyour
Commodore128MusicSynthesizerwithC128modegraphicstomakeyourown
videosor"movies",completewithsoundtracks.
7.4CODINGASONGFROMSHEETMUSIC
Thissectionprovidesasamplepieceofsheetmusicandillustrateshoeto
decodenotesfromamusicalstaffandtranslatethemintoaformtheCom
modore128canunderstand.Thisexerciseissubstantiallyfasterandeasier
ifyouknowhowtoreadmusic.However,youdon'thavetobeamusicianto
beabletoplaythetuneonyourCommodore128.Forthoseofyouwhocannot
readmusic,Figure711showshowatypicalmusicalstaffisarrangedand
howthenotesonthestaffarerelatedtothekeysonapiano.
******+****+******+****+******+****+**
******|****|******|M****|******|****|**
******|****|******|i****|******|****|**
|||||||||||d|||||||||||
||||||||||||||||||||||
|G|A|B|C|D|E|F|G|A|B|C|D|E|F|G|A|B|C|D|E|F|
++++++++++++++++++++++
::::::::::^::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::
[+o+
[|:::::::::::::::::::o|
[+o+
[|:::::::::::::::::o|
[+o+
[|:::::::::::::::o|
[+G:o+
[|:::::::::::::o|
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[+o+
[::::::::::vo
[::::::::::o
[:::::::::o
[+o+
[|:::::::o|
[+F:o+
[|:::::o|
[+o+
[|:::o|
[+o+
[|:o|
[+o+
Middle
C
Figure711.MusicalStaff.
Figure712isanexcerptfromacompositiontitledInvention13(Inventio
13inItalian),byJohannSebastianBach.Althoughthiscompositionwas
writtenafewhundredyearsago,itcanbeplayedandenjoyedonmostmo
derncomputersynthesizers,suchastheSIDchip,intheCommodore128.
HerearetheopeningmeasuresofInvention13.
[IMAGEISMISSING]
Figure712.PartofBach'sInvention13.
ThebestwaytostartcodingasongintoyourCommodore128isbybreaking
downthenotesdownintointermediatecode.Writedowntheupperstaff
notesonapieceofpaper.Nowwritedownthenotesforthelowerstaff.
Precedethenotevalueswithadurationcode.Forinstance,precedean
eighthnotewithan8,precedeasixteenthnotewitha16andsoon.Next,
separatethenotessothenotesontheupperstaffforonemeasureare
propertionalintimewiththenotesforonemeasureonthelowerstaff.
Ifthemusicalcompositionhasathirdstaff,youwouldseparateitsothe
durationisproportionaltothetwootherupperstaffs.Oncethenotesfor
allthestaffsareseparatedintoequaldurations,aseparatededicated
voicewouldplayeachnoteforaparticularstaff.Forexample,voice1
wouldplaytheupperstaff,voice2willplaythesecondstaffandvoice3
wouldplaytheloweststaffifitexisted.
Let'ssaytheupperstaffbeginswithastringoffoureighthnotes.Inad
dition,saythelowerstaffbeginswithastringofeightsixteenthnotes.
Sinceaeighthnoteisproportionalintimetotwosixteenthnotes,sepa
ratethenotesasshowninFigure713.
V1=8A8B8C8C
V2=16D16E16F16G16A16B16C16D
Figure713.SynchronizingNotesforTwoVoices.
Sincethesynchronizationandtiminginamusicalcompositioniscritical,
youmustmakesurethenotesintheupperstaffforvoice1,forexample,
areintimeagreementwiththenotesinthelowerstaffforvoice2.The
firstnoteintheupperstaffinFigure712isanAeighthnote.Thefirst
twonotesforvoice2areDandEsixteenthnotes.Inthiscase,youmust
enterthevoice1eighthnoteinthePLAYstringfirst,thenfollowthe
voice2sixteenthnotesimmediatelyafterit.Tocontinuetheexample,the
secondnoteinFigure712forvoice1(theupperstaff)isaBeighth
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note.TheBeighthnoteisequalintimetothetwosixteenthnotes,Fand
G,whichappearinthebottomstaffforvoice2.Inordertocoordinatethe
timing,entertheBeighthnoteinthestringforvoice1andfollowit
withthetwosixteenthnotesFandGforvoice2.
Asarule,alwaysstartwiththenotewiththelongerduration.For
example,ifabarstartswithaseriesoftwosixteenthnotesonthelower
staffforvoice2andtheupperstaffstartswithaneighthnoteforvoice
1,entertheeighthnoteinthestringfirstsinceitmustplayforthedu
rationwhilethetwosixteenthnotesarebeingfetchedbytheCommodore
128.Youmustgivethecomputertimetoplaythelongernotefirst,the
PLAYthenotesofshorterduration,orelsethecompositionwillnotbe
synchronized.
Here'stheprogramthatplaysInvention13.EnteritintoyourC128,SAVE
itforfutureuseandthenRUNit.
10REMINVENTION13BYJ.S.BACH
20TEMPO6
30A$="V1O4T7U8X0V2O4T7U8X0":REMV1=ORGAN,V2=PIANO
40DO
50PLAYA$
60READA$
70LOOPUNTILA$="ENDOFMUSIC"
80END
90REM****FIRSTMEASURE
100DATAV2O1IAV1O3IEV2O2QAV1O3SAO4CO3BEM
110DATAV2O2I#GV1O3SBO4DO4ICV2O2SAEM
120DATAV1O4IEV2O2SAO3CV1O3I#GV2O2SBEM
130DATAV1O4IEV2O2SBO3DM
140REM****SECONDMEASURE
150DATAV2O3ICV1O3SAEV2O2IAV1O3SAO4CM
160DATAV2O2I#GV1O3SBEV2O2IEV1O3SBO4DM
170DATAV1O4ICV2O2SAEV1O3IAV2O2SAO3CM
180DATAV1O4QRV2O2SBEBO3DM
190REM****THIRDMEASURE
200DATAV2O3ICV1O4SREV2O2IAV1O4SCEM
210DATAV2O3ICV1O3SAO4CV2O2IAV1O2SEGM
220DATAV1O3IFV2O3SDO2AV1O3IAV2O2SFAM
230DATAV1O4IDV2O2SDFV1O4IFV2O1SAO2CM
240REM****FOURTHMEASURE
250DATAV2O1IBV1O4SFDV2O2IDV1O3SBO4DM
260DATAV2O2IGV1O3SGBV2O2IBV1O3SDFM
270DATAV1O3IEV2O2SGEV1O3IGV2O2SEGM
280DATAV1O4ICV2O2SCEV1O4IEV2O1SGBM
290REM****FIFTHMEASURE
300DATAV2O1IAV1O4SECV2O2ICV1O3SAO4CM
310DATAV1O3IFV2O2SDFV1O4IDV2O1SBO2DM
320DATAV2O1IGV1O3SDBV2O1IBV1O3SGBM
330DATAV1O3IEV2O2SCEV1O4ICV2O1SAO2CM
340REM****SIXTHMEASURE
350DATAV2O1IFV1O4SCO3AV2O1IDV1O3SFAM
360DATAV1O3IDV2O1SGO2GV1O3IBV2O2SFGM
370DATAV2O1IAV1O4SCO3AV2O2I#FV1O4SCEM
380DATAV2O1IBV1O4SDO3BV2O2I#GV1O4SDFM
390REM****SEVENTHMEASURE
400DATAV2O2ICV1O4SECV2O2IAV1O4SEGM
410DATAV2O2IDV1O4SFEV2O2I$BV1O4SDCM
420DATAV2O2I#GV1O3SBO4CV2O2IFV1O4SDEM
430DATAV2O2IDV1O4SFDV2O1IBV1O4S#GDM
440REM****EIGHTHMEASURE
450DATAV2O2I#GV1O4SBDV2O2IAV1O4SCAM
460DATAV2O2IDV1O4SFDV2O2IEV1O3SBO4DM
470DATAV2O2IFV1O3S#GBV2O2I#DV1O4SCO3AM
480DATAV2O2IEV1O3SEAV2O2IEV1O3SB#GM
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490REM****NINTHMEASURE
500DATAV2O1HAV1O3SAECEO2QAM
510REM****ENDOFMUSIC****
520DATAENDOFMUSIC
Youcanusethetechniquedescribedinthissectiontocodeyourfavorite
sheetmusicandplayitonyourCommodore128.
***************************************************************************
Younowhavebeenintroducedtomostofthepowerfulnewcommandsofthe
BASIC7.0languagethatyoucanuseinC128mode.Inthefollowingsection
youwilllearntouseboth40and80columnscreendisplayswiththeCom
modore128.
SECTION8
8.Using80Columns
8.1INTRODUCTION
8.2THE40/80KEY
8.3USINGPREPACKAGED80COLUMNSOFTWARE
8.4CREATING80COLUMNPROGRAMS
8.5USING40AND80COLUMNSTOGETHER
8.1INTRODUCTION
InC128andCP/Mmodes,youcanchoosebetweena40en80columnscreen
display.Youcouldevenusebothinasingleprogram.
Eachscreensizehasspecialuses.The40columnscreenisthesamesize
theCommodore64uses.Withthe40columnscreenyoucanusetheCommodore
128'sfullgraphiccapabilities.Youcandrawcircles,graphs,sprite
characters,boxesandothershapesinhighresolutionormulticolorgraphic
modes.Youcanalsousesprites.
Ifyouareusing80columns,yougettwicethenumberofcharactersper
programline.In80columnmodeyoucanusethestandardgraphiccharacters
andcolorsavailablethroughthekeyboard.
Youcanalsowriteprogramsusingtwomonitorstotakeadvantageofboth
screendisplayformatswitheachmonitorscreenperformingdifferentas
pectsoftheprogram.Forexample,textoutputcouldbedisplayedonthe
80columnmonitorwhilegraphicsoutputcouldbeseenonthe40column
monitor.
8.2THE40/80KEY
Youcanusethe{40/80display}keytosetthescreenwidthaseither40or
80columns.Pressingthiskeywillonlyhaveaneffectwhenoneofthefol
lowingactionsistaken:
1.ThepoweristurnedON.
2.The{reset}buttonispressed.
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3.The{run/stop}and{restore}buttonsarepressedsimultaneously.
The{40/80display}keyactslikea{shiftlock}key:itlockswhenyou
pressit,anddoesnotreleaseuntilyoupressitagain.Ifthiskeyisup
(notpressed)whenoneofthethreeconditionsaboveoccurs,thescreenis
setto40columns.Ifyoupressthekeydown,causingittolock,andone
ofthethreeconditionslistedabovethenoccurs,thescreenissetto80
columns.Oncethecomputerisrunninginonescreenformat(40or80
columns),youcannotswitchtotheotherformatusingthe{40/80display}
key.Inthiscaseyoumustpressandreleasethe{esc}keyandthenpress
the{X}key.
8.3USINGPREPACKAGED80COLUMNSOFTWARE
MostCP/Mprogramsutilizean80columnscreen,asdomanyoftheother
businessapplicationpackagesyoucanuseinC128mode.Sincethewidthof
anormalprintedpageis80columns,an80columnwordprocessorcandisplay
informationonthescreenexactlyasthatinformationwillappearonpaper.
Spreadsheetprogramsoftenspecifyan80columnformat,inordertoprovide
enoughspaceforthenecessarycolumnsandcategoriesofinformation.Many
databasepackagesandtelecommunicationsprogramsalsorequireorcanuse
an80columnscreen.
8.4CREATING80COLUMNPROGRAMS
Inadditiontorunningprepackagedsoftware,the80columnscreenwidthcan
beusefulindesigningyouownprograms.You'veprobablynoticedwhathap
penswhenyoutypealinethatiswiderthan40columnsona40column
screen.Thelines"wraparound",thatis,thecontinueontothenextscreen
line.Thismaycauseconfusioninreadingtheline,andcanevenleadto
progammingerrors.An80columnscreenhelpseliminatetheseproblems.In
general,an80columnscreenallowsforaclearerscreenandbetterorgani
zation.
8.5USING40AND80COLUMNSTOGETHER
Themainadvantageof40columncompositevideoistheavailabilityofbit
mappedgraphics,while80columnsgivesyououtputforwordprocessingand
otherbusinessapplications.Ifyouhavetwomonitors,youcanwritepro
gramsthatare"shared",usingthetextfeatures80columnsaffordsyouand
thegraphicsof40columns.Aspecialcommand(GRAPHIC1,1)canbeused
withinaprogramtotransfertheexecutionofgraphicscommandstothe40
columndisplay.Ifyouhaveadualmonitor(onethatcandisplayboth40
and80columnsformat)youcanplaceGRAPHIC1,1statementsinyourprogram
sothatgraphicswillbeoutputin40columnscreenformat.Inorderto
viewthegraphicoutput,however,youwillneedtochangethevideoswitch
onthemonitorto40columns.Ifyouwriteaprogramlikethis,itmight
beagoodideatoincludeonscreendirectionstotheusertochangethe
videoswitch.
Forexample,youmightwriteaprogramwhichaskedtheusertoinputdata,
thencreateabargraphbasedontheuser'sinput.Themessage"CHANGETO
40COLUMNTOVIEWGRAPH"wouldtelltheusertoswitchmodesandseethe
results.
Asnotedpreviously,youcanswitchbetween80and40columnformatsafter
powerup,withthe{escx}sequence.
Thefollowingexampleshowshowdualscreenscanbeusedwithinaprogram:
10GRAPHIC5,1:SCNCLR:REMSWITCHTO80COLUMNAND
CLEARIT
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20PRINT"STARTIN40COLUMNBYSELECTINGTHECOMPOSITEVIDEO"
30PRINT"INPUTOFYOURDUALMONITOR."
40PRINT
50PRINT"PRESSTHERETURNKEYWHENREADY."
60GETKEYA$:IFA$<>CHR$(13)THEN60
70GRAPHIC2,1:REMSELECTSPLITSCREENMODE
80CHAR1,8,18,"BITMAP/TEXTSPLITSCREEN"
90FORI=70TO220STEP20:CIRCLE1,I,50,30,30:NEXTI
100PRINT
110PRINT"SWITCHTO80COLUMNBYSELECTINGTHE"
120PRINT"RGBIVIDEOINPUTOFYOURDUALMONITOR,"
130PRINT"THENPRESSTHERETURNKEYWHENREADY."
150GRAPHIC5,1:REMSWITCHOUTPUTTOTHE80
COLUMN
160FORJ=1TO10
170PRINT"YOUARENOWIN80COLUMNTEXTMODE."
180NEXTJ:PRINT
190PRINT"NOWSWITCHBACKTO40COLUMNOUTPUT."
200PRINT"PRESSTHERETURNKEYWHENREADY."
220GRAPHIC0,1:REMSWITCHOUTPUTTOTHE40
COLUMN
230PRINT
240FORJ=1TO10
250PRINT"YOUARENOWIN40COLUMNTEXTOUTPUT."
260NEXTJ
270END
Eachscreendisplayformatofferscertainadvantages;yetthetwotypesof
displayscanbecombinedinaprogramtocomplementeachother.Usinga40
columnscreen,youcangetthefullpowerofadvancedBASICgraphics.The
80columndisplaygivesyoumorespaceforyourownprograms.Inaddition,
itletsyourunthewidevarietyofsoftwaredesignedtorunonan80
columnscreen.
***************************************************************************
Thissectionofthischapterhaveintroducedyoutothemanyfeaturesand
capabilitiesprovidedbytheCommodore128inC128mode.Thefollowing
chaptertellsyouhowtousetheCommodore128inC64mode.
CHAPTER
3
USINGC64MODE
SECTION9
9.UsingtheKeyboardinC64Mode
9.1USINGBASIC2.0
9.2KEYBOARDCHARACTERSETS
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9.3USINGTHETYPEWRITERSTYLEKEYS
9.4USINGTHECOMMANDKEYS
9.5MOVINGTHECURSORINC64MODE
9.6PROGRAMMINGFUNCTIONKEYSINC64MODE
9.1USINGBASIC2.0
TheentireBASIC2.0languagebuiltintotheCommodore64computerhasbeen
incorporatedintotheBASIC7.0languageoftheCommodore128.Youcanuse
BASIC2.0commandsinbothC128andC64modes.RefertoSections3and4in
Chapter2foradescriptionofthesecommands.
9.2KEYBOARDCHARACTERSETS
InthekeyboardillustrationinSection3theoutlinedkeyareascontainthe
keysthatcanbeusedinC64Mode.ThekeyboardinC64Modehasthesametwo
characterstatesasinC128Mode:
Uppercase/graphiccharacterset
Upper/lowercasecharacterset
WhenyouenterC64Mode,thekeyboardisintheuppercase/graphiccharac
terset,sothateverythingyoutypeisincapitalletters.InC64Modeyou
canonlyuseonecharactersetatatime.Toswitchbackandforthbetween
charactersets,pressthe{shift}keyandthe{C=}key(theCOMMODOREkey)
atthesametime.
9.3USINGTHETYPEWRITERSTYLEKEYS
AsinC128Mode,youcanusethetypewriterstylekeysinC64Modetotype
bothuppercaseletters(capitals)andlowercaseletters(smallletters).
Youcanalsotypethenumeralsshowninthetoprowonthemainkeyboard.
Inaddition,youcantypethegraphicsymbolsonthefrontofthekeys.
9.4USINGTHECOMMANDKEYS
MostCOMMANDkeys(i.e.thekeysthatsendmessagestothecomputer,like
{return},{shift},{ctrl},etc.)workthesameinC64Modeastheydoin
C128Mode.
TheonlydifferenceisthatinC64Mode,youcanonlymovethecursorby
usingthetwo{crsr}keysatthebottomrightcornerofthemainkeyboard.
InC128Mode,youcanalsousethefourarrowkeyslocatedjustabovethe
toprightsideofthemainkeyboard.
9.5MOVINGTHECURSORINC64MODE
InC64Mode,youusetwo{crsr}keysonthemainkeyboardandthe{shift}
keytomovethecursor,asdescribedinSection3.
9.6PROGRAMMINGFUNCTIONKEYSINC64MODE
Thefourkeystotherightsideofthekeyboard,justabovethenumeric
keypad,arecalledfunctionkeys.ThekeysaremarkedF1,F3,F5andF7on
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thetopsandF2,F4,F6andF8onthefronts.Thesekeyscanbeprogrammed
thatis,theycanbeinstructedtoperformaspecifictaskorfunction.
Forthisreasonthesekeysareoftencalledprogrammablefunctionkeys.
Youmustholddownthe{shift}keytoperformthefunctionsassociatedwith
themarkingsonthefrontofthekeysthatis,F2,F4,F6andF8.There
fore,thesekeysaresometimescalledtheSHIFTedprogrammablefunction
keys.
ThefunctionkeysinC64Modedonothaveaprintedcharacterassignedto
them.Theydo,however,haveCHR$codesassigned.Infact,eachofthemhas
twoCHR$codesoneforwhenyoupressthekeybyitself,andoneforwhen
youpressthekeywhileholdingdownthe{shift}key.Togettheeven
numberedfunctionkeys,holddownthe{shift}keywhilepressingthefunc
tionkey.Forexample,toget{f2},holddown{shift}andpress{f1}.
TheCHR$codesfortheF1F8keysrangefrom133to140.However,thecodes
arenotassignedtothekeysinnumericalorder.Thekeysandtheircorres
pondingCHR$codesareasfollows:
{f1}CHR$(133)
{f2}CHR$(137)
{f3}CHR$(134)
{f4}CHR$(138)
{f5}CHR$(135)
{f6}CHR$(139)
{f7}CHR$(136)
{f8}CHR$(140)
Youcanusethefunctionkeysinyourprograminseveralways.Todothis,
youneedtousetheGETstatement.(Seeparagraph4.3.2ofSection4fora
descriptionoftheGETstatement.)Asanexample,theprogrambelowprepares
the{f1}keytoprintamessageonthescreen.
10?"PRESSF1TOCONTINUE"
20GETA$:IFA$=""THEN20
30IFA$<>CHR$(133)THEN20
40?"YOUHAVEPRESSEDF1"
Lines20and30domostoftheworkinthisprogram.Line20makesthecom
puterwaituntilakeyispressedbeforeexecutinganymoreoftheprogram.
NotethatwhenthecommandimmediatelyafterTHENisaGOTO,onlytheline
numberisnecessary.AlsonotethataGOTOcommandcanGOTOthesameline
itison.Line30tellsthecomputertogobackandwaitforanotherkeyto
bepressedunlessthe{f1}keyhasbeenpressed.
SECTION10
10.StoringandReusingYourProgramsinC64Mode
10.1FORMATTINGADISKINC64MODE
10.2THESAVECOMMAND
10.2.1SAVEingonDisk
10.3THELOADANDRUNCOMMANDS
10.3.1LOADingandRUNningfromDisk
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10.3.2LOADingandRUNningfromCassette
10.4OTHERDISKRELATEDCOMMANDS
10.4.1VerifyingaProgram
10.4.2DisplayingYourDiskDirectory
10.4.3InitializingaDiskDrive
Onceyouhaveeditedaprogram,youwillprobablywanttostoreit
permanentlysothatyouwillbeabletorecallanduseitatsomelater
time.TodothisyouneedeitheraCommodorediskdriveortheCommodore
Datassette.
10.1FORMATTINGADISKINC64MODE
Tostoreprogramsonanew(orblank)disk,youmustfirstpreparethedisk
toreceivedata.Thisiscalledformattingthedisk.Makesurethatyou
turnonthediskdrivebeforeinsertinganydisk.
Toformatablankdisk,inC64Mode,youtypethiscommand:
OPEN15,8,15:PRINT#15,"N0:NAME,ID"{return}
InplaceofNAME,typeadisknameofyourchoice;youcanuseupto16
characterstoidentifythedisk.InplaceofID,typeatwocharactercode
ofyourchoice(suchasW2or10).
Thecursordisappearsduringtheformattingprocess.Whenthecursorblinks
again,typethefollowingcommand:
CLOSE15{return}
NOTE:OnceadiskisformattedinC64orC128mode,thatdiskcanbeused
ineithermode.
10.2THESAVECOMMAND
YoucanusetheSAVEcommandtostoreyourprogramsondiskortape.
10.2.1SAVEingonDisk
IfyouhaveaCommodoresinglediskdrive,youcanstoreyourprogramon
diskbytyping:
SAVE"PROGRAMNAME",8{return}
The{8}indicatestothecomputerthatyourareusingadiskdrivetostore
yourprogram.
ThesamerulesapplyforthePROGRAMNAMEwhetheryouareusingdiskor
tape.ThePROGRAMNAMEcanbeanythingyouwantittobe.Youcanuselet
ters,numbersand/orsymbolsupto16charactersinall.Notethatyou
mustenclosethePROGRAMNAMEinquotationmarks.Thecursoronyourcom
puterdisappearswhiletheprogramisbeingSAVEd,butitreturnswhenthe
processiscompleted.
IfyouareusingaDatassettetostoreyourprogram,insertablanktapein
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therecorder,rewindthetape(ifnecessary)andtype:
SAVE"PROGRAMNAME"{return}
10.3THELOADANDRUNCOMMANDS
OnceaprogramhasbeenSAVEd,youcanLOADitbackintothecomputer's
memoryandRUNitanytimeyouwish.
10.3.1LOADingandRUNningfromDisk
Toloadyourprogramfromadisk,type:
LOAD"PROGRAMNAME",8{return}
Again,the{8}indicatestothecomputerthatyouareworkingwithadisk
drive.
ToRUNtheprogram,typeRUNandpress{return}
10.3.2LOADingandRUNningfromCassette
ToLOADyourprogramfromcassettetape,type:
LOAD"PROGRAMNAME"{return}
Ifyoudonotknowthenameoftheprogram,youcantype:
LOAD{return}
andthenextprogamonthetapewillberetrieved.
YoucanusethecounterontheDatassettetoidentifythestartingposition
oftheprograms.Then,whenyouwanttoretrieveaprogram,simplywindthe
tapeforwardfrom000totheprogram'sstartlocation,andtype:
LOAD{return}
Inthiscase,youdonothavetospecifythePROGRAMNAME;yourprogram
willloadautomaticallybecauseitisthenextprogramonthetape.
NOTE:DuringtheLOADprocess,theprogrambeingLOADedisnoterased
fromthetape;itissimplycopiedintothecomputer.However,LOADing
aprogramautomaticallyerasesanyBASICprogramthatmayhavebeenin
thecomputer'smemory.
10.4OTHERDISKRELATEDCOMMANDS
10.4.1VerifyingaProgram
Toverifythataprogramhasbeencorrectlysavedorloaded,type:
VERIFY"PROGRAMNAME",8{return}
Iftheprograminthecomputerisidenticaltotheoneonthedisk,the
screendisplaywillrespondwiththeletters{OK}.
TheVERIFYcommandalsoworksfortapeprograms.Youtype:
VERIFY"PROGRAMNAME"{return}
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Notethatyoudonotenterthecommaandthenumber8,since8indicates
thatyouareworkingwithadiskprogram.
10.4.2DisplayingYourDiskDirectory
Toseealistoftheprogramsonyourdisk,firsttype:
LOAD"$",8{return}
Thecursordisappearsduringthisprocess.Whenthecursorreappears,type:
LIST{return}
Alistoftheprogramsonyourdiskthenwillbedisplayed.Notethatwhen
youloadthedirectory,anyprogramthatwasinmemoryiserased.
10.4.3InitializingaDiskDrive
Ifthediskdrive'sreadylightisblinking,itindicatesadiskerror.You
canrestorethediskdrivetotheconditionitwasinbeforetheerroroc
curredbyusingaprocedurecalledINTITIALIZING.Toinitializeadrive,
youtype:
OPEN1,8,15,"I":CLOSE1{return}
Ifthelightisstillblinking,removethediskandturnthedriveoff,
thenon.
ForfurtherinformationonSAVEingandLOADingyourprograms,refertoyour
diskdriveorDatassettemanual.AlsoconsulttheLOADandSAVEcommand
descriptionsintheChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.
CHAPTER
4
USINGC/PMMODE
SECTION11
11.IntroductiontoCP/M3.0
11.1WHATCP/M3.0IS
11.2WHATYOUNEEDTORUNCP/M3.0
11.3WHATISONYOURCP/M3.0DISK
11.3.1CP/M+.SYS
11.3.2CCP.COM
11.3.3.COMFiles
11.3.4OtherFiles
11.4GETTINGSTARTEDWITHCP/M3.0
11.4.1LoadingorBootingCP/M3.0
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11.4.2TheOpeningCP/MScreenDisplay
11.5THECOMMANDLINE
11.5.1TypesofCommands
11.5.2HowCP/MReadsCommandLines
11.6HOWTOCOPYYOURCP/M3.0DISK
11.6.1FormattingaDisk
11.6.2CopyingFiles
11.7LANGUAGESANDAPPLICATIONSOFTWARE
11.7.1WhatToBuy
11.7.2HowToInstallItonYourC128
11.1WHATCP/M3.0IS
CP/MisaproductofDigitalResearch,Inc.TheversionofCP/Musedonthe
Commodore128isCP/MPlusVersion3.0.Inthischapter,CP/Misgenerally
referredtoasCP/M3.0,orsimplyCP/M.ThischaptersummarizesCP/Mon
theCommodore128.FordetailedinformationonCP/M3.0,followthe
instructionsonthecouponenclosedintheboxinwhichtheCommodore128
issupplied.
CP/M3.0isapopularoperatingsystemformicrocomputers.Asanoperating
system,CP/M3.0managesandsupervisesyourcomputer'sresources,inclu
dingmemoryanddiskstorage,theconsole(screenandkeyboard),printer,
andcommunicationdevices.CP/M3.0alsomanagesinformationstoredindisk
files.CP/M3.0cancopyfilesfromadisktoyourcomputer'smemory,orto
aperipheraldevicesuchasaprinter.Todothis,CP/M3.0placesvarious
programsinmemoryandexecutestheminresponsetocommandsyouenterat
yourconsole.Onceinmemory,aprogramexecutesasetofstepsthat
instructyourcomputertoperformacertaintask.
YoucanuseCP/Mtocreateyourownprograms,oryoucanchoosefromthe
widevarietyofavailableCP/M3.0applicationprograms.
11.2WHATYOUNEEDTORUNCP/M3.0
ThegeneralhardwarerequirementsforCP/M3.0areacomputercontaininga
Z80microprocessor,aconsoleconsistingofakeyboardandadisplay
screen,andatleastonefloppydiskdrive.ForCP/M3.0ontheCommodore
128PersonalComputer,theZ80microprocessorisbuiltin;theconsole
consistsofthefullCommodore128keyboard,andan80columnmonitor;and
thediskdriveisthenewCommodore1571fastdiskdrive.Inaddition,
thereiseitheroneortwoCP/Mdiskspackedwiththecomputer.IftwoCP/M
disksaresupplied,onecontainstheCP/M3.0systemandanextensiveHELP
utilityprogram,andtheothercontainsanumberofotherutilityprograms.
IfoneCP/Mdiskissupplied,thesystemandHELPutilityareononeside
ofthatdiskandtheutilityprogramsareontheother.
Note:AlthoughCP/Mcanbeusedwitha40columnmonitor,thedisplay
is80columnbutwithonly40columnsdisplayedatonetime.Toview
all80columnsofthedisplay,youmustscrollthescreen
horizontallybypressingthe{ctrl}keyandtheappropriatecursor
key({crsrleft}or{crsrright}).
11.3WHATISONYOURCP/M3.0DISK
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11.3.1CP/M+.SYS
ThisisthemainCP/MPlussystemfile.Itcontainsallpartsofthesystem
thatremainpermanentlyresidentinmemory:theBasicInput/OutputSystem
(BIOS)whichloadsintothetopofmemory,theBasicDiskOperatingSystem
(BDOS)whichloadsintomemoryimmediatelybelowBIOS,andtheSystemPara
meterswhichloadintothebottompageofmemory.
11.3.2CCP.COM
OnbootingCP/MtheConsoleCommandProcessor(CCP)isloadedintomemory
immediatelybelowtheBDOS.Theremainingmemory,belowCCPandabovepage
0,isknownastheTransientProgramArea(TPA)andiswhereapplications
areloadedto.CCPistheprogramwhichprocessesanyinput(usuallyen
teredfromthekeyboard)inresponsetothesystemprompt(A>).Itcontains
6builtincommands(listedinTable141),andalsosupportsthe14console
editingcommands(listedinTable131).
Anywordenteredinresponsetothesystempromptwhichisnotoneofthe
builtincommandsistreatedbyCCPasatransientcommand,soCCPattempts
tofindandexecuteafilenamedasthatwordwiththe.COMextension.If
itdoesnotfindsuchafileonthecurrentlyloggeddisk,itdisplaysthe
wordfollowedbyaquestionmarkthenbringsbackthesystemprompt.
Ifmorethanonewordisenteredinresponsetothesystemprompt,all
wordsafterthefirstaretreatedasparameterstobepassedtothetran
sientcommand.
Alanguageorapplicationprogramisloadedandrunbyinvokingitasifit
wasacommand.AllCP/Mprogramsincludea.COMfile
WHATISONYOURCP/M3.0DISK
showb:
B:RW,Space336k
A>dir[full]
ScanningDirectory...
SortingDirectory...
DirectoryforDriveA:User0
NameBytesRecsAttributesNameBytesRecsAttrib.
CCP.COM4k25DirRWCPM+.SYS23k182DirRW
DIR.COM15k114DirRWFORMAT.COM5k35DirRW
HELP.COM7k56DirRWHELP.HLP83k664DirRW
KEYFIG.COM10k75DirRWKEYFIG.HLP9k72DirRW
PIP.COM9k68DirRW
TotalBytes=165kTotalRecords=1291FilesFound=9
Total1kBlocks=165Used/MaxDirEntriesForDriveA:15/64
A>dirb:[full]
ScanningDirectory...
SortingDirectory...
DirectoryforDriveB:User0
NameBytesRecsAttributesNameBytesRecsAttrib.
DATE.COM8k25DirRWDATEC.ASM2k5DirRW
DATEC.RSX2k3DirRWDEVICE.COM16k58DirRW
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DIR.COM30k114DirRWDIRLBL.RSX4k12DirRW
DUMP.COM2k8DirRWED.COM20k73DirRW
ERASE.COM8k29DirRWGENCOM.COM30k116DirRW
GET.COM14k51DirRWINITDIR.COM64k250DirRW
PATCH.COM6k19DirRWPIP.COM18k68DirRW
PUT.COM14k55DirRWRENAME.COM6k23DirRW
SAVE.COM4k14DirRWSET.COM22k81DirRW
SETDEF.COM8k32DirRWSHOW.COM18k66DirRW
SUBMIT.COM12k42DirRWTYPE.COM6k24DirRW
TotalBytes=314kTotalRecords=1168FilesFound=22
Total1kBlocks=314Used/MaxDirEntriesForDriveA:23/64
11.3.3.COMFiles
Theother.COMfilesallcontaintransientcommands(listedinTable142).
HELP.COMdisplaysmessages,heldinHELP.HLP(whoseextensionindicatesit
isadatafile,notaprogramfile),abouttheC128CP/Msystemandits
commands.IfyouarenotfamiliarwithCP/Mandhavenoothermanualsor
booksaboutit,youmayfinditusefultoprintoutanyHELPyoulookat.
Pressing{ctrl}and{p}CAUSESanyscreenoutputalsotogototheprinter:
pressing{ctrl}{p}againturnsoffthisfacility.
EnterHELPforthelistofsubjectscovered,orHELPC128_CP/Mforinforma
tionspecifictothisimplementation.(Thecharacterinthemiddleof
C128_CP/Misobtainedbypressingthe{leftarrow}keyatthetopleftof
thekeyboard.)Ifyouareprintinganddonotwantpausesaftereach
screenful,thenenterHELPC128_CP/M[NOPAGE].
11.3.4OtherFiles
.ASMindicatesanAssemblersourcefile.
.RSXindicatesaResidentSystemeXtension,whichisafileautomatically
loadedbyacommandfileasandwhenitisneeded.
11.4GETTINGSTARTEDWITHCP/M3.0
Thefollowingparagraphstellyouhowtostartor"boot"CP/M3.0,howto
enterandeditthecommandline,andhowtomakebackupcopiesofyour
CP/M3.0disks.
11.4.1LoadingorBootingCP/M3.0
Loadingor"booting"CP/M3.0meansreadingacopyoftheoperatingsystem
fromyourCP/M3.0SystemDiskintoyourcomputer'smemory.
YoucanbootCP/M3.0inseveralways.Ifyourcomputerisoff,youcan
bootCP/MbyfirstturningonyourdiskdriveandinsertingtheCP/M3.0
systemdisk,andthenturningonthecomputer.CP/M3.0thenloadsautoma
tically.IfyouarealreadyinC128BASICmode,youcanbootCP/M3.0by
insertingtheCP/Msystemdiskintothedrive,typingtheBASICcommand
BOOTandthenpressing{return}.CP/M3.0thenloads.InC128mode,youcan
alsobootCP/MbyinsertingtheSystemDiskandpressingthe{reset}
button.
IfyouareinC64mode,andyouwanttoenterCP/Mmode,firstturnoffthe
computer.TheinserttheCP/MSystemDiskintothedriveandturnonthe
computer.
Caution:Alwaysmakesurethatthediskisfullyinsertedinthedrive
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beforeyouclosethedrivedoor.
InCP/M3.0ontheCommodore128,theuserhasa59KTPA(TransientProgram
Area),whichis,ineffect,userRAM.
11.4.2TheOpeningCP/MScreenDisplay
AfterCP/Misloadedintomemory,amessagesimilartothefollowingis
displayedonyourscreen:
++
|CP/M3.0OntheCommodore1283JUNE85|
|80columndisplay|
||
|A>_|
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
||
|RA0110|
++
Animportantpartoftheopeningdisplayisthefollowingtwocharacter
message:
A>
ThisistheCP/M3.0systemprompt.ThesystemprompttellsyouthatCP/M
isreadytoreadacommandenteredbyyoufromyourkeyboard.Theprompt
alsotellsyouthatdriveAisyourdefaultdrive.Thismeansthatuntil
youtellCP/Mtodootherwise,itlooksforprogramanddatafilesonthe
diskindriveA.Italsotellsyouthatyourareloggedinasuser0,sim
plybytheabsenceofanyusernumberotherthan0.
Note:InCP/MasinglediskdriveisidentifiedasdriveA.Thisisequi
valenttounit8,drive0inC128andC64modes.Usually,themaximum
numberofdrivesinCP/Misfour.Additionaldrivesareidentifiedas
drivesB,C,etc.
11.5THECOMMANDLINE
CP/M3.0performstasksaccordingtospecificcommandsthatyourtypeat
yourkeyboard.TheseCommandsappearonthescreeninwhatiscalleda
commandline.ACP/M3.0commandlineiscomposedofacommandkeywordand
anoptionalcommandtail.Thecommandkeywordidentifiesacommand(pro
gram)tobeexecuted.Thecommandtailcancontainextrainformationfor
thecommand,suchasafilenameorparameters.Thefollowingexampleshows
acommandline.
A>DIRMYFILE
Inthisexample,DIRisthecommandkeywordandMYFILEisthecommandtail.
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TosendthecommandlinetoCP/M3.0forprocessing,pressthe{return}
key.
Asyoutypecharactersatthekeyboard,theappearonyourscreen.The
cursormovestotherightasyoutype.Ifyoumakeatypingerror,press
eitherthe{inst/del}keyorCTRLHtomovethecursortotheleftand
correcttheerror.CTRListheabbreviationforthe{ctrl}key.Tospecify
acontrolcharacter,holddownthe{ctrl}keyandpresstheappropriate
letterkey.(Alistofcontrolcharactersandtheirusesisgivenin
Section13.)
Youcantypethekeywordandcommandtailinanycombinationofuppercase
andlowercaseletters.CP/M3.0interpretsalllettersinthecommandline
asbeinguppercase.
Generally,youmusttypeacommandlinedirectlyafterthesystemprompt.
However,CP/M3.0doesallowspacesbetweenthepromptandthecommand
keyword.
11.5.1TypesofCommands
CP/M3.0recognizestwodifferenttypesofcommands:builtincommandsand
transientutilitycommands.Builtincommandsexecuteprogramsthatreside
inmemoryasapartoftheCP/Moperatingsystem.Builtincommandscanbe
executedimmediately.Transientutilitycommandsarestoredondiskaspro
gramfiles.Theymustbeloadedfromdisktoperformtheirtask.Youcan
recognizetransientutilityprogramfileswhenadirectoryisdisplayedon
thescreen,becausetheirfilenamesarefollowedbyaperiod(fullstop)
andCOM(.COM).Section14presentslistsofCP/Mbuiltinandtransient
utilitycommands.
Fortransientutilities,CP/M3.0checksonlythecommandkeyword.Many
utilitiesrequireuniquecommandtails.Ifyouincludeacommandtail,CP/M
3.0passesittotheutilitywithoutcheckingit.Acommandtailcannot
containmorethan128characters.
11.5.2HowCP/MReadsCommandLines
UsetheDIRcommandtodemonstratehowCP/Mreadscommandlines.DIR,which
isanabbreviationfordirectory,tellsCP/Mtodisplayadirectoryofdisk
filesonyourscreen.TypetheDIRkeywordafterthesystemprompt,and
pressthe{return}key:
A>DIR{return}
CP/Mrespondstothiscommandbydisplayingthenamesofallthefilesthat
arestoredonwhateverdiskisindriveA.Forexample,iftheCP/Msystem
diskisinthediskdriveA,alistoffilenameslikethisappearsonyour
screen:
A:PIPCOM:EDCOM:CCPCOM:HELPCOM:HELPHLP
A:DIRCOM:CPMSYS
CP/Mrecognizesonlycorrectlyspelledcommandkeywords.Ifyoumakea
typingerrorandpress{return}beforecorrectingyourmistake,CP/M3.0
repeatsor"echoes"thecommandlinefollowedbyaquestionmark.For
example,supposeyoumistypetheDIRcommand,asinthefollowingexample:
A>DJR{return}
CP/Mreplieswith:
DJR?
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ThistellsyoutheCP/McannotfindacommandkeywordspelledDJR.Tocor
recttypingerrorslikethis,youcanusethe{inst/del}keytodeletethe
incorrectletters.Anotherwaytodeletecharactersistoholddownthe
{ctrl}keyandpress{h}tomovethecursortotheleft.CP/Mprovidesa
numberofothercontrolcharactersthathelpyoueditcommandlines.
Section13tellshowtousethecontrolcharacterstoeditcommandlines
andotherinformationyouenteratyourconsole.
DIRacceptsafilenameasacommandtail.YoucanuseDIRwithafilename
toseeifaspecificfileisonthedisk.Forexample,tocheckthatthe
fileMYFILEisonyourdisk,type:
A>DIRMYFILE{return}
CP/M3.0performsthistaskbydisplayingeitherthenameofthefileyou
specify,orthemessage:
NoFile
BesureyoutypeatleastonespaceafterDIRtoseparatethecommand
keywordfromthecommandtail.Ifyoudonot,CP/M3.0respondsasfollows:
A>DIRMYFILE{return}
DIRMYFILE?
11.6HOWTOCOPYYOURCP/M3.0DISK
BeforedoinganythingelseyoushouldbackupyourCP/Msystemdisk.This
canbedoneusingeitheroneortwodiskdrives.Ifusingtwodiskdrives
thesemaybe1541s,1571s,oroneofeach.Thebackupdiskscanbenewor
used.Youcaneitherformatnewdisks,orreformatuseddisks.Tomake
backupsusetheFORMATandPIPutilityprogramsfoundonyouCP/Msystem
disk.
1)FormatthedisketteusingtheFORMATprogram,aseitherC128single
sided(ifusinga1541)orC128doublesided(ifusinga1571).(The
C64singlesidedoptionisforformattingdiskscompatiblewiththe
CP/M2.2packageoncesoldfortheCommodore64.)
EnterthecommandFORMAT,selecttherequireddisktypewiththe
{crsrdown}key,press{return},andfollowtheonscreeninstructions.
Press{y}(Yes)or{n}(No)inresponsetothe'Doyouwanttoformat
anotherdisk'question.
2)UsethePeripheralInterchangeProgram(PIP)onthesecondsurface
oftheoriginaldisktocopyfiles.EnterPIPandtheusualsystem
prompt(A>)willbereplacedbythePIPprompt(*).
IfyouhaveasinglediskdriveusedriveAasthesourcedriveanddriveE
asthedestinationdrive.DriveEisreferredtoasavirtualdrivethat
is,itdoesnotexistasanactualpieceofhardware.Putthedisktobe
copiedfrominthedriveandenter
E:=A:*.*
(Youwillbepromptedeachtimethesourcediskandthedestinationdisk
havetobeswopped.)
Ifyouhavetwodiskdrives,putthesourcediskindriveA(whichis
device8)andthenewlyformatteddiskindriveB(device9setbyput
tingtheleftDIPswitchesonthebackofthe1571downwhilethedriveis
switchedoff)andenter
B:=A:*.*
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tocopyallthefiles.
YouroriginalCP/Mdiskisaflippyi.e.recordedas2singlesides,so
itmustbetakenoutofthedriveandturnedovertogetatthesecond
side.Thisisrequiredforuseina1541,whichisasinglesideddrive.If
youhavea1541youshouldcopythe2surfacesonto2separatedisks.How
ever,ifyouhavea1571youwillfinditconvenienttocopybothsurface
ontoastandarddoublesideddisk:aftercopyingthefirstside,turnover
theoriginaldiskandcopythesecondsideontothesamedestinationdisk
byagainenteringthecopyinstructioninresponsetothePIPprompt.
Youmaysometimeswanttomakedisksthatjusthavethesystemfileson
them.TodothisusePIPtocopythefilesCPM+.SYSandCCP.COMtothe
newlyformatteddisk.
Note:OnlydisksthatyouintendtousetobootCP/Mneedthese2
filesonthemputtingthemonotherdiskswastesspace.
Withasingledrive,enter
E:=A:CPM+.SYS
tocopythefirstfileandthen
E:=A:CCP.COM
tocopythesecondfile.
WhenyouhavefinishedPIP,press{return}toreturnfromthePIPpromptto
thesystemprompt.
AfulldescriptionofPIPcanbeobtainedbyenteringHELPPIP,HELP
PIP_OPTIONSandHELPPIP_EXAMPLES.
11.7LANGUAGESANDAPPLICATIONSOFTWARE
CP/Misjustanoperatingsystem,thatisameanstoanendnotanendin
itself.Onitsownitdoesnotdoanythinguseful.Ifyouwanttowrite
yourownprogramsyouwillneedalanguage,eitherassemblerorhighlevel,
inwhichtowritethem.Ifyouwanttoplaygamesordobusinessworkyou
willneedapplicationprograms.
11.7.1WhatToBuy
BecauseCP/Mhasbeenimplementedonalmosteverycomputereverdesigned
thatusedtheIntel8080ortheZilogZ80cpu,thereisaverylarge
amountofsoftwareavailableforrunningonCP/Msystems.Themostcompre
hensivecatalogueofcommercialsoftwareisthe'CP/MSoftwareFinder'pu
blishedforDigitalResearchbyQueCorporationandavailablethroughgood
softwareretailers(ISBN088022021X).Sinceitisnotconvenientfor
theCP/MUsersGrouptosupplyitslibraryonCommodoreformatdisks,a
selectionofpublicdomainCP/Msoftwarehasbeenmadeavailablethrough
theindependentCommodoreProductsUsersGroup(ICPUG),forwhichmember
shipapplicationformscanbeobtainedbysendingans.a.e.toMembership
Secretary,ICPUG,30BrancasterRood,NewburyPark,Ilford,IG27EP,
England.
CP/MnormallyusesModifiedFrequencyModulation(MFM)otrecordondisks.
CommodoreDOSnormallyusesGroupCodeRecording(GCR).TheCommodore1571
diskdrivecanreadboth,buttheolder1541canonlyreadGCR.Offthe
shelfCP/MsoftwarepackagesonlycomeasMFMdisks.EvenwithMFMthere
aremanydifferentformats:the1571canreaddisksformattedfor:
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EpsonQX10(512bytesectors,doublesided,
10sectorspertrack)
IBM8SS(CP/M86)(512bytesectors,singlesided,
8sectorspertrack)
IBM8DS(CP/M86)(512bytesectors,doublesided,
8sectorspertrack)
IBM9SS(CP/M86)(512bytesectors,singlesided,
9sectorspertrack)
IBM9DS(CP/M86)(512bytesectors,doublesided,
9sectorspertrack)
KayProII(512bytesectors,singlesided,
10sectorspertrack)
KayProIV(512bytesectors,doublesided,
10sectorspertrack)
OsborneDDSS(1024bytesectors,singlesided,
5sectorspertrack)
OsborneDDDS(1024bytesectors,singlesided,
5sectorspertrack)
ThereforewhenbuyingCP/Msoftwareyoumustbuyitonadiskinoneofthe
aboveformats.Also,beawarethatyourC128willrunsoftwarewrittento
runundereitherCP/M2.2orCP/MPlus(whichisthenewernameforwhat
wasoriginallyknownasversion3).However,CP/M86istheversionofCP/M
designedforuseon16bitprocessors:CP/M86softwarewillnotrunon
yourC128's8bitZ80processor,althoughthe1571drivewillletyouread
CP/M86datafiles.
Ifyouonlyhavea1541diskdriveyouwillhavetogetanysoftwareyou
buytransferredfromMFMformatto(Commodore)GCRformat.Somesoftware
retailersmaybewillingtodothisforyou,buttherewillprobablybea
copyingcharge.Alternatively,youmayfindthatyourlocalICPUGgroup
providesfacilitiestodothisatitsmeetings.
11.7.2HowToInstallItonYourC128
BecausetherearesomanydifferentcomputersusingtheCP/Moperatingsys
tem,manyCP/Mprogramshavetobeconfiguredfortheparticularhardware
onwhichtheyaretobeused.Theprocessofinstallingaprogramonyour
C128involvessettingparameterswithinthesoftware.Theprogrammanual
willdescribehowtoinstalltheprogramifthisisrequired.Mostprograms
providealistofcommonterminalswhichtheysupport.IfADM31appearsin
thislist,selectit.Ifnot,yourwillhavetodoacustominstallation.
ListedbelowaretheentriesthatshouldbemadewhenrunningWINSTALL.COM
(theinstallationprogramthatispartoftheWordstarpackage).Thesealso
providetheinformationthatwillbeneededforinstallingotherprograms,
althoughnotallpackagesaskthesamequestions.
TerminalnameCommodore128
Screensize
Screenheight24
Screenwidth80
Cursorpositioning
Functioncodesequence1Bh3Dh
Characterstobesentbetweenline
numberandcolumnnumbernone
Characterstobesentafterline
numberandcolumnnumbernone
Isthecolumnnumbersentbefore
thelinenumber?NO
Whatcharacterissenttothe
terminaltosignifyline1?20h
Whatcharacterissenttothe
terminaltosignifycolumn1?20h
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Whattypesofcodearesentto
signifylineandcolumnnumbers?SinglebyteBINARYvalue
Terminalstartup
Functioncodesequence1Bh59h1Bh1Bh1Bh60h
Terminalexit
Functioncodesequencenone
Highlighton
Functioncodesequence1Bh1Bh1Bh52h
Highlightoff
Functioncodesequence1Bh1Bh1Bh51h
ErasetoEndofLine1Bh54h
DeleteLine1Bh52h
InsertLine1Bh45h
Doesyourterminaluselastcharacter
onscreenasascrollcommand?YES
MostCommodoreprintersrequireinstallationasaStandardPrinterwithNO
CommunicationsProtocolandPrimarylistdeviceasthePrinterDriver.
Note:Thehagainstthenumbersaboveindicatethattheyarehexadecimal
numbers(usingbase16insteadofthedecimalbase10).
SECTION12
12.Files,Disks,andDrivesinCP/M3.0
12.1WHATISAFILE?
12.2CREATINGAFILE
12.3NAMINGAFILE
12.3.1FileSpecification
12.3.1.1DriveSpecifier
12.3.1.2Filename
12.3.1.3Filetype
12.3.1.4Password
12.3.1.5SampleFileSpecification
12.3.4UserNumber
12.3.5UsingWildcardCharacterstoAccessMoreThanOneFile
12.3.6ReservedCharacters
Table121.CP/MReservedCharacters.
12.3.7ReservedFiletypes
Table122.CP/M3.0ReservedFiletypes.
12.1WHATISAFILE?
OneofCP/M'smostimportanttasksistoaccessandmaintainfilesonyour
disks.FilesinCP/MarefundamentallythesameasinC128orC64modes
thatis,theyarecollectionsofinformation.However,CP/Mhandlesfiles
somewhatdifferentlythandoC128andC64modes.Thissectiondefinesthe
twotypesoffilesusedinCP/M,tellshowtocreate,name,andaccessa
file,anddescribeshowfilesarestoredonyourCP/Mdisks.
Asnotedabove,aCP/M3.0fileisacollectionofinformation.Everyfile
musthaveauniquenamebywhichCP/Midentifiesthefile.Adirectoryis
alsostoredoneachdisk.Thedirectorycontainsalistofthefilenames
storedonthatdiskandthelocationsofeachfileonthedisk.
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TherearetwokindsofCP/Mfiles:program(command)files,anddatafiles.
Aprogramfilecontainsaseriesofinstructionsthatthecomputerfollows
stepbysteptoachievesomedesiredresult.Adatafileisusuallyacol
lectionofrelatedinformation(e.g.alistofnamesandaddresses,the
inventoryofastore,theaccountingrecordsofabusiness,thethetext
ofadocument).
12.2CREATINGAFILE
ThereareseveralwaystocreateaCP/Mfile.Onewayistouseatextedi
tor.TheCP/MtexteditorEDisusedtocreateandnameafile.Youcan
alsocreateafilebycopyinganexistingfiletoanewlocation;youcan
renamethefileintheprocess.UnderCP/MyoucanusethePIPcommandto
copyandrenamefiles.Finally,someprograms(suchasMAC,aCP/Mmachine
languageprogram)createoutputfilesastheyprocessinputfiles.
TheEDandPIPcommandsaresummarizedinSection14,togetherwithother
commonlyusedCP/Mcommands.DetailsontheseandallotherCP/M3.0com
mandsmaybefoundintheCP/MPlusUser'sGuide,whichyoucanobtainby
followingtheinstructionsonthecouponenclosedintheboxinwhichthe
C128computerissupplied.
12.3NAMINGAFILE
12.3.1FileSpecification
CP/Midentifieseveryfilebyauniquefilespecification.Afilespecifi
cationcanhavefourparts:adrivespecifier,afilename,afiletype,and
apassword.Theonlymandatorypartisthefilename.
12.3.1.1DriveSpecifier
Thedrivespecifierisasingleletter(AP)followedbyacolon.Eachdisk
driveinyoursystemisassignedaletter.Whenyouincludeadrivespeci
fieraspartofthefilespecification,youaretellingCP/Mtolookfor
thefileonthediskcurrentlyinthespecifieddrive.Forexample,ifyou
enter:
B:MYFILE{return}
CP/MlooksindriveBforthefileMYFILE.Ifyouomitthedrivespecifier,
CP/M3.0looksforthefileinthedefaultdrive(usuallyA).
12.3.1.2Filename
Afilenamecanbefromonetoeightcharacterslong,suchas:
MYFILE
Afilespecificationcanconsistsimplyofafilename.Whenyoumakeupa
filename,trytoletthenametellyousomethingaboutwhatthefilecon
tains.Forexample,ifyouhavealistofcustomernamesforyourbusiness,
youcouldnamethefile:
CUSTOMER
sothatthenamegivesyousomeideaofwhatisinthefile.
12.3.1.3Filetype
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Tohelpyouidentifyfilesbelongingtothesamecategory,CP/Mallowsyou
toaddanoptionalonetothreecharacterextension,calledfiletype,to
thefilename.Whenyouaddafiletypetothefilename,separatethefile
typefromthefilenamewithaperiod.
Trytouselettersthattellsomethingaboutthefile'scategory.For
example,youcouldaddthefollowingfiletypetothefilethatcontainsa
listofcustomernames:
CUSTOMER.NAM
WhenCP/Mdisplaysfilespecifications,itaddsblankstoshortfilenames
sothatyoucancomparefiletypesquickly.TheprogramfilesthatCP/M
loadsintomemoryfromadiskhavethefiletypeCOM.DONOTusethisfile
typeinyourownfilespecifications.
12.3.1.4Password
IntheCommodore128'sCP/M3.0youcanincludeapasswordaspartofthe
filespecification.Thepasswordcanbefromonetoeightcharacters.If
youincludeapassword,separateiffromthefiletype(orfilename,ifno
filetypeisincluded)withasemicolon,asfollows:
CUSTOMER.NAM;ACCOUNT
Apasswordisoptional.However,ifafilehasbeenprotectedwithapass
word,youMUSTenterthepasswordaspartofthefilespecificationto
accessthefile.
12.3.1.5SampleFileSpecification
Afilespecificationcontainingallfourpossibleelementsconsistsofa
drivespecification,aprimaryfilename,afiletype,andapassword,all
separatedbytheappropriatecharactersorsymbolsasinthefollowing
example:
A:DOCUMENT.LAW;SUSAN{return}
12.3.4UserNumber
CP/M3.0furtheridentifiesallfilesbyassigningeachoneausernumber
whichrangesfrom0to15.CP/M3.0assignstheusernumbertoafilewhen
thefileiscreated.Usernumbersallowyoutoseparateyourfilesinto16
filegroups.
Theusernumberalwaysprecedesthedriveidentifierexceptforuser0,
whichisthedefaultusernumberandisnotdisplayedintheprompt.Here
aresomeexamplesofusernumbersandtheirmeanings.
4A>Usernumber4,driveA
A>Usernumber0,driveA
2B>Usernumber2,driveB
YoucanusethebuiltincommandUSERtochangethecurrentusernumber
likethis:
A>USER3{return}
3A>
Youcanchangeboththeusernumberandthedrivebyenteringthenewuser
numberanddrivespecifiertogetheratthesystemprompt:
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A>3B:{return}
3B>
Mostcommandscanaccessonlythosefilesthathavethecurrentusernum
ber.However,ifafileresidesinuser0andismarkedwithaspecialfile
attribute,thefilecanbeaccessedfromanyusernumber.
12.3.5UsingWildcardCharacterstoAccessMoreThanOneFile
CertainCP/M3.0builtinandtransientcommandscanselectandprocess
severalfileswhenspecialwildcardcharactersareincludedinthefilename
orfiletype.Awildcardisacharacterthatcanbeusedinplaceofsome
othercharacters.CP/M3.0usestheasterisk(*)andthequestionmark(?)
aswildcards.Forinstance,ifyouusea{?}asthethirdcharacterina
filename,youraretellingCP/Mtoletthe{?}standforanycharacterthat
maybeencounteredinthatposition.Similarly,an{*}tellsCP/Mtofill
thefilenamewith{?}questionmarksasindenticated.
Afilespecificationcontainingwildcardsiscalledanambiguousfilespec
andcanrefertomorethanonefile,becauseitgivesCP/M3.0apatternto
match.CP/M3.0searchesthediskdirectoryandselectsanyfilewhose
filenameorfiletypematchesthepattern.Forexample,ifyoutype:
?????TAX.LIB{return}
thenCP/M3.0selectsallfileswhosefilenameendedinTAXandwhosefile
typeisLIB.
12.3.6ReservedCharacters
ThecharactersinTable121havespecialmeaninginCP/M3.0,sodonotuse
thesecharactersinfilespecificationsexceptasindicated.
Table121.CP/MReservedCharacters.
Character
<$,!|>[]filespecificationdelimiters
{tab}{space},,
{carriagereturn},,
:drivedelimiterinfilespecification
.filetypedelimiterinfilespecification
;passworddelimiterinfilespecification
*?wildcardcharactersinanambiguousfilespecification
<>&!|\+optionlistdelimiters
[]optionlistdelimitersforglobalandlocaloptions
()delimitersformultiplemodifiersinsidesquarebrackets
foroptionsthathavemodifiers
/$optiondelimitersinacommandline
;commentdelimiteratthebeginningofacommandline
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12.3.7ReservedFiletypes
CP/M3.0hasalreadyestablishedseveralfilegroups.Table122listssome
oftheirfiletypeswithashortdescriptionofeach.
Table122.CP/M3.0ReservedFiletypes.
FiletypeMeaning
ASMAssemblersourcefile
BASBASICsourceprogram
COM8080,8085,Z80orequivalentmachinelanguageprogram
HEXOutputfilefromMAC(usedbyHEXCOM)
HLPHELPmessagefile
$$$Temporaryfile
PRNPrintfilefromMACorRMAC
RELOutputfilefromRMAC(usedbyLINK)
SUBListofcommandstobeexecutedbySUBMIT
SYMSymbolfilefromMAC,RMACorLINK
SYSSystemfile
SECTION13
13.UsingtheConsoleandPrinterinCP/M3.0
13.1CONTROLLINGCONSOLEOUTPUT
13.2CONTROLLINGPRINTEROUTPUT
13.3CONSOLELINEEDITING
13.4USINGCONTROLCHARACTERSFORLINEEDITING
Table131.BankedCP/M3.0LineEditingControlCharacters.
ThissectiondescribeshowCP/M3.0communicateswithyourconsoleand
printer.Ittellshowtostartandstopconsoleandprinteroutput,and
editcommandsyouenteratyourconsole.
13.1CONTROLLINGCONSOLEOUTPUT
SometimesCP/M3.0displaysinformationonyourscreentooquicklyforyou
toreadit.Toaskthesystemtowaitwhileyoureadthedisplay,holddown
the{ctrl}keyandpress{s}.ACTRLSkeystrokesequencecausesthedis
playtopause.Whenyouareready,pressCTRLQtoresumethedisplay.
Pressingthe{noscroll}keywillalsopausethesystemandplaceapause
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windowonthestatuslineatthebottomofthescreen(line25).Toresume
thedisplay,press{noscroll}again.IfyoupressanykeybesidesCTRLQ
or{noscroll}duringadisplaypause,CP/M3.0soundstheconsolebell.
SomeCP/M3.0utilities(likeDIRandTYPE)supportautomaticpagingatthe
console.Thismeansthatiftheprogram'soutputislongerthanthescreen
candisplayatonetime,thedisplayautomaticallyhaltswhenthescreenis
filled.Whenthisoccurs,CP/M3.0promptsyoutopress{return}tocon
tinue.ThisoptioncanbeturnedonoroffusingtheSETDEFcommand.
13.2CONTROLLINGPRINTEROUTPUT
Youcanalsouseacontrolcommandtoecho(thatis,display)consoleout
puttotheprinter.Tostartprinterecho,pressCTRLP.Abeepoccursto
tellyouthatechoison.Tostop,pressCTRLPagain.(Thereisnobeepat
thispoint.)Whileechoisineffect,anycharactersthatappearonyour
screenarelistedatyourprinter.
YoucanuseprinterechowithaDIRcommandtomakealistoffilesstored
onafloppydisk.YoucanalsouseCTRLPwithCRTLSandCTRLQtomakea
hardcopyofpartofafile.UseaTYPEcommandtostartadisplayofthe
fileattheconsole.Whenthedisplayreachesthepartyouneedtoprint,
pressCTRLStostopthedisplay,CTRLPtoenableprinterecho,andthen
CTRLQtoresumethedisplayandstartprinting.Youcanuseanother
CTRLS,CTRLP,CTRLQsequencetoterminateprinterecho.
13.3CONSOLELINEEDITING
Asnotedpreviously,youcancorrectsimpletypingerrorsbyusingthe
{inst/del}keyorCTRLH.CP/M3.0alsosupportsadditionallineediting
functionsthatyouperformwithcontrolcharacters.Youcanusethecon
trolcharacterstoeditcommandlinesorinputlinestomostprograms.
13.4USINGCONTROLCHARACTERSFORLINEEDITING
UsingthelineeditingcontrolcharacterslistedinTable131,youcan
movethecursorleftandrighttoinsertanddeletecharactersinthemid
dleofacommandline.Inthiswayyoudonothavetoretypeeverythingto
therightofyourcorrection.
Inthefollowingexample,theusermistypesPIP,andCP/M3.0returnsan
errormessage.Theuserrecallstheerroneouscommandlinebypressing
CTRLWandcorrectstheerror.
A>POPA:=B:*.*(PIPmistyped)
POP?
A>POPA:=B:*.*(CTRLWrecallstheline)
A>POPA:=B:*.*(CTRLBmovesthecursortobeginningofline)
A>POPA:=B:*.*(CTRLFmovescursortoright)
A>PPA:=B:*.*(CTRLGdeleteserror)
A>PIPA:=B:*.*(typeIcorrectsthecommandname)
Afterthecommandlineiscorrected,theusercanpress{return}even
thoughthecursorisinthemiddleoftheline.A{return}keystroke,(or
oneoftheequivalentcontrolcharacters)notonlyexecutesthecommand,
butalsostoresthecommandinabuffersothatyoucanpressCTRLWto
recallitforeditingorreexecution.
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Whenyouinsertacharacterinthemiddleofaline,characterstothe
rightofthecursormovetotheright.Ifthelinebecomeslongerthanyour
screeniswide,charactersdisappearofftherightsideofthescreen.
Thesecharactersarenotlost.Theyreappearifyoudeletecharactersfrom
thelineorifyoupressCTRLEwhenthecursorisinthemiddleofthe
line.CTRLEmovesallcharacterstotherightofthecursortothenext
lineonthescreen.
Table131givesacompletelistoflineeditingcontrolcharactersforthe
CP/M3.0systemontheCommodore128.
Table131.BankedCP/M3.0LineEditingControlCharacters.
CharacterMeaning
CTRLAMovesthecursoronecharactertotheleft.
CTRLBMovesthecursortothebeginningofthecommandlinewithout
havinganyeffectonthecontentsoftheline.Ifthecursoris
atthebeginning,CTRLBmovesittotheendoftheline.
CTRLEForcesaphysicalcarriagereturnbutdoesnotsendthecommand
linetoCP/M3.0.
Movesthecursortothebeginningofthenextlinewithoutera
singthepreviousinput.
CTRLFMovesthecursoronecharactertotheright.
CTRLGDeletesthecharacterabovethecursor.Thecursordoesnot
move.Characterstotherightofthecursormoveleftone
position.
CTRLHDeletesthecharactertotheleftofthecursorandmovesthe
cursorleftonecharacterposition.Characterstotherightof
thecursormoveleftoneposition.
CTRLIMovesthecursortothenexttabstop.Tabstopsareautomati
callysetateacheighthcolumn.Hasthesameeffectaspressing
the{tab}key.
CTRLJSendsthecommandlinetoCP/M3.0andreturnsthecursortothe
beginningofanewline.Hasthesameeffectasa{return}ora
CTRLMkeystroke.
CTRLKDeletesfromthecursortotheendoftheline.
CTRLMSendsthecommandlinetoCP/M3.0andreturnsthecursortothe
beginningofanewline.Hasthesameeffectasa{return}ora
CTRLJkeystroke.
CTRLRRetypesthecommandline.Placea#characteratthecurrent
cursorlocation,movesthecursortothenextline,andretypes
anypartialcommandyoutypedsofar.
CTRLUDiscardsallthecharactersinthecommandline,placesa{#}
characteratthecurrentcursorposition,andmovesthecursor
tothenextline.However,youcanuseCTRLWtorecallany
charactersthatweretotheleftofthecursorwhenyoupressed
CTRLU.
CTRLWRecallsanddisplayspreviouslyenteredcommandlinebothatthe
operatingsystemlevelandwithinexecutingprograms,ifthe
CTRLWisthefirstcharacterenteredaftertheprompt.CTRLJ,
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CTRLM,CTRLU,and{return}definethecommandlineyoucan
recall.Ifthecommandlinecontainscharacters,CTRLWmoves
thecursortotheendofthecommandline.Ifyoupress
{return},CP/M3.0executestherecalledcommand.
CTRLXDiscardsallthecharacterstotheleftofthecursorandmoves
thecursortothebeginningofthecurrentline.CTRLXsaves
anycharacterstotherightofthecursor.
SECTION14
14.SummaryofMajorCP/M3.0Commands
14.1THETWOTYPESOFCP/M3.0COMMANDS
14.2BUILTINCOMMANDS
Table141.BuiltinCommands.
14.3TRANSIENTUTILITYCOMMANDS
Table142.TransientUtilityCommands.
14.4REDIRECTINGINPUTANDOUTPUT
Figure141.PUTCommandExample.
14.5ASSIGNINGLOGICALDEVICES
Table143.CP/M3.0LogicalDevices.
14.6FINDINGPROGRAMFILES
14.7EXECUTINGMULTIPLECOMMANDS
14.8TERMINATINGPROGRAMS
14.9GETTINGHELP
Asnotedinsection11,aCP/M3.0commandlineconsistsofacommandkey
word,anoptionalcommandtailanda{return}keystroke.Thissection
describesthetwokindsofcommandsthecommandkeywordcanidentify,and
summarizesindividualcommandsandtheirfunctions.Thesectionalsogives
examplesoftheuseofsomeofthemorecommonlyusedcommands.In
addition,thesectionexplainstheconceptoflogicalandphysicaldevices
underCP/M3.0.ThissectionthentellshowCP/M3.0searchesforaprogram
fileonadisk,tellshowtoexecutemultiplecommands,andhowtoreset
thedisksystem.Finally,thesectionexplainshowtousetheHELPcommand
togetinformationonvariousCP/Mtopicsincludingcommandformatsand
usage,rightatthekeyboard.
14.1THETWOTYPESOFCP/M3.0COMMANDS
TherearetwotypesofcommandsonCP/M3.0:
*Builtincommandswhichidentifyprogramsinmemory
*Transientutilitycommandswhichidentifyprogramfilesonadisk
CP/M3.0hassixbuiltincommandsandover20transientutilitycommands.
YoucanaddutilitiestoyoursystembypurchasingvariousCP/M3.0
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compatibleapplicationprograms.Ifyouareanexperiencedprogrammer,you
canalsowriteyourownutilitiesthatoperatewithCP/M3.0.
14.2BUILTINCOMMANDS
BuiltincommandsarepartofCP/M3.0thatarealwaysavailableforyour
use,regardlessofwhichdiskyourhaveinwhichdrive.Builtincommands
areenteredinthecomputer'smemorywhenCP/M3.0isloaded,andare,
therefore,executedmorequicklythanthetransientutilities.Table141
liststheCommodore128CP/M3.0builtincommands.
Somebuiltincommandshaveoptionsthatrequiresupportfromarelated
transientutility.Therelatedtransientutilitycommandhasthesamename
asthebuiltincommandandhasafiletypeofCOM.
Table141.BuiltinCommands.
CommandFunction
DIRDisplaysfilenamesofallfilesinthedirectoryexceptthose
markedwiththeSYSattribute.
DIRSYSDisplaysfilenamesoffilemarkedwiththeSYS(system)attribute
inthedirectory.
ERASEErasesafilenamefromthediskdirectoryandreleasesthestorage
spaceoccupiedbythefile.
RENAMERenamesadiskfile.
TYPEDisplayscontentsofanASCII(TEXT)fileatyourscreen.
USERChangestoadifferentusernumber.
14.3TRANSIENTUTILITYCOMMANDS
TheCP/M3.0transientutilitiesarelistedinTable142.Whenyouentera
commandkeywordthatidentifiesatransientutility,CP/M3.0loadsthe
programfilefromthediskandpassestothatfileanyfilenames,data,or
parametersyouenteredinthecommandtail.
DIR,RENAMEandTYPEarebuiltincommandswhichhaveoptionaltransient
extensions.
Table142.TransientUtilityCommands.
DATESetsordisplaysthedateandtime.
DEVICEAssignslogicalCP/Mdevicestooneormorephysicaldevices,
changesdevicedriverprotocolandbaudrates,orsetsconsole
screensize.
DIRDisplaysdirectorywithfilesandtheircharacteristics.
DUMPDisplaysafileinASCIIandhexadecimalformat.
EDCreatesandaltersASCIIfiles.
ERASEUsedforwildcarderase.
FORMATFormatsaCP/Mdisk.Clearsdatafromprevioususeddisks.
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GENCOMCreatesaspecialCOMfilewithattachedRSXfile.
GETTemporarilygetsconsoleinputfromadiskfileratherthanthe
keyboard.
HELPDisplaysinformationonhowtouseCP/M3.0commands.
INITDIRInitializesadiskdirectorytoallowtimeanddatestamping.
KEYFIGAllowsalterationofthedefinitionofthekeyboardkeys.
PATCHDisplaysorinstallspatchestotheCP/Msystem.
PIPCopiesfilesandcombinesfiles.
PUTTemporarilydirectsprinterorconsoleoutputtoadiskfile.
RENAMEChangesthenameofafile,oragroupoffilesusingwildcard
characters.
SAVECopiesthecontentsofmemorytoafile.
SETSetsfileoptionsincludingdisklabels,fileattributes,typeof
timeanddatestampingandpasswordprotection.
SETDEFSetssystemoptionsincludingthedrivesearchchain.
SHOWDisplaysdiskanddrivestatistics.
SUBMITAutomaticallyexecutesmultiplecommands.
TYPEDisplayscontentsoftextfile(orgroupoffiles,ifwildcard
charactersareused)onscreen(andprinterifdesired).
14.4REDIRECTINGINPUTANDOUTPUT
CP/M3.0'sPUTCommandallowsyoutoredirectconsoleorprinteroutputto
adiskfile.YoucanuseaGETcommandtomakeCP/M3.0orautilitypro
gramtakeconsoleinputfromadiskfile.Thefollowingexamplesillustrate
someofthecapabilitiesofferedbyGETandPUT.
YoucanuseaPUTcommandtodirectconsoleoutputtoadiskfileaswell
astotheconsole.WithPUT,youcancreateadiskfilecontaininga
directoryofallfilesonthatdisk,asshowninFigure141.
A>PUTCONSOLEOUTPUTTOFILEDIR.PRN
PUTTINGCONSOLEOUTPUTTOFILE:DIR.PRN
A>DIR
A:FILENAMETEX:FRONTTEX:FRONTBAK:ONEBAK:THREETEX
A:FOURTEX:ONETEX:LINEDITTEX:EXAMP1TXT:TWOBAK
A:TWOTEX:THREEBAK:EXAMP2TXT
A>TYPEDIR.PRN
A:FILENAMETEX:FRONTTEX:FRONTBAK:ONEBAK:THREETEX
A:FOURTEX:ONETEX:LINEDITTEX:EXAMP1TXT:TWOBAK
A:TWOTEX:THREEBAK:EXAMP2TXT
Figure141.PUTCommandExample.
AGETcommandcandirectCP/M3.0oraprogramtoreadconsoleinputfroma
diskfileinsteadoffromthekeyboard.IfthefileistobereadbyCP/M
3.0,itmustcontainstandardCP/M3.0commandlines.Ifthefileistobe
readbyautilityprogram,itmustcontaininputappropriateforthatpro
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gram.AfilecancontainbothCP/M3.0commandlinesandprograminputif
italsoincludesacommandtostartaprogram.
14.5ASSIGNINGLOGICALDEVICES
TheminimalCommodore128CP/M3.0hardwareincludesaconsoleconsisting
ofakeyboardandscreendisplayanda1571diskdrive.Youmaywanttoadd
anotherdevicetoyoursystem,suchasaprinteroramodem.Tohelpkeep
trackofthesephysicaldifferentinputandoutputdevices,Table143
givesthenamesofCP/M3.0logicaldevices.Italsoshowsthephysical
devicesassignedtotheselogicaldevicesintheCommodore128CP/M3.0
system.
Table143.CP/M3.0LogicalDevices.
LogicalPhysicalDevice
DeviceNameDeviceTypeAssigment
CONIN:ConsoleinputKeyboard
CONOUT:Consoleoutput80columnScreen
AUXIN:AuxiliaryinputNull
AUXOUT:AuxiliaryoutputNull
LST:ListoutputPTR1orPTR2
YoucanchangetheseassigmentswithaDEVICEcommand.Forexample,you
can,assignAUXINandAUXOUTtoamodemsothatyourcomputercanusetele
phonelinestocommunicatewithothercomputerusers,withinformationser
vicelikeCompunetandViewDataSystems.
14.6FINDINGPROGRAMFILES
Ifacommandkeywordidentifiesautility,CP/M3.0looksforthatprogram
fileonthedefaultorspecifieddrive.Itlooksunderthecurrentuser
number,andthenunderusernumber0forthesamefilemarkedwiththeSYS
attribute.Atanypointinthesearchprocess,CP/M3.0stopsthesearchif
itfindstheprogramfile.CP/M3.0thenloadstheprogramintomemoryand
executesit.Whentheprogramterminates,CP/M3.0displaysthesystem
promptandwaitsforyournextcommand.However,ifCP/M3.0doesnotfind
thecommandfile,itrepeatsthecommandlinefollowedbyaquestionmark,
andwaitsforyournextcommand.
14.7EXECUTINGMULTIPLECOMMANDS
Intheexamplessofar,CP/M3.0executedonlyonecommandatatime.CP/M
3.0canalsoexecuteasequenceofcommands.Youcanenterasequenceof
commandsatthesystemprompt,oryoucanputafrequentlyneededsequence
ofcommandsinadiskfile,usingthefiletypeofSUB.Onceyouhavestored
thesequenceinadiskfile,youcanexecutethesequencewheneveryouneed
towithaSUBMITcommand.
14.8TERMINATINGPROGRAMS
YoucanusethetwokeystrokecommandCTRLCtoterminateprogramexecution
orresetthedisksystem.ToenteraCTRLCcommand,holddownthe{ctrl}
keyandpress{c}.
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MostapplicationprogramsthatrununderCP/MandmostCP/Mtransientuti
litiescanbeterminatedbyaCTRLC.However,ifyoutrytoterminatea
programwhileitissendingadisplaytothescreen,youmayneedtopress
aCTRLStohaltthedisplaybeforeyouenterCTRLC.
14.9GETTINGHELP
CP/M3.0includesatransientutilitycommandcalledHELPthatdisplaysa
summaryoftheformatanduseforthemostcommonCP/Mcommands.Toaccess
HELP,simplyenterthecommand:
A>HELP{return}
Youcanpressthe{help}keyinsteadoftypingthewordHELPandpressing
the{return}key.
Thelistofavailabletopicsisthendisplayed,likethis:
Topicsavailable:
COMMANDSCNTRLCHARSDATEDEVICEDIR
DUMPEDERASEFILESPECGENCOMGET
HELPHEXCOMINITDIRLIBLINKMAC
PATCHPIP(COPY)PUTRENAMERMACSAVE
SETSETDEFSHOWSIDSUBMITTYPE
USERXREF
Supposeyoutype:
HELP>PIP{return}
CP/Mthendisplaysthefollowinginformation:
PIP(COPY)
Syntax:
DESTINATIONSOURCE
PIPd:Gnfilespec[Gn]=filespec[o],...d:[o]
Explanation:
ThefilecopyprogramPIPcopiesfiles,combinesfiles,andtransfersfiles
betweendisks,printers,consoles,orotherdevicesattatchedtoyour
computer.Thefirstfilespecisthedestination.Thesecondfilespecisthe
source.Usetwoormoresourcefilespecsseparatedbycommastocombinetwo
ormoresourcefilesintoonefile.[o]isanycombinationofavailable
options.The[Gn]optioninthedestinationfilespectellsPIPtocopyyour
filetothatusernumber.
PIPwithnocommandtaildisplaysan*promptandawaitsyourseriesof
commands,enteredandprocessedonelineatatime.Thesourceor
destinationcanbeanyCP/M3.0logicaldevice.
TheHELPfacilityprovidesinformationlikethisonallCP/M3.0builtin
andtransientutilitycommands.Ifyouwantinformationonaspecificarea,
youcantypeHELPsubjectafterthesystemprompt,wherethesubjectisa
commandtaildescribingthesubjectyouareinterestedin.Forexample:
A>HELPPIP
A>HELPDIRSYS
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YoucanrefertoHELPanytimeyouneedinformationonaspecificcommand.
OryoucanjustbrowsethroughHELPtobroadenyourknowledgeofCP/M3.0.
SECTION15
15.CommodoreEnhancementstoCP/M3.0
15.1KEYBOARDENHANCEMENTS
15.1.1DefiningaKey
15.1.2DefiningaString
15.1.3UsingALTMode
15.2SCREENENHANCEMENTS
15.1KEYBOARDENHANCEMENTS
CommodorehasaddedanumberofenhancementstoCP/M3.0.Theseenhance
mentstailorthecapabilitiesoftheCommodore128tothoseofCP/M3.0.
Thissectiondescribestheseenhancements.
Anykeyonthekeyboardcanbedefinedtogenerateacodeorfunction,
exceptthefollowingkeys:
{leftshift}key
{rightshift}key
{C=}key
{ctrl}key
{restore}key
{40/80display}key
{capslock}key
Indefiningakey,thekeyboardrecognizesthefollowingspecialfunctions.
Toindicatethesefunctions,holddownthe{ctrl}keyandthe{rightshift}
keyandpressthedesiredfunctionkeysimultaneously.
KeyFunction
{crsrleft}keyDefineskey
{crsrright}keyDefinesstring(pointstofunctionkeys)
{alt}keyToggleskeyfilter
15.1.1DefiningaKey
Ausercandefinethecodethatakeycanproduce.Eachkeyhasfourpos
sibledefinitions:Normal,AlphaShift,ShiftandControl.TheAlphaShift
istoggleon/offbypressingthe{C=}key.Afterenteringthismodeasmall
boxappearsonthebottomofthescreen.Thefirstkeythatispressedis
thekeytobedefined.ThecurrentHEX(hexadecimal)valueassignedtothis
keyisdisplayedandtheusercanthentypethenewHEXcodeforthekey,
orabortbytypinganonHEXkey.Thefollowingisadefinitionofthe
codesthatcanbeassignedtoakey.(InALTmode,codesarereturnedto
theapplication;see"UsingALTMode"below,inparagraph15.1.3)
CodeFunction
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00hNull(sameasnotpressingakey)
01hto7FhNormalASCIIcodes
80hto9FhStringassigned
A0htoAFh80columncharactercolor
B0htoBFh80columnbackgroundcolor
C0htoCFh40columncharactercolor
D0htoDFh40columnbackgroundcolor
E0htoEFh40columnbordercolor
F0hTogglediskstatuson/off
F1hSystemPause
F2h(undefined)
F3h40columnscreenwindowright
F4h40columnscreenwindowleft
F5htoFFh(undefined)
15.1.2DefiningaString
Thisfunctionallowstheusertoassignmorethanonekeycodetoasingle
key.Anykeythatistypedinthismodeisplacedinthestring.Theuser
canseetheresultoftypinginalongboxatthebottomofthescreen.
Note:Somekeysmaynotdisplaywhattheyare.Toprovidetheuserwith
controlovertheprocessofenteringdata,thefollowingfivespecialkey
functionsareavailable.Toaccessthesefunctions,pressthe{ctrl}and
{rightshift}keysandthedesiredfunctionkeys.
KeyFunction
{return}Completestringdefinition
{+}(onmainkeyboard)Insertspaceintostring
{}(onmainkeyboard)Deletecursorcharacter
{leftarrow}Cursorleft
{rightarrow}Cursorright
15.1.3UsingALTMode
ALTmodeisatogglefunction(thatis,itcanbeswitchedbetweenONand
OFF).ThedefaultvalueisOFF.Thisfunctionallowstheusertosend8bit
codestoanapplication.
15.2SCREENENHANCEMENTS
ThescreeninCP/M3.0emulatesanADM31terminal.Thefollowingscreen
functionsemulateADM3Aoperation,whichisasubsetofADM31operation.
CTRLGSoundBell
CTRLHCursorleft
CTRLJCursordown
CTRLKCursorup
CTRLLCursorright
CTRLMMovecursortostartofcurrentline(CR)
CTRLZHomeandclearscreen
ESC=RCCursorpositionwhereRistherowlocation
(withvaluesfromspaceto8)andCisthecolumnlocation
(nextvaluesfromspaceto0),referencedtothestatus
line.
AdditionalfunctionsinADM31modeinclude:
ESCT}
ESCt}Cleartoendofline
ESCY}
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ESCy}Cleartoendofscreen
ESC:}
ESC*}Homeandclearscreen(includingthestatusline)
ESCQInsertcharacter
ESCWDeletecharacter
ESCEInsertline
ESCRDeleteline
*{esc}{esc}{esc}[color#]setsascreencolorfromatableof16pos
siblecolorentries.The[color#]issetasfollows:
20hto2Fhcharactercolor
30hto3Fhbackgroundcolor
40hto4Fhbordercolor(40columnonly)
Thevisualeffectsassociatedwithfollowingfunctionsarevisibleonlyin
80columnscreenformat:
ESC>Halfintensity
ESC<Fullintensity
ESCG4ReversevideoON
*ESCG3TurnunderlineON
ESCG2BlinkON
*ESCG1Selectthealternatecharacterset
ESCG0AllESCGattributesOFF
*Note:ThisisNOTanormalADM31sequence.
**************************************
Thesectionsinthischapterprovideasummaryofthestructureandwide
rangingcapabilitiesofCP/M3.0.DetailedinformationonanyfacetofCP/M
isgivenintheDigitalResearch,Inc.book,CP/MPlusUser'sGuide.Toob
tainacopyofthis,refertothecouponenclosedintheboxinwhichthe
Commodore128issupplied.
CHAPTER
5
BASIC7.0
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
SECTION16
16.Introduction
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16.1ORGANIZATIONOFENCYCLOPAEDIA
16.2COMMANDANDSTATEMENTFORMAT
16.3GRAPHICANDSOUNDCOMMANDFORMAT
16.4DISKCOMMANDFORMAT
16.1ORGANIZATIONOFENCYCLOPAEDIA
ThischapterlistsBASIC7.0languageelementsanddescribehowtouse
thoseelements.Itgivesacompletelistoftherules(syntax)ofCommodore
128BASIC7.0,alongwithaconcisedescriptionofeach.
Basic7.0includesalltheelementsofBASIC2.0.Thenewcommands,state
ments,functionsandoperatorsprovidedinBasic7.0areunderlinedand
commandswhichhavebeenmodifiedareprintedinplainandunderlinedtext.
ThedifferenttypesofBASICoperationsarelistedinindividualsections,
asfollows:
1.COMMANDSANDSTATEMENTS:thecommandsusedtoedit,storeanderase
programs;andtheBASICprogramstatementsusedinthenumbered
linesofaprogram.
2.FUNCTIONS:thestring,numericandprintfunctions.
3.VARIABLESANDOPERATORS:thedifferenttypesofvariables,legal
names,arithmeticoperatorsandlogicaloperators.
4.RESERVEDWORDS,SYMBOLSANDABBREVIATIONS:thewords,symbolsand
abbreviationsreservedforuseintheBASIC7.0language,andwhich
cannotbeusedforanyotherpurpose.
16.2COMMANDANDSTATEMENTFORMAT
++
|commandname>AUTO|
||
||
|briefdescription>Enable/disableautomaticlinenumbering|
|commandformat>AUTO[line#]|
||
|DiscussionofThiscommandturnsontheautomaticlinenumber|
|formatanduse>ingfeature.Thiseasesthejobofenteringpro|
|grams,byautomaticallytypingthelinenumbers|
|fortheuser.Aseachprogramlineisenteredby|
|pressing{return},thenextlinenumberisprin|
|tedonthescreen,andthecursorispositioned|
|twospacestotherightofthelinenumber.The|
|linenumberargumentreferstothedesiredincre|
|mentbetweenlinenumbers.AUTOwithoutanargu|
|mentturnsofftheautolinenumbering,asdoes|
|RUN.Thisstatementcanbeusedonlyindirect|
|mode(outsideofaprogram).|
||
|EXAMPLES:|
|AUTO10Automaticallynumbersprogramlines|
|inincrementsof10.|
|Example(s)>AUTO50Automaticallynumberslinesin|
|incrementsof50.|
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|AUTOTurnsoffautomaticlinenumbering.|
++
Theboldfacelinethatdefinestheformatconsistsofthefollowing
elements:
DLOAD"programname"[D0,U8]
^^^
|||additionalarguments
keywordargument+(possiblyoptional)
Thepartsofthecommandorstatementthatmustbetypedexactlyareshown
incapitalletters.Wordstheusersupplies,suchasthenameofaprogram,
arenotcapitalized.
Whenquotemarks("")appear(usuallyaroundaprogramnameorfilename),
theusershouldincludethemintheappropriateplace,accordingtothe
formatexample.
KEYWORDS,alsocalledreservedwords,appearinuppercaseletters.Key
wordsmaybetypedusingthefullwordortheapprovedabbreviation(afull
listisgiveninAppendixK).Thekeywordorabbreviationmustbeentered
correctlyoranerrorwillresult.TheBASICandDOSerrormessagesare
definedinAppendicesAandB,respectively.
KeywordsarewordsthatarepartoftheBASIClanguage.Thearethecentral
partofacommandorstatement,andthetellthecomputerwhatkindof
actiontotake.Thesewordscannotbeusedasvariablenames.Acomplete
listofreservedwordsisgiveninSection20.
ARGUMENTS,alsocalledparameters,appearinlowercaseletters.Arguments
complementkeywordsbyprovidingspecificinformationtothecommandor
statement.Forexample,thekeywordLOADtellsthecomputertoloadapro
gramwhiletheargumenttellsthecomputerwhichspecificprogramtoload.
Asecondargumentspecifiesfromwhichdrivetoloadtheprogram.Arguments
includefilenames,variables,linenumbers,etc.
SQUAREBRACKETS[]showoptionalarguments.Theuserselectsanyornone
oftheargumentslisted,dependingonrequirements.Theusershouldnot
typetheSQUAREBRACKETS,whichareonlytheretodescribetheformat.
ANGLEBRACKETS<>indicatetheuserMUSTchooseoneoftheargumentslis
ted.TheusershouldnottypetheANGLEBRACKETS,whichareonlythereto
describetheformat.
AVERTICALBAR|seperatesitemsinalistofargumentswhenthechoices
arelimitedtothoseargumentslisted.Whentheverticalbarappearsina
listenclosedbySQUAREBRACKETS,thechoicesarelimitedtotheitemsin
thelist,buttheuserstillhastheoptionnottouseanyarguments.
ELIPSIS...asequenceofthreedotsmeansanoptionorargumentcanbe
repeatedmorethanonce.TheusershouldnottypetheELIPSIS,whichis
onlytheretodescribetheformat.
QUOTATIONMARKS""enclosecharacterstrings,filenamesandotherexpres
sions.Whenargumentsareenclosedinquotationmarks,thequotationmarks
mustbeincludedinthecommandorstatement.Quotationsmarksarenotcon
ventionsusedtodescribeformats;theyarerequiredpartsofacommandor
statement.
PARENTHESES()Whenargumentsareenclosedinparentheses,theymustbe
includedinthecommandorstatement.Parenthesesarenotconventionsused
todescribeformats;theyarerequiredpartsofacommandorstatement.
VARIABLEreferstoanyvalidBASICvariablename,suchasX,A$,T%,etc.
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EXPRESSIONreferstoanyvalidBASICexpression,suchasA+B+2,5*(X+3),
etc.
COMMAS(,)COLONS(:)andSEMICOLONS(;)TheseMUSTbeincluded,theyare
requiredpartsofthecommandorstatement.
16.3GRAPHICANDSOUNDCOMMANDFORMAT
OptionalparametersinGraphicsandSoundcommandsarerepresentedlike
this:
[,parameter]
WhenparametersareomittedthecommaMUSTbeincluded,thisisbecausethe
parametersarepositiondependent.Youmustnot,however,includecommas
afterthelastspecifiedparameter.
EXAMPLE:
ENVELOPEn[,atk][,dec][,sus][,rel][,wf][,pw]
Toalterjusttherelparameter,use:
ENVELOPEn,,,,rel
Thefirstthreecommasmarkthepositionsofatk,dec,susandthefourth
isthecommaforrel.Thecommasforwfandpwmustnotbeentered.
IntheGRAPHICScommandswheneverthereisacoordinatespecifiedby(X,Y)
itispossibletoreplacethiswithavector(X;Y).Inthiscase:
Xisthedistance(scaled)
Yistheangleindegrees(0=up;90=rightetc.)
Forexample:
LOCATE160,100
DRAWTO40;45
willdrawalineat45degreesoflength40.
16.4DISKCOMMANDFORMAT
Optionalparametersindiskcommandsareshownthus:
[,parameter]
Thecommaisnotrequirediftheparameteristhefirstafterthecommand
itself.Ifotherparameterswhichrequirecommasareomittedthecommas
shouldbeomittedtoo.
EXAMPLE:
DIRECTORY[Ddrive][<ON|,>Udevicenumber][,wildcard]
wouldinfullproduce:
DIRECTORYD0ONU8,"AB*"
Tospecifyonlythewildcard,nocommaisrequired,i.e.
DIRECTORY"AB*"
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WhenevervariablesareusedindiskcommandstheMUSTbeenclosedinparen
theses().Forexample:
DIRECTORYD(DV),(A$)
SECTION17
17.BasicCommandsandStatements
17.1APPEND
Appendnewdatatotheendofasequentialfile.
APPEND#logicalfilenumber,"filename"[,Ddrivenumber]
[<ON|,>Udevice]
Thiscommandopensthefilehavingthespecifiedfilename,andpositions
thepointerattheendofthefile.SubsequentPRINT#(write)statements
willcausedatatobeappendedtotheendofthisfile.Defaultvaluesfor
drivenumberanddevicenumberare0and8respectively.
VariablesorExpressionsusedasfilenamesmustbeenclosedwithinparen
theses.
EXAMPLES:
APPEND#8,"MYFILE"
OPENlogicalfile8called"MYFILE"forappendingwithsubsequentPRINT#
statements.
APPEND#7,(A$),D0,U9
OPENlogicalfilenamedbythevariableA$ondrive0,devicenumber9and
preparetoAPPEND.
17.2AUTO
Enable/disableautomaticlinenumbering.
AUTO[line#]
Thiscommandturnsontheautomaticlinenumberingfeature.Thiseasesthe
jobofenteringprograms,byautomaticallytypingthelinenumbersforthe
user.Aseachprogramlineisenteredbypressing{return},thenextline
numberisprintedonthescreen,andthecursorispositionedonthesecond
spacetotherightofthelinenumber.Thelinenumberargumentrefersto
thedesiredincrementbetweenlinenumbers.AUTOwithoutanargumentturns
offtheautolinenumbering,asdoesRUN.Thisstatementcanbeusedonly
indirectmode(outsideofaprogram).
EXAMPLES:
AUTO10Automaticallynumbersprogramlinesinincrementsof10.
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AUTO50Automaticallynumberslinesinincrementsof50.
AUTOTurnsoffautomaticlinenumbering.
17.3BACKUP
Copytheentirecontentsfromonedisktoanotheronadualdiskdrive.
BACKUPsourceDdrivenumberTOdestinationDdrivenumber
[<ON|,>Udevice]
Thiscommandcopiesallthedatafromthesourcedisketteontothedesti
nationdisketteusingadualdiskdrive.WiththeBACKUPcommand,anewdis
kettecanbeusedwithoutfirstformattingit.ThisisbecausetheBACKUP
commandcopiesalltheinformationonthediskette,includingtheformat.
Becauseofthis,theBACKUPcommanddestroysanyinformationalreadyonthe
destinationdisk.Therefore,whenbackingupontoapreviouslyuseddisket
te,makesureitcontainsnoprogramsyoumeantokeep.Asaprecautionthe
computerasks"AREYOUSURE?"beforeitstartstheoperation.Pressthe{y}
keytoperformtheBACKUP,oranyotherkeytostopit.Youshouldalways
createabackupofallyourdisks,incasetheoriginaldisketteislostor
damaged.AlsoseetheCOPYcommandinparagraph17.21.Thedefaultdevice
numberisunit8.
NOTE:Thiscommandcanbeusedonlywithadualdiskdrive.Itwillnot
allowyoutomakecopiesofprotecteddisks(mostprepackagedsoftware).
EXAMPLES:
BACKUPD0TOD1
Copiesalldatafromthediskindrive0tothediskindrive1,indual
diskdriveunit8.
BACKUPDOTOD1ONU9
Copiesalldatafromdrive0todrive1,indiskdriveunit9.
17.4BANK
Selectoneofthe16banks,numbered015.
BANKbanknumber
Thisstatementspecifiesthebanknumberandcorrespondingmemoryconfigu
rationfortheCommodore128memory.Thedefaultbankis15.Hereisa
tableofavailableBANKconfigurationsintheCommodore128memory:
BANKCONFIGURATION
0RAM(0)only
1RAM(1)only
2RAM(2)only*
3RAM(3)only*
4InternalROM,RAM(0),I/O
5InternalROM,RAM(1),I/O
6InternalROM,RAM(2),I/O*
7InternalROM,RAM(3),I/O*
8ExternalROM,RAM(0),I/O
9ExternalROM,RAM(1),I/O
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10ExternalROM,RAM(2),I/O*
11ExternalROM,RAM(3),I/O*
12KernalandInternalROM(LOW),RAM(0),I/O
13KernalandExternalROM(LOW),RAM(0),I/O
14KernalandBASICROM,RAM(0),CharacterROM
15KernalandBASICROM,RAM(0),I/O
*ForuseonextendedC128swithalargerinternalmemoryeg:256K.Inun
expandedmachinesthereisnoRAMintheseBANKsand2echoes0and3
echoes1.
Toaccessaparticularbank,typeBANKn(n=015)andthenusePEEK/POKEor
SYS.Fromwithinthemonitor,precedethefourdigithexadecimalnumberof
theaddressrangeyouareviewingwithahexadecimaldigit(0F).
17.5BEGIN/BEND
AstructureusedwithIF...THENELSEsothatyoucanincludeseveralpro
gramlinesbetweenthestart(BEGIN)andend(BEND)ofthestructure.Here
istheformat:
IFConditionTHENBEGIN:statement
statement
statementBEND:ELSEBEGIN
statement
statementBEND
EXAMPLE:
10IFX=1THENBEGIN:PRINT"X=1isTrue"
20PRINT"Sothispartofthestatementisperformed"
30PRINT"WhenXequals1"
40BEND:PRINT"EndofBEGIN/BENDstructure":GOTO60
50PRINT"Xdoesnotequal1":PRINT"Thestatementsbetween
BEGIN/BENDareskipped"
60PRINT"RestofProgram"
IftheConditional(IF...THEN)statementinline10istrue,thestate
mentsbetweenthekeywordsBEGINandBENDareperformed,includingallthe
statementsonthesamelineasBEND.Ifthe(IF...THEN)conditionalstate
mentinline10isFalse,allstatementsbetweentheBEGINandBEND,inclu
dingtheonesonthesameprogramlineasBENDareskipped,andtheprogram
resumeswiththefirstprogramlineimmediatelyfollowingthelinecon
tainingBEND.TheBEGIN/BENDessentiallytreatsline10through40asone
longline.
ThesamerulesaretrueiftheELSE:BEGINclauseisspecified.Ifthecon
ditionistrueallstatementsbetweenELSE:BEGINandBENDareperformed,
includingallstatementsonthesamelineasBEND.IfFalse,theprogram
resumeswiththelineimmediatelyfollowingthelinecontainingBEND.
17.6BLOAD
Loadabinaryfilestartingatthespecifiedmemorylocation.
BLOAD"filename"[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber]
[,Bbanknumber][,Pstartaddress]
where:
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*filenameisthenameofyourfile
*banknumberletsyouselectoneofthe16banks
*startaddressisthememorylocationwhereloadingbegins
Abinaryfileisafile,whetheraprogramordata,thathasbeenSAVEd
eitherwithinthemachinelanguagemonitororbytheBSAVEcommand.The
BLOADcommandloadsthebinaryfileintothelocationspecifiedbythe
startaddress.
EXAMPLES:
BLOAD"SPRITES",B0,P3584
LOADsthebinaryfile"SPRITES"startinginlocation3584inBANK0.
BLOAD"DATA1",D0,U8,B1,P4096
LOADsthebinaryfile"DATA1"intolocation4096(BANK1)fromDrive0,
unit8.
Ifstartaddressisnotspecifiedthefilewillloadatthesameaddress
itwassavedfrom.
17.7BOOT
Loadandexecuteaprogramwhichhasbeensavedasabinaryfile.
BOOT["filename"][,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevice]
Thecommandloadsanexecutablebinaryfileandbeginsexecutionatthe
predefinedstartingaddress.Thedefaultdevicenumberis8drive0.
EXAMPLES:
BOOT
BOOTanexecutableprogram,(CP/MPlusforexample).Thisisaspecialcase
andrequiressettingupaspecificsectoronthedisk.
BOOT"GRAPHICS1",D0,U9
BOOTstheprogram"GRAPHICS1"fromunit9,drive0andexecutesit.Execu
tionbeginsatthestartaddressoftheprogram(i.e.whereitstarts
loading).
17.8BOX
Drawaboxatspecificpositiononscreen.
BOX[colorsource],x1,y1[,x2,y2][,angle][,paint]
where:
colorsource0=Backgroundcolor
1=Foregroundcolor
2=Multicolor1}
3=Multicolor2}OnlyinGraphicsmodes3and4
x1,y1Topleftcornercoordinate(scaled).
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x2,y2Bottomrightcorneroppositex1,y1(scaled);defaultisthe
PClocation.
angleRotationinclockwisedegrees;defaultiszerodegrees.
paintPaintshapewithcolor
0=Donotpaint
1=Paint
(default0)
Thisstatementallowstheusertodrawarectangleofanysizeonthe
screen.Rotationisbasedonthecentreoftherectangle.Thepixelcursor
(PC)islocatedatx2,y2aftertheBOXstatementisexecuted.Thecolor
sourcenumbermustbezero(0)orone(1)ifinstandardbitmapora2or
3ifinmulticolorbitmapmode.
AlsoseetheGRAPHICcommand,inparagraph17.47,forselectingtheappro
priategraphicmodetobeusedwiththeBOXcolorsourcenumber.
AlsoseetheLOCATEcommand,inparagraph17.forinformationonthepixelcursor.
EXAMPLES:
BOX1,10,10,60,60
Drawstheoutlineofarectangle.
BOX1,10,10,60,45,1
Drawsapainted,rotatedbox(adiamond).
DRAW,30,90,,45,1
Drawsafilled,rotatedpolygon(seenote).
BOX1,20,20,,,1
Drawsafilledrectanglefrom20,20tothecurrentpixelcursor.
Anyparametercanbeomittedbutyoumustincludeacommainitsplace,as
inthelasttwoexamples.
NOTE:x2,y2countasoneparametersoonlyoneextracommaisrequired.
Wrappingoccursifthedegreeisgreaterthan360,i.e.360=0(450=90).
17.9BSAVE
Saveabinaryfilefromthespecifiedmemorylocations.
BSAVE"filename"[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber][,Bbanknumber],
PstartaddressTOPendaddress+1
where:
*filenameisthenameyougivethefile
*drivenumberiseither0or1onadualdrive(0isthedefault)
*devicenumberisthenumberofdiskdriveunit(defaultis8)
*banknumberisthenumberofthebankyouspecify(015)
*startaddressisthestartingaddresswheretheprogramisSAVEdfrom
*endaddress+1istheendaddressoftheprogramplusone,i.e.theend
addressyouspecifyinBSAVEisonebytehigherthantheendaddressof
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thememoryrange
ThisisthesameastheSAVEcommandinthemachinelanguagemonitor.
EXAMPLES:
BSAVE"SPRITEDATA",B0,P3584TOP4096
Savesthebinaryfilenamed"SPRITEDATA"startingatlocation3584through
4095(BANK0).
BSAVE"PROGRAM.SCR",D0,U9,B0,P3182TOP8000
Savesthebinaryfilenamed"PROGRAM.SCR"inthememoryaddressrange3182
through7999(BANK0)ondrive0,unit9.
17.10CATALOG
Displaysthediskdirectory.
CATALOG[Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber][,wildcardstring]
TheCATALOGcommanddisplaysthedirectoryonthespecifieddrivejustas
thedirectorycommand.Seethiscommand,inparagraph17.28,formore
examples(DIRECTORYandCATALOGarecompletelyinterchangeable).
EXAMPLE:
CATALOG
Displaysthediskdirectoryondrive0ofunit8.
17.11CHAR
Displayscharactersatthespecificpositiononthescreen.
CHAR[colorsource],x,y[,string][,rvs]
Thisisprimarilydesignedtodisplaycharactersonabitmappedscreen,
butitcanalsobeusedonatextscreen.Hereiswhattheparametersmean:
1=Foregroundcolor
2=Multicolor1
3=Multicolor2
xCharactercolumn(079)(wrapsaroundtothenextlinein
40columnmode)
yCharacterrow(024)
stringStringtoprint
RVSReversefieldflag(0=off,1=on,default=0)
Text(alphanumericstrings)canbedisplayedonanyscreenatagivenloca
tionbytheCHARstatement.CharacterdataisreadfromCommodore128
characterROMarea.Theusersuppliesthexandycoordinatesofthestar
tingpositionandthetextstringtobedisplayed.Colorsourceandreverse
imagingareoptional.
Thestringiscontinuedonthenextlineifitattemptstoprintpastthe
righthandedgeofthescreen.Whenusedintextmode,thestringprinted
bytheCHARcommandworksjustlikeaPRINTstring,includingcursorand
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colorcontrol.Thesecontrolfunctionsinsidethestringdonotworkwhen
theCHARcommandisusedtodisplaytextinbitmapmode.Upper/Lowercase
controls(CHR$(142)orCHR$(14))alsooperateinbitmapmode.
Multicolorcharactersarehandleddifferentlyfromstandardcharacters.The
followingtableshowshowtogeneratethepossiblecombinations.
++
|ReverseFlag|
||
|0(OFF)1(ON)|
+++
|Text|11|
|Colorsource0||
|Background|23|
+++
|Text|10|
|Colorsource1||
|Background|01|
+++
|Text|20|
|Colorsource2||
|Background|02|
+++
|Text|30|
|Colorsource3||
|Background|03|
+++
EXAMPLE:
10COLOR2,3:REMmulticolor1=Red
20COLOR3,7:REMmulticolor2=Blue
30GRAPHIC3,1
40CHAR0,10,10,"TEXT",0
50CHAR0,10,11,"TEXT",1
17.12CIRCLE
Drawscircles,ellipses,arcs,etc.atspecificpositionsonthescreen.
CIRCLE[colorsource],x,y,xr[,yr][,sa][,ea][,angle][,inc]
where:
1=Foregroundcolor
2=Multicolor1}
3=Multicolor2}OnlyinGraphicsmodes3and4
x,yCentrecoordinatesoftheCIRCLE.
xrXradius(scaled).
yrYradius(scaled).
saStartingarcangle(default0degrees).
eaEndingarcangle(default360degrees).
angleRotationinclockwisedegrees(defaultis0degrees).
incDegreesbetweensegments(defaultis2degrees).
++++++sa
+++/
++++
+xyxr++xy+
++++++
+|+++
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+|yr+++
+|++\
++++++ea
WiththeCIRCLEstatement,theusercandrawacircle,ellipse,arc,tri
angle,octagon,orotherpolygon.Thefinalpixelcursor(PC)isleftat
thecircumferenceofthecircleattheendingarcangle.Anyrotationis
relativetothecentre.Arcsaredrawnfromthestartingangleclockwiseto
theendingangle.Theincrementcontrolsthesmoothnessoftheshape;using
lowervaluesresultsinmorenearlycircularshapes.Specifyingtheinc
greaterthan2createsaroughedgedboxedinshape.
AlsoseetheLOCATEcommand,inparagraph17.57,forinformationonthe
pixelcursor.
EXAMPLES:
CIRCLE1,160,100,65,10Drawsanellipse
CIRCLE1,160,100,65Drawsacircle
CIRCLE1,60,40,20,18,,,,45Drawsanoctagon
CIRCLE1,260,40,20,30,,,,90Drawsadiamond
CIRCLE1,60,140,20,18,,,,120Drawsatriangle
Youmayomitaparameter,butyoumuststillplaceacommaintheappro
priateposition.Omittingparameterstakeonthedefaultvalues.
17.13CLOSE
Closelogicalfile.
CLOSEfilenumber
ThisstatementclosesanyfilesusedbyDOPENorOPENstatements.Thenum
berfollowingthewordCLOSEisthefilenumbertobeclosed.
EXAMPLE:
CLOSE2Logicalfile2isclosed.
17.14CLR
Clearprogramvariables.
CLR
Thisstatementerasesanyvariablesinmemory,butleavestheprogramin
tact.ThisstatementisautomaticallyexecutedwhenaRUNorNEWcommand
isgiven.
17.15CMD
Redirectscreenoutput.
CMDlogicalfilenumber[,writelist]
Thiscommandsendstheoutput,whichnormallygoestothescreen(i.e.
PRINTstatements,LIST,butnotPOKESintothescreen)toanotherdevice,
suchasadiskdatafileorprinter.ThisdeviceorfilemustbeOPENed
first.TheCMDcommandmustbefollowedbyanumberornumericvariable
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referringtothefileordevice.Thewritelistcanbeanyalphanumeric
stringorvariable.Thiscommandisusefulforprintingatthetopof
programlistings.
EXAMPLES:
OPEN1,4OPENsdevice#4,whichistheprinter.
CMD1Allnormaloutputnowgoestotheprinter.
LISTTheLISTinggoestotheprinter,notthescreeneventhe
wordREADY.
PRINT#1Sendsoutputbacktothescreen.
CLOSE1Closethefile.
17.16COLLECT
Freeinaccessiblediskspace.
COLLECT[Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevice]
Usethiscommandtomakeavailableanydiskspacethathasbeenallocated
toimproperlyclosed(splat)files,andtodeletereferencestothesefiles
fromthedirectory.Splatfilesarefilesthatappearonthedirectorywith
anasterisknexttothem.Defaultstodevicenumber8.
EXAMPLE:
COLLECTD0
Freeallavailablespacewhichhasbeenincorrectlyallocatedtoimproperly
closedfiles.
NOTE:Itwillalsofreespaceallocatedfordirectaccessandanyboot
sector.Seeyourdiskdrivemanualformoreinformation.
17.17COLLISION
Definehandlingforspritecollisioninterrupt.
COLLISIONtype[,statement]
typeTypeofinterruptasfollows:
1=Spritetospritecollision
2=Spritetodisplaycollision
3=Lightpen
statementBASIClinenumberofasubroutine
Whenthespecifiedsituationoccurs,BASICwillfinishprocessingthecur
rentexecutinginstructionandperformaGOSUBtothelinenumbergiven.
Whenthesubroutineterminates(itmustendwithaRETURN),BASICwillre
sumeprocessingwhereitleftoff.Interruptactioncontinuesuntila
COLLISIONofthesametypewithoutalinenumberisspecified.Morethan
onetypeofinterruptmaybeenabledatthesametime,butonlyoneinter
ruptcanbehandledatatime(i.e.therecanbenorecursionandnones
tingofinterrupts).Thecauseofaninterruptmaycontinuecausing
interruptsforsometimeunlessthesituationisalteredortheinterrupt
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isdisabled.
Todeterminewhichspriteshavecollidedsincethelastcheck,usetheBUMP
function.
EXAMPLES:
COLLISION1,5000Detectsaspritetospritecollisionandprogram
controlsenttosubroutineatline5000.
COLLISION1Stopsinterruptactionwhichwasinitiatedin
aboveexample.
COLLISION2,1000Detectspritetodisplaycollisionandprogram
controldirectedtosubroutineinline1000.
NOTE:Spritescanstillcollideeveniftheyaresetoffthescreen,but
notiftheyareswitchedoff.
17.18COLOR
Definecolorsforeachscreenarea.
COLORsourcenumber,colornumber
Thisstatementassignsacolortooneofthesevencolorareas:
SourceNumbers
AreaSource
040column(VIC)background
140column(VIC)foreground
2multicolor1
3multicolor2
440column(VIC)border
5charactercolor(40or80columnscreen)
680column(VDC)backgroundcolor
Colorsthatareusableareintherange116:
1Black9Orange
2White10Brown
3Red11LightRed
4Cyan12DarkGray
5Purple13MediumGray
6Green14LightGreen
7Blue15LightBlue
8Yellow16LightGray
ColorNumbersin40ColumnFormat
1Black9DarkPurple
2White10Brown
3DarkRed11LightRed
4LightCyan12LightPurple
5DarkCyan13MediumGray
7DarkBlue15LightBlue
8LightYellow16LightGray
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ColorNumbersin80ColumnFormat
EXAMPLES:
COLOR0,1Changebackgroundcolorof40columnscreentoblack.
COLOR5,8Changecharactercolortoyellow.
17.19CONCAT
Concatenatestwodatafiles.
CONCAT"file2"[,Ddrivenumber]TO"file1"[,Ddrivenumber]
[<ON|,>Udevice]
TheCONCATcommandattachesfile2totheendoffile1andretainsthe
nameoffile1.Thedevicenumberdefaultsto8andthedrivenumber
defaultsto0.
EXAMPLES:
CONCAT"FILEB"TO"FILEA"FILEBisattachedtoFILEAandthe
combinedfileisdesignatedFILEA.
CONCAT(A$)TO(B$),D1,U9ThefilenamedbyB$becomesanewfile
ofthesamename,withthefilenamedby
A$attachedtotheendofB$thisis
performedonUnit9,Drive1(adual
diskdrive).
Wheneveravariableisusedasafilenameasinthelastexample,thefile
namevariablemustbesurroundedbyparentheses.
NOTE:Keepthefilenamesshort(10characters)becausethecommandbuffer
islimitedinsomediskdrives.
17.20CONT
Continueprogramexecution.
CONT
Thiscommandisusedtorestartaprogramthathasbeenstoppedbyeither
usingthe{stop}key,aSTOPstatement,oranENDstatement.Theprogram
resumesexecutionwhereitleftoff.CONTwillnotresumewiththeprogram
iflineshavebeenchangedoraddedtotheprogramorifanyeditingofthe
programisperformedonthescreen.Iftheprogramstoppedduetoanerror,
orifyouhavecausedanerrorbeforetryingtorestarttheprogram,CONT
willnotwork.TheerrormessageinthiscaseisCAN'TCONTINUEERROR.
17.21COPY
Copyfilesfromonedrivetoanotherinadualdiskdriveorwithina
singledrive.
COPY<["sourcefilename"][,Ddrivenumber]>TO<["destinationfilename"]
[,Ddrivenumber]>[<ON|,>Udevice]
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Thiscommandcopiesfilesfromonedisk(thesourcefile)toanother(the
destinationfile)onadualdiskdrive.Itcanalsocreateacopyofafile
onthesamediskwithinasingledrive,butthefilenamemustbedifferent.
Whencopyingfromonedrivetoanother,thefilenamemaybethesame.
TheCOPYcommandcanalsoCOPYallfilesfromonedrivetoanotherona
dualdiskdrive.Inthiscasethedrivenumbersarespecifiedandthe
sourceanddestinationfilenamesareomitted.
ThedefaultparametersfortheCOPYcommandaredevicenumber8,drive0.
NOTE:Copyingbetweentwosingleordoubledriveunitscannotbedone.See
BACKUP,inparagraph17.3.
EXAMPLES:
COPY"TEST",D0TO"TESTPROG",D1Copies"TEST"fromdrive0todrive1,
renamingit"TESTPROG"ondrive1.
COPY"STUFF",D0TO"STUFF",D1Copies"STUFF"fromdrive0todrive1.
COPYD0TOD1Copiesallfilesfromdrive0todrive
1.
COPY"WORK.PROG"TO"BACKUP"Copies"WORK.PRG"asafilecalled
"BACKUP"onthesamedisk(drive0).
17.22DATA
Definedatatobeusedbyaprogram.
DATAlistofconstants
Thisstatementisfollowedbyalistofdataitemstobeinputintothe
computer'smemorybyREADstatements.Theitemsmaybenumericorstring
andareseperatedbycommas.Stringdataneednotbeinsidequotemarks,
unlesstheycontainanyofthefollowingcharacters:{space},{colon},or
{comma}.Iftwocommashavenothingbetweenthem,thevalueisREADasa
zeroifnumericorasanemptystring.AlsoseetheRESTOREstatement,in
paragraph17.75,whichallowstheCommodore128toreREADdata.
EXAMPLE:
DATA100,200,FRED,"HELLOMUM",,3,14,ABC123
17.23DCLEAR
Clearallopenchannelsondiskdrive.
DCLEAR[Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevice]
Thisstatementclosesandclearsallopenchannelsonthespecifieddevice
number.DefaultisU8.ThiscommandisanalogoustoOPEN0,8,15,"I0":
CLOSE0.
EXAMPLES:
DCLEARD0Clearsallopenchannelsondrive0,devicenumber8.
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DCLEARD1,U9Clearsallopenchannelsondrive1,devicenumber9.
NOTE:Fileswillbeaborted,datamaynotberecoverablefromfileswhich
werebeingwrittento.SeeCLOSE/DCLOSE,inparagraphs17.13/17.24.
17.24DCLOSE
Closediskfile.
DCLOSE[#logicalfilenumber][<ON|,>Udevice]
Thisstatementclosesasinglefileorallthefilescurrentlyopenona
diskunit.Ifnologicalfilenumberisspecified,allcurrentlyopenfiles
areclosed.Thedefaultdevicenumberis8.Notethefollowingexamples:
EXAMPLES:
DCLOSEClosesallfilescurrentlyopenonunit8.
DCLOSE#2Closesthefileassociatedwiththelogicalfilenumber2.
DCLOSEONU9Closesallfilescurentlyopenonunit9.
17.25DEFFN
Defineauserdefinedfunction.
DEFFNname(variable)=expression
Thisstatementallowsdefinitionofacomplexcalculationasafunction.In
thecaseofalongformulathatisusedseveraltimeswithinaprogram,
thiskeywordcansavevaluableprogramspace.Thenamegiventothefunc
tionbeginswiththelettersFN,followedbyanylegalnumericvariable
name(notintegerorarray).First,definethefunctionbyusingthestate
mentDEF,followedbythenamegiventothefunction.Followingthenameis
asetofparentheses()withalocalvariablenameenclosed.Thisvariable
onlyhasavalueifitappearsintheexpressionontherightoftheequal
sign.Thesamevariablenamecanbeusedelsewhereinaprogrambutitwill
becompletelyseperatefromitsuseinthefunction.Othervariablesand/or
functionscanbeusedintheexpressionandtheseareevaluatedastheir
valueatthetimethefunctioniscalled.Nextisanequalsign,followed
bytheformulatobedefined.Thefunctioncanbeperformedbysustituting
anynumberforvariable,usingtheformatshowninlines40and50ofthe
examplebelow.
EXAMPLE:
10DEFFNEG(LO)=INT((V1*LO^2)*100)/100
LOislocaltothisline
20LO=15
Anormalprogramvariable
30V1=3.14159
Approximationof{pi}
40PRINTFNEG(5)
Assign5tothelocalvalueLOinthefunction.
50PRINTFNEG(1)
Use1inthefunctioninsteadofLO.
60PRINTINT(V1*LO^2)*100)/100
VariableLOused
70PRINTLO
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Remainsunchanged
17.26DELETE
DeletelinesofaBASICprograminthespecifiedrange.
DELETE<startline|startline|startlineendline|endline>
Thiscommandcanbeexecutedonlyindirectmode.
EXAMPLES:
DELETE75Deletesline75.
DELETE1050Deleteslines10through50,inclusive.
DELETE50Deletesalllinesfromthebeginningoftheprogramupto
andincludingline50.
DELETE75Deletesalllinesfrom75totheendoftheprogram,
inclusive.
17.27DIM
Declarenumberofelementsinanarray.
DIMvariable(subscripts)[,variable(subscripts)][...]
Beforearraysofvariablescanbeused,theprogrammustfirstexecutea
DIMstatementtoestablishDIMensionsofthearray(unlessthereare11or
fewerelementsineachDIMensionofthearray).TheDIMstatementisfol
lowedbythenameofthearray,whichmaybeanylegalvariablename.Then,
enclosedinparantheses,thenumber(ornumericvariable)ofelementsin
eachdimension.Anarraywithmorethanonedimensioniscalledamatrix.
Anynumberofdimensionsmaybeused,butkeepinmindthewholelistof
variablesbeingcreatedtakesupspaceinmemory,anditiseasytorunout
ofmemoryiftoomanyareused.Here'showtocalculatetheamountofmemo
ryusedbyanarray:
5bytesforthearrayname
2bytesforeachdimension
2bytes/elementforintegervariables
5bytes/elementfornormalnumericvariables
3bytes/elementforstringvariables
1byteforeachcharacterineachstringelement
Integerarraystakeuptwofifthsthespaceoffloatingpointarrays(e.g.
DIMA%(100)requires209bytes;DIMA(100)requires512bytes).
NOTE:Elementsarenumberedfrom0,e.g.DIMA(100)gives101elements.
MorethanonearraycanbedimensionedinaDIMstatementbyseperatingthe
arrayvariablenamesbycommas.IftheprogramexecutesaDIMstatementfor
anyarraymorethanonce,themessageRE'DIMARRAYERRORisposted.Itis
goodprogrammingpracticetoplaceDIMstatementsnearthebeginningofthe
program.
EXAMPLE:
10DIMA$(40),B7(15),CC%(4,4,4)
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41elements,16elements,125elements.
17.28DIRECTORY
Displaysthecontentsofthediskdirectoryonthescreen.
DIRECTORY[Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevice][,wildcard]
The{f3}functionkeyinC128modedisplaystheDIRECTORYfordevicenumber
8,drive0.UseCONTROLSorNOSCROLLtopausethedisplay.
TheDIRECTORYcommandshouldnotbeusedtoprintahardcopy,becausesome
printersinterferewiththedatacomingfromthediskdrive.Thedisk
directoryshouldbeloaded(LOAD"$",8)destroyingthecurrentprogramin
memoryinordertoprintahardcopy.
Thedefaultdevicenumberis8,andthedefaultdrivenumberis0.
EXAMPLES:
DIRECTORYListsallfilesonthedisksinunit8.
DIRECTORYD1,U9,"WORK"Liststhefilenamed"WORK"ondrive1of
unit9.
DIRECTORY"AB*"Listsallfilesstartingwiththeletters
"AB"likeABOVE,ABOARD,etc.onalldrives
ofunit8.Theasteriskspecifiesawild
card,whereallfilesstartingwith"AB"are
displayed.
DIRECTORYD0,"FILE?.BAK"The?isawildcardthatmatchesasingle
characterinthatposition.Forexample:
FILE1.BAK,FILE2.BAK,FILE3.BAKallmat
chingthestring.
DIRECTORYD1,U9,(A$)Liststhefilenamestoredinthevariable
A$,ondevicenumber9,drive1.Remember
wheneveravariableisusedasafilename,
surroundthevariableinparentheses.
NOTE:ToprinttheDIRECTORYofthediskindrive0,unit8,usethefol
lowingexample:
LOAD"$0",8
OPEN4,4:CMD4:LIST
PRINT#4:CLOSE4
17.29DLOAD
LoadaBASICprogramfromdisk.
DLOAD"filename"[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber]
ThiscommandloadsaBASICprogramfromdiskintocurrentmemory.(Use
LOADtoloadprogramsfromtape.)Theprogrammustbespecifiedbyafile
nameofupto16characters.DLOADassumesdevicenumber8,drive0.
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EXAMPLES:
DLOAD"BANKRECS"Searchesthediskfortheprogram"BANKRECS"andLOADs
it.
DLOAD(A$)LOADsaprogramfromdiskwhosenameisstoredinthe
variableA$.AnerrormessageisgivenifA$isempty.
Remember,whenavariableisusedasafilename,it
mustbeenclosedinparentheses.
TheDLOADcommandcanbeusedwithinaBASICprogramtofindanotherpro
gramondisk.Thisiscalledchaining.
17.30DO/LOOP/WHILE/UNTIL/EXIT
Defineandcontrolprogamloop.
DO[UNTILcondition|WHILEcondition]statement[EXIT]
LOOP[UNTILcondition|WHILEcondition]
ThisloopstructureperformsthestatementsbetweentheDOstatementand
theLOOPstatement.IfnoUNTILorWHILEstatementsmodifieseithertheDO
ortheLOOPstatement,executionofthestatementsinbetweencontinues
indefinitely.IfanEXITstatementisencounteredinthebodyofaDOloop,
executionistransferredtothefirststatementfollowingtheLOOPstate
ment.DOloopsmaybenested,followingtherulesdefinedbytheFOR...
NEXTstructure.IftheUNTILparameterisspecified,theprogramcontinues
loopinguntiltheconditionissatisfied(becomestrue).TheWHILEpara
meterisbasicallytheopositeoftheUNTILparameter:theprogramconti
nuesloopingaslongastheconditionistrue.Assoonastheconditionis
nolongertrue,programcontrolresumeswiththestatementimmediatelyfol
lowingtheLOOPstatement.Anexampleofacondition(booleanoperation)
isA=1,orG>65.
EXAMPLES:
10X=25
20DOUNTILX=0
30X=X1
40PRINT"X=";X
50LOOP
60PRINT"ENDOFLOOP"
ThisexampleperformsthestatementX=X1andPRINTs"X=";XuntilX=0.When
X=0theprogramresumeswiththestatementfollowingLOOP,
PRINT"ENDOFLOOP"
10DOWHILEA$="":GETA$:LOOP
20PRINT"THE";A$;"KEYHASBEENPRESSED"
A$remainsnullaslongasnokeyispressed.Assoonasakeyispressed
programcontrolpassestothestatementimmediatelyfollowingLOOP,
PRINT"THE";A$;"KEYHASBEENPRESSED".TheexampleperformsaGETA$as
longasA$isanullcharacter.Thisloopconstantlycheckstoseeifakey
onthekeyboardisbeingpressed.NotethatthestatementGETKEYA$hasthe
sameeffectasline10.
10OPEN#8,"SEQFILE"
20DO
30GET#8,A$
40PRINTA$;
50LOOPUNTILST
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60DCLOSE#8
Thisprogramopensthefile"SEQFILE"andgetsdatauntiltheSTsystem
variableindicatesalldataisinput.Avalueof0indicatesaFALSEcon
dition,nonzeroistrue.STisnormally0.
17.31DOPEN
Openadiskfileforareadand/orwriteoperation.
DOPEN#logicalfilenumber,"filename[,<S|P>]"[,Lrecordlength]
[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber][,w]
where:
S=Sequentialfiletype.
P=Programfiletype.
L=Recordlength=thelengthofrecordsinarelativefileonly.
w=Writeoperation(ifnotspecifiedareadoperationoccurs).
Thisstatementopensasequential,programorrelativefileforareador
writeoperation.Therecordlength(L)pertainstoarelativefile,which
canbeaslongas254.Thewparameterisspecifiedonlyduringawrite
(PRINT#)operationinasequentialfile.Ifnotspecified,thediskdrive
assumesthediskoperationtobeareadoperation.Relativefileareopen
forbothreadandwriteoperationsatthesametime.
Thelogicalfilenumberassociatesanumbertoafileforfuturedisk
operationssuchasaread(INPUT#orGET#)orwrite(PRINT#)operation.The
logicalfilenumbercanrangefrom1to255.Logicalfilenumbersgreater
than128automaticallysendacarriagereturnandlinefeedwitheachPRINT#
command.Logicalfilenumberlessthan128sendonlyacarriagereturn,
whichcanbesuppressedwithasemicolonattheendofthePRINT#command.
Thedefaultdevicenumberis8,andthedefaultdriveis0.
EXAMPLES:
DOPEN#1,"ADDRESS",WOpenthesequentialfilenumber1(ADDRESS)for
awriteoperation.
DOPEN#2,"RECIPES",D1,U9Openthesequentialfilenumber2(RECIPES)for
areadoperationondevicenumber9,drive1.
DOPEN#3,"BOOKS",L128Opentherelativefilenumber3(BOOKS)for
readandwriteonunit8drive0.Recordlength
is128characters.
17.32DRAW
Drawdots,linesandshapesatspecifiedpositionsonscreen.
DRAW[colorsource],x1,y1[TOx2,y2]...
Thisstatementdrawsindividualdots,lines,andshapes.Herearethepara
metervalues:
colorsource=0Backgroundcolor
1Foregroundcolor
2Multicolor1}
3Multicolor2}OnlyinGraphicsmodes3and4
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x1,y1Startingcoordinate,scaled
x2,y2Endingcoordinate,scaled
pixelcursor.
EXAMPLES:
DRAW1,100,50Drawadot
DRAW,10,10TO100,60Drawaline
DRAW,10,10TO10,60TO100,60TO10,10Drawatriangle
Youmayomitaparameterbutyoustillmustincludethecommathatwould
havefollowedtheunspecifiedparameter.
17.33DSAVE
SaveaBASICprogramfiletodisk.
DSAVE"filename"[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber]
Thiscommandstores(SAVEs)aBASICprogramondisk.(SeeSAVE,inparagraph
17.80,tostoreprogramsontape.)Afilenameupto16characterslongmust
besupplied.Thedefaultdevicenumberis8,whilethedefaultdrivenumber
is0.
EXAMPLES:
DSAVE"BANKRECS"SAVEstheprogram"BANKRECS"todisk.
DSAVE(A$)SAVEsthediskprogramnamedinthevariableA$.
DSAVE"PROG3",D1,U9SAVEstheprogram"PROG3"todiskonunit9,
drive1(onadualdriveunit).
17.34DVERIFY
Verifytheprograminmemoryagainsttheoneondisk.
DVERIFY"filename"[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber]
ThiscommandcausestheCommodore128tochecktheprogramonthespecified
driveagainsttheprograminmemory.Thedefaultdrivenumberis0andthe
defaultdevicenumberis8.
NOTE:IfgraphicareaisallocatedordeallocatedafteraSAVE,anerror
occurs.Technicallythisiscorrect.BecauseBASICtextismovedfromits
original(SAVEd)locationwhenabitmappedgraphicsareaisallocatedor
deallocated,theoriginallocationwheretheC128verifiedtheSAVEdpro
gramchanges.Hence,VERIFY,whichperformsbytetobytecomparisons,
fails,eventhoughtheprogramisvalid.
Toverifybinarydata,seeVERIFY"filename",8,1format,underVERIFY
commanddescription.
EXAMPLES:
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DVERIFY"C128"Verifiesprogram"C128"ondrive0,unit8.
DVERIFY"SPRITES",D0,U9Verifiesprogram"SPRITES"ondrive0,
device9.
17.35END
Definetheendofprogramexecution.
END
WhentheprogramencounterstheENDstatement,itstopsRUNningimmediate
ly.TheCONTcommandcanbeusedtorestarttheprogramatthenextstate
ment(ifany)followingtheENDstatement.
17.36ENVELOPE
Defineamusicalinstrumentenvelope.
ENVELOPEn[,atk][,dec][,sus][,rel][,wf][,pw]
where:
nEnvelopenumber(09)
atkAttackrate(015)
decDecayrate(015)
susSustainlevel(015)
relReleaserate(015)
wfWaveform:0=triangle
1=sawtooth
2=variablepulse(square)
3=noise
4=ringmodulation
pwPulsewidth(04095)
Aparameterthatisnotspecifiedwillretainitspredefinedorcurrently
redefinedvalue.Pulsewidthappliestothewidthofthevariablepulse
waveform(wf=2)onlyandisdeterminedbytheformula:pwout=pw/40.95,so
thatpw=2048producesasquarewaveandvalues0and4095produceconstant
DCoutput.TheCommodore128hasinitializedthefollowing10envelopes:
n,A,D,S,R,wf,pwinstrument
ENVELOPE0,0,9,0,0,2,1536piano
ENVELOPE1,12,0,12,0,1accordion
ENVELOPE2,0,0,15,0,0calliope
ENVELOPE3,0,5,5,0,3drum
ENVELOPE4,9,4,4,0,0flute
ENVELOPE5,0,9,2,1,1guitar
ENVELOPE6,0,9,0,0,2,512harpsicord
ENVELOPE7,0,9,9,0,2,2048organ
ENVELOPE8,8,9,4,1,2,512trumpet
ENVELOPE9,0,9,0,0,0xylophone
Toplaypredefinedmusicalinstrumentenvelopes,yousimplyspecifythe
envelopenumberinthePLAYcommand(seePLAY,paragraph17.64).Youdonot
needtousetheENVELOPEcommand.TheENVELOPEcommandisusedonlywhenyou
needtochangetheenvelope.
17.37FAST
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Putmachinein2Mhzmodeofoperation.
FAST
Thiscommandinitiates2Mhzmode,causingVIC's40columnscreentobe
turnedoff.Alloperartions(exceptI/O)arespeededupconsiderably.
Graphicsmaybeused,butwillnotbevisibleuntilaSLOWcommandis
issued.
17.38FETCH
Getdatafromexpansion(RAMmodule)memory.
FETCH#bytes,intsa,expsa,expb
where#bytes=numberofbytestogetfromexpansionmemory(065535)
intsa=startingaddressofhostRAM(065535)
expsa=startingaddressofexpansionRAM(065535)
expb=64KexpansionRAMbanknumber(015)
17.39FILTER
Definesound(SIDchip)filterparameters.
FILTER[freq][,lp][,bp][,hp][,res]
where:
freqFiltercutofffrequency(02047).
lpLowpassfilteron(1),off(0).
bpBandpassfilteron(1),off(0).
hpHighpassfilteron(1),off(0).
resResonance(015).
Unspecifiedparametersresultinnochangetothecurrentvalue.
Youcanusemorethanonetypeoffilteratatime.Forexample,bothlow
passandhighpassfilterscanbeusedtogethertoproduceanotch(orband
reject)filterresponse.Forthefiltertohaveanaudibleeffect,atleast
onetypeoffiltermustbeselectedandatleastonevoicemustberouted
throughthefilter.
EXAMPLES:
FILTER1024,0,1,0,2Setthecutofffrequencyat1024,selecttheband
passfilterandaresonancelevelof2.
FILTER2000,1,0,1,10Setthecutofffrequencyat2000,selectboththe
lowpassandhighpassfilters(toformanotch
reject)andsettheresonancelevelat10.
17.40FOR/TO/STEP/NEXT
Definearepetitiveprogramloopstructure.
FORvariable=startvalueTOendvalue[STEPincrement]
NEXT[variable]
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TheFORstatementworkswiththeNEXTstatementtosetupasectionofthe
programthatrepeatsforasetnumberoftimes(i.e.aloop).Thisisuse
fulwhensomethingneedstobecountedorsomethingmustbedoneacertain
numberoftimes(suchasprinting).
ThisstatementexecutesallthecommandsenclosedbetweentheFORandNEXT
statementsrepetitively,accordingtothestartandendvalues.Thestart
valueandendvaluearethebeginningandendingcountsfortheloop
variable.Theloopvariableisaddedtoorsubtractedfromduringthe
FOR...NEXTloop.
ThelogicoftheFOR...NEXTstatementisasfollows.First,theloop
variableissettothestartvalue.Whentheprogramreachesaprogramline
containingtheNEXTstatement,itaddstheSTEPincrement(default=1)to
thevalueoftheloopvariableandcheckstoseeifitishigherthanthe
endvalueoftheloop.Iftheloopvariableislessthanorequaltothe
endvalue,theloopisexecutedagain,startingwiththestatementimme
diatelyfollowingtheFORstatement.Iftheloopvariableisgreaterthan
theendvalue,theloopterminatesandtheprogramresumesimmediatelyfol
lowingtheNEXTstatement.Theoppositeistrueifthestepsizeisnega
tive.
EXAMPLEAEXAMPLEB
10FORL=1TO1010FORL=10TO1STEP1
20PRINTL20PRINTL
30NEXTL30NEXTL
40PRINT"I'MDONE!L=";L40PRINT"I'MDONE!L=";L
ProgramAprintsthenumberfromoneto10,followedbythemessage
I'MDONE!L=11.ProgramBprintsthenumbersdowntooneandthemI'M
DONE!L=0.
TheendvalueoftheloopmaybefollowedbythewordSTEPandanothernum
berorvariable.Inthiscase,thevaluefollowingthewordSTEPisadded
eachtime,insteadofthedefaultvalueone.Thisallowscountingback
wards,byfractions,orincrementsotherthanone.
Theusercansetuploopsinsideoneanother.Theseareknownasnested
loops.Caremustbetakenwhennestingloopsso,thatthelastloopto
startisthefirstonetoend.
EXAMPLE:
10FORL=1TO100
20FORA=5TO11STEP.5
30NEXTA
40NEXTL
TheFOR...NEXTloopinlines20and30arenestedinsidetheoneinline
10and40.TheSTEPincrementof.5isusedtoillustratethefactthat
floatingpointindicesarevalid.
17.41GET
Receiveinputdatafromthekeyboard,onecharacteratatimewithout
waitingforakeytobepressed.
GETvariablelist
TheGETstatementreadseachkeytypedbytheuser.Astheusertypes,the
charactersarestoredinthecomputer'smemory(inanareacalledthekey
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boardbuffer).Upto10characterscanbestoredhere1,anycharacters
typedafterthe10thcharacterarelost.TheGETstatementreadsthefirst
characterfromthebufferandmovestherestup,allowingroomformore.If
therearenocharactersinthebufferanull(empty)characterisreturned.
ThewordGETisfollowedbyavariablename,eithernumericorstring.GET
willnotpausetheprogramifnocharactersareinthebuffer(seeGETKEY,
inparagraph17.42).
IftheC128intendstoGETanumerickeyandakeyotherthananumberis
pressed,theprogramstopsandaTYPEMISMATCHerrormessageisdisplayed.
TheGETstatementmayalsobeputintoaloop,checkingforanempty
result.TheGETKEYstatementcouldalsobeusedinthiscase.SeeGETKEY,in
paragraph17.42,formoreinformation.TheGETandGETKEYstatementscanbe
executedonlywithinaprogram.
EXAMPLES:
10DO:GETA$:LOOPUNTILA$="A"ThislinewaitsfortheAkeytobe
pressedtocontinue.
20GETB,C,DGetnumericvariablesB,CandDfrom
thekeyboardwithoutwaitingforakey
tobepressed.
17.42GETKEY
Receiveinputdatafromthekeyboard,onecharacteratatimeandwaitfor
akeytobepressed.
GETKEYvariablelist
TheGETKEYstatementisverysimilartotheGETstatement.UnliketheGET
statement,GETKEY,ifthereisnocharacterinthekeyboardbuffer,will
waitfortheusertotypeacharacteronthekeyboard.Thisletsthecom
puterwaitforasinglecharactertobetyped.Thisstatementcanbeexe
cutedonlywithinaprogram.
EXAMPLES:
10GETKEYA$Thislinewaitsforakeytobepressed.Typingany
keycontinuestheprogram.
10GETKEYA$,B$,C$Thislinewaitsforthreealphanumericcharacters
tobeenteredfromthekeyboard.GETKEYcanalsobe
usedtoREADnumerickeys.
NOTE:GETKEYcannotreturnanull(empty)character.
17.43GET#
Receiveinputdatafromatape,diskorRS232.
GET#filenumber,variablelist
Thisstatementinputsonecharacteratatimefromapreviouslyopened
file.Otherwise,itworksliketheGETstatement.Thisstatementcanbe
executedonlywithinaprogram.
EXAMPLE:
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GET#1,A$Thisexamplereceivesonecharacter,whichisstoredinthe
variableA$,fromfilenumber1.Thisexampleassumesthat
file1waspreviouslyopened.SeetheOPENandDOPENstate
ments,inparagraphs17.62and17.31,respectively.
17.44GO64
SwitchtoC64mode.
GO64
ThisstatementswitchesfromC128modetoC64mode.Thequestion"AreYou
Sure?"isdisplayedinresponsetotheGO64statement.If{y}istyped,then
thecurrentlyloadedprogramislostandcontrolisgiventotheC64mode;
otherwise,ifanyotherkeyispressed,thecomputerremainsinC128mode.
Thisstatementcanbeusedindirectmodeorwithinaprogram.Theprompt
isnotdisplayedinprogrammode.
17.45GOSUB
Callasubroutinefromthespecifiedlinenumber.
GOSUBlinenumber
ThisstatementissimilartotheGOTOstatement,excepttheCommodore128
returnsfromwhereitcamewhenthesubroutineisfinished.Whenaline
withaRETURNstatementisencountered,theprogramjumpsbacktothe
statementimmediatelyfollowingtheGOSUBstatement.
ThetargetofaGOSUBstatementiscalledasubroutine.Asubroutineis
usefulifataskisrepeatedseveraltimeswithinaprogram.Insteadof
duplicatingthesectionofprogramoverandover,setupasubroutine,and
GOSUBtoitattheappropriatetimeintheprogram.SeealsotheRETURN
statement,inparagraph17.77.
EXAMPLE:
20GOSUB800
:
:
799END
800PRINT"HITHERE":RETURN
Thisexamplecallsthesubroutinebeginningatline800andexecutesit.
AllsubroutinesterminatewithaRETURNstatement.
Line799stopstheprogramaccidentallyfallingintothesubroutine.
17.46GOTO/GOTO
Transferprogramexecutiontothespecifiedlinenumber.
GOTOlinenumber
AfteraGOTOstatementisencounteredinaprogram,thecomputerexecutes
thestatementspecifiedbythelinenumberintheGOTOstatement.Whenused
indirectmode,GOTOexecutes(RUNs)theprogramstartingatthespecified
linenumber,withoutclearingthevariables.ThisisthesameastheRUN
commandexceptitdoesnotclearvariablevalues.
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EXAMPLES:
10PRINT"COMMODORE"
20GOTO10
TheGOTOinline20makesline10repeatcontinuouslyuntil{run/stop}is
pressed.
GOTO100
Starts(RUNs)theprogramstartingatline100,withoutclearingthe
variablestoragearea.
17.47GRAPHIC
Selectagraphicmode.
GRAPHICmode[,clear][,s]
GRAPHICCLR
ThisstatementputstheCommodore128inoneofthesixgraphicmodes:
ModeDescription
040column(VIC)standardtext
1Standardbitmap
2Standardbitmap(splitscreen)
3Multicolorbitmap
4Multicolorbitmap(splitscreen)
580columntext
Theclearparameterspecifieswhetherthebitmappedscreeniscleared
(equalto1)uponrunningtheprogram,orleftintact(equalto0).Thes
parameterindicatesthestartinglinenumberofthesplitscreenwhenin
graphicmode2or4(standardormulticolorbitmapsplitscreenmodes).
Thedefaultstartinglinenumberofthesplitscreenis19.
Whenexecuted,GRAPHIC14allocateda9Kbitmappedarea.Thestartof
BASICtextareaismovedabovethebitmaparea,andanyBASICprogramis
automaticallyrelocated.Thisarearemainsallocatedeveniftheuser
returnstoTEXTmode(GRAPHIC0).Iftheclearoptionisspecifiedas1,
thescreeniscleared.TheGRAPHICCLRcommanddeallocatesthe9Kbit
mappedarea,makingitavailableagainforBASICtext.AnyBASICprogram
isrelocated.
EXAMPLES:
GRAPHIC1,1Selectstandardbitmapmodeandclearthebitmap.
GRAPHIC4,0,10Selectsplitscreenmulticolorbitmapmode,donot
clearthebitmapandstartthesplitscreenatline10.
GRAPHIC0Select40columntext.
GRAPHIC5Select80columntext.
GRAPHICCLRClearanddeallocatethebitmapscreen.
17.48HEADER
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Formatsadiskette.
HEADERdiskname[,Ii.d.][,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber]
where:
disknameAnynameupto16characters.
i.d.Anytwoalphanumericcharacters.Youmustusetwoyoumaynot
leaveaspace.
Beforeanewdiskcanbeusedforthefirsttime,itmustbeformattedwith
theHEADERcommand.TheHEADERcommandcanalsobeusedtoeraseapre
viouslyformatteddisk,whichcanthenbereused.
WhenyouenteraHEADERcommandindirectmode,thepromptAREYOUSURE?
appears.Inprogrammode,thepromptdoesnotappear.
Thecommanddividesthediskintosectionscalledblocks.Itcreatesa
tableofcontentsoffiles,calledadirectory.Giveeachdiskaunique
i.d.number.BecarefulwhenusingtheHEADERcommandbecauseiterases
allstoreddata.
YoucanHEADERadiskettemorequicklyifitwasalreadyformatted(bya
HEADERcommand),byomittingthenewdiski.d.Theoldi.d.isusedin
stead.ThequickHEADERcanbeusedonlyifthediskwaspreviouslyformat
ted,sinceitclearsoutthedirectoryratherthanformattingthedisk.The
defaultdevicenumberis8andthedefaultdriveis0.
Asaprecaution,thesystemasksAREYOUSURE?beforetheCommodore128
completestheoperation.Pressthe{y}keytoperformtheHEADER,orpress
anyotherkeytocancelit.
TheHEADERcommandreadsthediskcommanderrorchannel,andifanyerror
isencountered,theerrormessage?BADDISKisdisplayed.
TheHEADERcommandisanalogoustotheBASIC2.0command:
OPEN1,8,15,"N0:diskname,i.d.":CLOSE1
EXAMPLES:
HEADER"MYDISK",I51,D0ThisHEADERs"MYDISK"usingi.d.51ondrive
0,(default)devicenumber8.
HEADER"RECS",I45,D1ONU9ThisHEADERs"RECS"usingi.d.45,onDrive
1,devicenumber9.
HEADER"C128PROGRAMS",D0ThisisaquickHEADERondrive0,device
number8,assumingthediskinthedrivewas
alreadyformatted.Theoldi.d.isused.
17.49HELP
Highlightthelinewheretheerroroccurred.
HELP
TheHELPcommandisusedafteranerrorhasbeenreportedinaprogram.
WhenHELPistypedin40columnformat,thelinewheretheerroroccursis
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listed,withtheportioncontainingtheerrordisplayedinreversefield.
In80columnformat,theportionofthelinewheretheerroroccursis
underlined.Pressingthe{help}keytypesHELP{return}automatically.
17.50IF/THEN/ELSE
Evaluateaconditionalexpressionandexecuteportionsofaprogramdepen
dingontheoutcomeoftheexpression.
IFexpressionTHENstatements(BASIC2.0)
IFexpressionTHENstatements[:ELSEelseclause](BASIC7.0)
TheIF...THENstatementevaluatesaBASICexpressionandtakesoneortwo
possiblecoursesofactiondependingupontheoutcomeoftheexpression.If
theexpressionistrue,thestatement(s)followingTHENisexecuted.This
maybeanyBASICstatement.Iftheexpressioniffalse,theprogramresumes
withtheprogramlineimmediatelyfollowingtheprogramlinecontainingthe
IFstatement,unlessanELSEclauseispresent.TheentireIF...THEN
statementmustbecontainedwithin160characters(80inC64mode).Also
seeBEGIN/BEND,inparagraph17.5.
TheELSEclause,ifpresent,mustbeonthesamelineastheIF...THEN
portionofthestatement,andseparatedfromtheTHENclausebyacolon
{:}.WhenanELSEclauseispresent,itisexecutedonlywhentheexpres
sioniffalse.Theexpressionbeingevaluatedmaybeavariableorafor
mula,inwhichcaseitisconsideredtrueifnonzero,andfalseifzero.
Inmostcases,thereisanexpressioninvolvingrelationaloperators(=,
<,>,>=,<>).
TheIF...THENstatementcantaketwoalternateforms:
IFexpressionTHENlinenumber
or
IFexpressionTHENGOTOlinenumber
Theseformstransferprogramexecutiontothespecificlinenumberifthe
expressionistrue.Otherwise,theprogramresumeswiththeprogramline
numberimmediatelyfollowingthelinecontainingtheIFstatement.
EXAMPLES:
50IFX>0THENPRINT"OK":ELSEEND
ThislinechecksthevalueofX.IfXisgreaterthan0,thestatementim
mediatelyfollowingthekeywordTHEN(PRINT"OK")isexecutedandtheELSE
clauseisignored.IfXislessthanorequalto0,theELSEclauseisexe
cutedandthestatementimmediatelyfollowingTHENisignored.
10IFX=10THEN100
20PRINT"Xdoesnotequal10"
.
.
99STOP
100PRINT"Xequals10"
ThisexampleevaluatesthevalueofX.IfXequals10,theprogramcontrol
istransferredtoline100andthemessage"XEQUALS10"isprinted.IfX
doesnotequal10,theprogramresumeswithline20,theC128printsthe
prompt"XDOESNOTEQUAL10"andtheprogramstops.
NOTE:TheELSEextensioncannotbeusedinC64mode.
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17.51INPUT
Receiveadatastringoranumberfromthekeyboardandwaitfortheuser
topress{return}.
INPUT["promptstring";]variablelist
TheINPUTstatementasksfordatafromtheuserwhiletheprogramis
RUNningandplacesthedataintoavariableorvariables.Theprogram
stops,printsaquestionmark(?)onthescreen,andwaitsfortheuserto
typetheanswerandhitthe{return}key.ThewordINPUTisfollowedbya
promptstringandavariablenameorlistofvariablenamesseparatedby
commas.Themessageinthepromptstringinsidequotessuggests(prompts)
theinformationtheusershouldenter.Ifthismessageispresent,there
mustbeasemicolon(;)aftertheclosingquoteoftheprompt.
WhenmorethanonevariableisINPUT,seperatethembycommas.Thecompu
terasksfortheremainingvaluesbytypingtwoquestionmarks(??).Ifthe
{return}keyispressedwithoutINPUTtingavalue,theINPUTvariable
retainsitspreviousvalue.TheINPUTstatementcanbeexecutedonlywith
inaprogram.
EXAMPLE:
10INPUT"PLEASETYPETWONUMBER";A,B
20INPUT"ANDYOURNAME";A$
30PRINTA$;",YOUTYPEDTHENUMBER"A;"AND";B
17.52INPUT#
Inputsdatafromafileintothecomputer'smemory.
INPUT#filenumber,variablelist
Thisstatementworkslikeinput,buttakesthedatafromapreviously
OPENedfileusuallyonadiskortapeinsteadofthekeyboard.Noprompt
stringisused.Thisstatementcanbeusedonlywithinaprogram.
EXAMPLE:
10OPEN2,8,2,"DATAFILE,S,R"
20INPUT#2,A$,C,D$
30CLOSE2
Inline20dataisINPUTfromthefile"DATAFILE"andstoresitinvaria
blesA$,CandD$.
17.53KEY
Defineorlistfunctionkeyassignments.
KEY[keynumber,string]
Thereareeightfunctionkeys(F1F8)availabletotheuserontheCommo
dore128:fourunshiftedandfourshifted.TheCommodore128allowsyouto
performafunctionoroperationforeachtimethespecifiedfunctionkeyis
pressed.Thedefinitionassignedtoakeycanconsistofdata,oracommand
orseriesofcommands.KEYwithnoparametersspecifiedreturnsalisting
displayingallcurrentKEYassignments.Ifdataisassignedtoafunction
key,thatdataisdisplayedonthescreenwhenthatfunctionkeyispres
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sed.Themaximumlengthofallthedefinitionstogetheris246characters.
EXAMPLES:
KEY7,"GRAPHIC0"+CHR$(13)+"LIST"+CHR$(13)
Thistellsthecomputertoselectthe(VIC)40columntextscreenandlist
theprogramwheneverthe{f7}keyispressed(indirectmode).CHR$(13)is
theASCIIcharacterfor{return}andperformsthesameactionaspressing
the{return}key.UseCHR$(27)forthe{esc}key.UseCHR$(34)toincor
poratethedoublequotecharacterintoaKEYstring.Thekeysmayberede
finedinaprogram.Forexample:
10KEY2,"PRINTDS$"+CHR$(13)
Thistellsthecomputertocheckanddisplaythediskdriveerrorchannel
variable(PRINTDS$)eachtimethe{f2}keyispressed.
TorestoreallfunctionkeystotheirBASICdefaultvalues,resettheCom
modore128bypressingthe{reset}button(orswitchoffandthenon).
17.54LET
Assignsavaluetoavariable.
[LET]variable=expression
ThewordLETisrarelyusedinprograms,sinceitisnotnecessary.When
everavariableisdefinedorgivenavalue,LETisalwaysimplied.The
variablenamethatreceivestheresultofacalculationisontheleftside
oftheequalsign.Thenumber,stringorformulaisontherightside.You
canonlyassignonevaluewitheach(implied)LETstatement.Forexample,
LETA=B=2isnot(normally)legal.
EXAMPLES:
LETA=5Assignthevalue5tonumericvariableA.
B=6Assignthevalue6tonumericvariableB.
C=A*B+3AssignthenumericvariableC,thevalueresultingfrom
5times6plus3.
D$="HELLO"Assignthestring"HELLO"tostringvariableD$.
17.55LIST
ListtheBASICprogramcurrentlyinmemory.
LIST[line|first|firstlast|last]
TheLISTcommanddisplaysaBASICprogramlistingthathasbeentypedor
LOADedintotheCommodore128'smemorysoyoucanreadandeditit.When
LISTisusedalone(withoutnumbersfollowingit),theCommodore128gives
acompleteLISTingoftheprogramonthescreen.Thelistingprocessmaybe
sloweddownbyholdingthe{C=}key,pausedby{ctrls}or{noscroll}key
(andresumedbypressinganykey),orstoppedbyhittingthe{run/stop}
key.IfthewordLISTisfollowedbyalinenumber,theCommodore128shows
onlythatlinenumber.IfLISTistypedwithtwolinenumbersseperatedby
adashalllinesfromthefirsttothesecondnumberaredisplayed.IfLIST
istypedfollowedbyanumberandjustadash,theCommodore128showsall
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linefromthatnumbertotheendoftheprogram.AndifLISTistypedwith
adash,thenanumber,alllinesfromthebeginningoftheprogramtothat
linenumberareLISTed.Byusingthesevariations,anyportionofaprogram
canbeexaminedorbroughttothescreenformodification.InCommodore128
mode,LISTcanbeusedinaprogram.
EXAMPLES:
LISTShowsentireprogram.
LIST100Showsfromline100untiltheendoftheprogram.
LIST10Showsonlyline10.
LIST100Showsalllinesfromthebeginningtoline100inclusive.
LIST10200Showslinesfrom10to200,inclusive.
17.56LOAD
LoadaprogramfromaperipheraldevicesuchasthediskdriveorDatas
sette.
LOAD["filename"][,devicenumber][,relocateflag]
Thisisthecommandusedtorecallaprogramstoredondiskorcassette
tape.Here,thefilenameisaprogramnameupto16characterslong,in
quotes.Thenamemustbefollowedbyacomma(outsidethequotes)anda
numberwhichactsasadevicenumbertodeterminewheretheprogramis
stored(diskortape).Ifnonumberissupplied,theCommodore128assumes
devicenumber1(theDatassettetaperecorder).
Therelocateflagisanumber(0or1)thatdetermineswhereaprogramis
loadedinmemory.Arelocateflagof0tellstheCommodore128toloadthe
programatthestartoftheBASICprogramarea.Aflagof1tellsthecom
putertoLOADfromthepointwhereitwasSAVEd.Thedefaultvalueofthe
relocateflagis0.Therelocateparameterof1isgenerallyusedwhen
loadingmachinelanguageprograms.
ThedevicemostcommonlyusedwiththeLOADcommandisthediskdrive.This
isdevicenumber8,thoughtheDLOADcommandismoreconvenienttousewhen
workingwithdisk.
IfLOADistypedwithnoarguments,followedby{return},theC128assumes
youareloadingfromtapeandyouarepromptedto"PRESSPLAYONTAPE".
WhenyoupressPLAY,theCommodore128startslookingforaprogramon
tape.Whentheprogramisfound,theCommodore128printsFOUND"filename",
wherethefilenameisthenameofthefirstfilewhichthedatassettefinds
onthetape.Pressthe{C=}keytoLOADthefoundfilename,orpressthe
{spacebar}tokeepsearchingonthetape.OncetheprogramisLOADed,it
canbeRUN,LISTedormodified.
NOTE:Pressingthe{spacebar}doesnotcausethenextfiletobesearched
forinC64mode.
EXAMPLES:
LOADReadsinthenextprogramfromtape.
LOAD"HELLO"Searchestapeforaprogramcalled"HELLO",and
LOADsitiffound.
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LOADA$,8LOADstheprogramfromdiskwhosenameisstoredin
thevariableA$.(Thisistheequivalentto
DLOAD(A$).)
LOAD"HELLO",8Looksfortheprogramcalled"HELLO"ondiskdrive
number8,drive0.(ThisisequivalenttoDLOAD
"HELLO".)
LOAD"MACHLANG",8,1LOADsthemachinelanguageprogramcalled
"MACHLANG"intothelocationfromwhichitwas
saved.
TheLOADcommandcanbeusedwithinaBASICprogramtofindandRUNthe
nextprogramonatapeordisk.Thisiscalledchaining.
17.57LOCATE
Positionthebitmappixelcursoronthescreen.
LOCATEx,y
TheLOCATEstatementplacesthepixelcursor(PC)atanyspecifiedpixel
coordinateonthescreen.
Thepixelcursor(PC)isthecoordinateonthebitmapscreenwheredrawing
ofcircles,boxes,linesandpointsandwherePAINTingbegins.ThePC
rangesfromx,ycoordinates0,0throught319,199(scaled)inhiresand
159,199(scaled)inmulticolorbitmap.ThePCisnotvisiblelikethetext
cursor,butitcanbecontrolledthroughthegraphicsstatements(BOX,
CIRCLE,DRAW,etc.).Thedefaultlocationofthepixelcursoristhecoor
dinatespecifiedbythexandyportionsineachparticulargraphicscom
mand.SotheLOCATEcommanddoesnothavetobespecified.
EXAMPLE:
LOCATE160,100PositionthePCinthecentreofthestandardbitmap
screen.Nothingwillbeseenuntilsomethingisdrawn.
ThePCcanbefoundbyusingRDOT(0)functiontogetthexcoordinateand
RDOT(1)togettheycoordinate.ThecolorsourceofthedotatthePCcan
befoundbyPRINTingRDOT(2).
17.58MONITOR
EntertheCommodore128machinelanguagemonitor.
MONITOR
SeeAppendixJfordetailsontheCommodore128MachineLanguageMonitor.
17.59MOVSPR
Positionormovespriteonthescreen.
MOVSPRnumber,x1,y1Placethespecifiedspriteatabsolute
coordinatex,y(scaled).
MOVSPRnumber,+/x,+/yMovespriterelativetoitscurrentposi
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tion.
MOVSPRnumber,X;YMovespritedistanceXatangleYrelative
toitscurrentposition.
MOVSPRnumber,xangle#yspeedMovespriteatananglerelativetoits
originalcoordinates,inthespecified
clockwisedirectionandspeed.
where:
numberissprite'snumber(1through8)
<,x,y>isthecoordinateofthespritelocation(scaled)
angleistheangle(0360)ofmotionintheclockwisedirectionrelative
tothesprite'soriginalcoordinates
speedisaspeed(015)atwhichthespritemoves
Thisstatementlocatesaspriteataspecificlocationonthescreenaccor
dingtotheSPRITEcoordinateplane(notthebitmapplane)orinitiates
spritemotionataspecificrate.SeeMOVSPRinparagraph6.3.7ofSection6
foradiagramofthespritecoordinatesystem.
EXAMPLES:
MOVSPR1,150,150Positionsprite1nearthecentreotthescreen,x,y
coordinate150,150.
MOVSPR1,+20,30Movesprite1totheright20coordinatesandup30
coordinates.
MOVSPR4,50,+100Movesprite4totheleft50coordinatesanddown
100.
MOVSPR5,45#15Movesprite5atan45degreeangleintheclockwise
direction,relativetoitsoriginalxandycoor
dinate.Thespritemovesatthefastestrate(15).
NOTE:Onceyouspecifyanangleandaspeedinthefourthformofthe
MOVSPRstatement,youmustsetaspeedofzerotostopthespritemoving.
17.60NEW
Clear(erase)programandvariablestorage.
NEW
Thiscommanderasestheentireprograminmemoryandclearsanyvariables
thatmayhavebeenused.Unlesstheprogramwasstoredondiskortape,it
islost.Becarefulwiththeuseofthiscommand.TheNEWcommandalsocan
beusedasastatementinaBASICprogram.However,whentheCommodore128
getstothisline,theprogramiserasedandeverythingstops.
17.61ON
Conditionalbranchtoaspecifiedprogramlinenumberaccordingtothere
sultsofthespecifiedexpression.
ONexpression<GOTO|GOSUB>line#1[,line#2,...]
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ThisstatementcanmaketheGOTOandGOSUBstatementsoperatelikespecial
versionsofthe(conditional)IFstatement.ThewordONisfollowedbyan
expression,theneitherofthekeywordsGOTOorGOSUBandalistofline
numbersseparatedbycommas.Iftheresultoftheexpressionis1,the
firstlinenumberinthelistisexecuted.Iftheresultis2,thesecond
linenumberisexecutedonsoon.Iftheresultis0,orlargerthanthe
numberoflinenumbersinthelist,theprogramresumeswiththestatement
immediatelyfollowingtheONstatement.Ifthenumberisnegative,an
ILLEGALQUANTITYerrorresults.
EXAMPLE:
10INPUTX:IFX<0THEN10
20ONXGOSUB30,40,50,60
25GOTO10
30PRINT"X=1":RETURN
40PRINT"X=2":RETURN
50PRINT"X=3":RETURN
60PRINT"X=4":RETURN
WhenX=1,ONsendscontroltothefirstlinenumberinthelist(30).When
X=2,ONsendscontroltothesecondline(40),etc.
17.62OPEN
Openfilesforinputoroutput.
OPENlogicalfilenumber,devicenumber[,secundaryaddress]
[<,"filename,filetype,mode"|cmdstring>]
TheOPENstatementallowstheCommodore128toaccessfileswithindevices
suchasadiskdrive,aDatassettecassetterecorder,aprinteroreventhe
screenoftheCommodore128.
ThewordOPENisfollowedbyalogicalfilenumber,whichisthenumberto
whichallotherBASICinput/outputstatementswillrefer,suchasPRINT#
(write),INPUT#(read),etc.Thisnumberisfrom1to255.
Thesecondnumber,calledthedevicenumberfollowsthelogicalfilenum
ber.Devicenumber0istheCommodore128keyboard;1isthecassette
recorder;3istheCommodore128screen;47arenormallytheprinter(s);
811arereservedfordiskdrives.Itisoftenagoodideatousethesame
filenumberasthedevicenumber,becauseitmakesiteasytoremember
whichiswhich.
Followingthedevicenumbermaybeathirdparametercalledthesecundary
address.Inthecaseofthecassette,thiscanbe0forread,1forwrite
and2forwritewithENDOFTAPEmarkerattheend.Incaseofthedisk,
thenumberreferstothechannelnumber.Seeyoudiskdrivemanualformore
informationonchannelsandchannelnumbers.Fortheprinter,thesecundary
addressesareusedtoselectcertainprogrammingfunctions.
TheremayalsobeafilenamespecifiedfordiskortapeORastringfol
lowingthesecundaryaddress,whichcouldbeacommandtothedisk/tape
driveorthenameofthefileontapeordisk.Ifthefilenameisspeci
fied,thetypeandmoderefertodiskfilesonly.FiletypesarePROGRAM,
SEQUENTIAL,RELATIVEandUSER;modesareREADandWRITE.
EXAMPLES:
10OPEN3,3OPENsthescreenasfilenumber3.
20OPEN1,0OPENsthekeyboardasfilenumber1.
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30OPEN1,1,0,"DOT"OPENsthecassetteforreading,asfilenumber1,
using"DOT"asthefilename.
OPEN4,4OPENstheprinterasfilenumber4.
OPEN15,8,15OPENsthecommandchannelonthediskasfile15,
withsecundaryaddress15.(Secundaryaddress15
isreservedforthediskdriveerrorcommand
channel.)
5OPEN8,8,12,OPENsasequentialdiskfileforwritingcalled
"TESTFILE,SEQ,WRITE""TESTFILE"asfilenumber8,withsecundary
address12.
Seealso:CLOSE(17.13),CMD(17.15),GET#(17.43),INPUT#(17.52),and
PRINT#(17.67)statementsandsystemvariablesST,DSandDS$(19.1).
17.63PAINT
Fillareawithcolor.
PAINT[colorsource],x,y[,mode]
where:
colorsource0Backgroundcolor
1Foregroundcolor
2Multicolor1
3Multicolor2
x,yStartingcoordinates,scaled(defaultatpixelcursor
(PC)).
mode0=Paintanareadefinedbythecolorsourceselected
(default).
1=paintanareadefinedbyanynonbackgroundsource.
ThePAINTcommandfillsanareawithcolor,theareaisdefinedbyafully
enclosedshapearound,butnotincludingthex,ycoordinatesspecified.
Pointswherethecolorsourceisthesameasthesourceofthepixelare
notPAINTed.(Seeexample3.)
Ifmode=0theareafilledmustbeboundedbythecolorsource,anyother
colorsourceswhichliewithinthisbounderyareoverPAINTed.(Seeexample
1.)
Ifmode=1thebounderyoftheareaisanycolorsource(except0).Nocolor
sourceswillbeoverPAINTed;i.e.onlynonPAINTedareascanbefilledwhen
mode=1.(Seeexample2.)
EXAMPLE1:
10COLOR0,1:COLOR1,2:
COLOR2,5:COLOR3,7
20GRAPHIC3,1multicolorgraphics
30CIRCLE1,80,100,30drawcircleincolorsource1
40CIRCLE3,80,100,35drawcircleincolorsource3
50BOX2,80,100,90,110,45,1drawfilledboxincolorsource2
60PAINT3,70,100,0paintinnercircleincolorsource3bounded
onlybycolorsource3
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EXAMPLE2:
Asexample1,butchangeline60to:
60PAINT3,70,100,1paintinnercircleboundedbynonbackground
colorsource
EXAMPLE3:
Asexample2,butaddlines70and80:
70COLOR2,8changecolorsourcetoyellow
80PAINT2,90,110,1attempttorepainttheboxfails,because
colorsourceinPAINTandat(90,100)arethe
same(2).
17.64PLAY
Defineandplaymusicalnotesandelements.
PLAY"[Vn][On][Tn][Un][Xn][elements][...]"
where:Vn=Voice(n=13)
On=Octave(n=06)
Tn=TuneEnvelope(n=09)
0=piano
1=accordionFor
2=calliopedefaultenvelope
3=drumsettings
4=flute(seeENVELOPE
5=guitarcommand,paragraph
6=harpsichord17.36)
7=organ
8=trumpet
9=xylophone
Un=Volume(n=09)(0=off;9=full(VOL15))
Xn=Filteron(n=1),off(n=0)
Elements:
NOTES:A,B,C,D,E,F,G
#Sharp*
$Flat*
WWholenote
HHalfnote
QQuarternote
IEighthnote
SSixteenthnote
.Dotted*
RRest
MWaitforallvoicescurrentlyplaying
toendcurrentmeasure
ThePLAYstatementgivesyouthepowertoselectvoice,octaveandtune
envelope(includingtenpredefinedmusicalinstrumentenvelopes),the
volumeandthenotesyouwanttoPLAY.Allthesecontrolsareenclosedin
quotes.
AllelementsexceptRandMprecedethemusicalnotesinaPLAYstring.
NOTE:*Thesemustprecedeeachmusicalnote.
EXAMPLES:
PLAY"V1O4T0U5X0CDEFGAB"
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PlaythenotesC,D,E,F,G,A,andBinvoice1,octave4,tuneenve
lope0(pianoassumingyouhavenotaltereditwithENVELOPE),atvolume
5,withthefilteroff.
PLAY"V3O5T6U7X1#B$AW.CHDQEIF"
PlaythenotesBsharp,Aflat,awholedottedCnote,ahalfDnote,a
quarterEnoteandaneighthFnote.
NOTE:Youwillneedtosetupafilterbeforeyoucanhearanythingwith
thisexampletryFILTER1024,1.
17.65POKE
ChangethecontentsofaRAMmemorylocation.
POKEaddress,value
ThePOKEstatementallowschangingofanyvalueintheCommodore128RAM,
andallowsmodificationofmanyoftheCommodore128Input/Output
registers.ThekeywordPOKEisalwaysfollowedbytwoparameters.Thefirst
isalocationinsidetheCommodore128memory,thiscanbeavaluefrom0
to65535.Thesecondparameterisavaluefrom0to255,whichisplacedin
thelocation,replacinganyvaluethatwastherepreviously.Thevalueof
thememorylocationdeterminesthebitpatternofthememorylocation.In
C128modethePOKEoccursintothecurrentselectedRAMbank.ThePOKE
addressdependsontheBANKnumber.SeeBANKinparagraph17.4ofthisEncy
clopaediafortheappropriateBANKconfigurations.
EXAMPLE:
10POKE53280,1
ChangesVICbordercolor(BANK15inC128mode).
NOTE:PEEK,afunctionrelatedtoPOKE,whichreturnsthecontentsofthe
specifiedmemorylocationislistedunderBASICFunctions.
17.66PRINT
Outputtotextscreen
PRINTprintlist
ThePRINTstatementisthemajoroutputstatementinBASIC.WhilethePRINT
statementisthefirstBASICstatementmostpeoplelearntouse,thereare
manyvariationsofthisstatement.ThewordPRINTcanbefollowedbyanyof
thefollowing:
Charactersinsideofquotes("text"lines)
Variablenames(A,B,A$,X$)
Functions(SIN(23),ABS(33))
Punctuationmarks(;,)
Thecharactersinsidequotesareoftencalledliteralsbecausetheyare
printedliterally,exactlyastheyappear.Variablenameshavethevalue
theycontain(eitheranumberorastring)printed.Functionsalsohave
theirnumbervaluesprinted.
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Punctuationmarksareusedtohelpformatthedataneatlyonthescreen.
Thecommatabstothenearesttenthcolumn,whilethesemicolonprints
itemsnexttoeachother.Eitherpunctuationmarkcanbeusedasthelast
symbolinthestatement.ThisresultsinthenextPRINTstatementactingas
ifitiscontinuingthepreviousPRINTstatement.PRINTonitsownmovesto
thestartofthenextlineleavingablankline.
EXAMPLES:RESULTS
10PRINT"HELLO"HELLO
20A$="THERE":PRINT"HELLO";A$HELLOTHERE
30A=4:B=2:PRINTA+B6
40J=41:PRINTJ;:PRINTJ14140
50PRINTA;B;:D=A+B:PRINTD;AB4262
SeealsoPOS,SPCandTABFunctions,inSection18,paragraphs18.24,18.37,
and18.40,respectively.
17.67PRINT#
Outputdatatofiles.
PRINT#filenumber,printlist
ThereareafewdifferencesbetweenthisstatementandthePRINT.Mostim
portantly,thewordPRINT#isfollowedbyanumber,whichreferstothe
datafilepreviouslyOPENed.Thenumberisfollowedbyacommaandalist
ofitemstobeoutputtothefile.Thesemicolonactsinthesamemanner
forspacinginprintersasitdoesinthePRINTstatement,commasoutput10
spaces.SomedevicesmaynotworkwithTABandSPC.
EXAMPLES:
10OPEN4,4
20PRINT#4,"HELLOTHERE!",A$,B$
Outputsthedata"HELLOTHERE"andthevariablesA$andB$totheprinter.
10OPEN2,8,2,"DATAFILES,S,W"
20PRINT#2,A,B$,C,D
ThisexampleoutputsthedatavariablesA,B$,CandDtothediskfile
number2.
NOTE:ThePRINT#commandisusedbyitselftoclearthechanneltoadevice
afteroutputtingviaCMDandbeforeclosingthefileasfollows:
OPEN4,4
CMD4
LIST
PRINT#4
CLOSE4
SeealsotheCMDcommand,inparagraph17.15.
17.68PRINTUSING
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Outputusingformat
PRINT[#filenumber,]USING"formatlist";printlist
Thisstatementdefinestheformatofstringandnumericitemsforprinting
tothetextscreen,printerorotherdevice.Theformatisputinquotes.
Thisistheformatlist.Thenaddasemicolonandalistofwhatistobe
printedintheformatfortheprintlist.Thelistcanbevariablesorthe
actualvaluestobeprinted,separatedbycommas.
FORMATSTRINGUSEDWITH
CHARACTERNUMERICSTRING
Hashsign(#)XX
Plussign(+)X
Minussign()X
Decimalpoint(.)X
Comma(,)X
Dollarsign($)X
FourCarets(^^^^)X
Equalsign(=)X
Greaterthansign(>)X
Thehashsign{#}reservesroomforasinglecharacterintheoutputfield.
WithNumericDataifthedataitemcontainsmorecharactersthanthereare
#signsintheformatfield,theentirefieldisfilledwithasterisks{*};
nocharactersareprinted.
EXAMPLE:
10PRINTUSING"####";X
ForthesevaluesofX,thisformatdisplays:
X=12.3412
X=567.89568Notethatthenumberisroundedup.
X=123456****
ForaSTRINGitem,thestringdataistruncatedattheboundsofthefield.
Onlyasmanycharactersareprintedastherearehashsignsintheformat
item.Truncationoccursontheright.
Theplus(+)andminus()signscanbeusedineitherthefirstorthe
lastpositionoftheformatfield,butnotboth.Theplussignisprinted
ifthenumberispositive.Theminussignisprintedifthenumberisnega
tive.
Ifaminussignisusedandthenumberispositive,ablankisprintedin
thecharacterpositionindicatedbytheminussign.
Ifneitheraplusnoraminussignisusedintheformatfieldforanume
ricdataitem,aminussignisprintedbeforethefirstdigitordollar
symbolifthenumberisnegative.Nosignisprintedifthenumberisposi
tive.Thismeansthatoneadditionalcharacter,theminussign,isprinted
ifthenumberisnegative.Iftherearetoomanycharacterstofitintothe
fieldspecifiedbythehashsignsandplus/minussign,thenanoverflowoc
cursandthefieldisfilledwithasterisks{*}.
Adecimalpoint{.}symboldesignatesthepositionofthedecimalpointin
thenumber.Therecanbeonlyonedecimalpointinanyformatfield.Ifa
decimalpointisnotspecifiedintheformatfield,thevalueisroundedto
thenearestintegerandprintedwithoutdecimalplaces.
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Whenadecimalpointisspecified,thenumberofdigitsprecedingthedeci
malpoint(includingtheminussign,ifthevalueisnegative)mustnot
exceedthenumberofhashsignsbeforethedecimalpoint.Iftherearetoo
manydigits,anoverflowoccursandthefieldisfilledwithasterisks{*}.
Acomma{,}allowsplacingofcommasinnumericfields.Thepositionofthe
commaintheformatlistindicateswherethecommasappearinaprinted
number.Onlycommaswithinanumberareprinted.Unusedcommastotheleft
ofthefirstdigitappearasfillercharacter.Atleastonehashsignmust
precedethefirstcommainthefield.
Ifcommasarespecifiedinafieldandthenumberisnegative,thenaminus
signisprintedasthefirstcharacter,evenifthecharacterpositionis
specifiedasacomma.
Adollarsign($)symbolshowsthatadollarsignwillbeprintedinthe
number.Ifthedollarsignistofloat(alwaysbeplacedbeforethenum
ber),atleastonehashsignmustbespecifiedbeforethedollarsign.Ifa
dollarsignisspecifiedwithoutaleadinghashsign,thedollarsignis
printedinthepositionshownintheformatfield.Ifaplusorminussign
arespecifiedinaformatfieldwithadollarsign,theprogramprintsthe
signbeforethedollarsign.
EXAMPLES:
FieldExpressionResultComment
##.#.10.1Leadingzeroadded.
##.#11.0Trailingzeroadded.
####100.5101Roundedtonodecimalplaces.
####1000****Overflowbecausefourdigitsandaminussign
cannotfitinfield.
###.1010.Decimalpointadded.
#$##1$1Leadingdollarsign.
Theuparrowsorcaretsymbols{^^^^}areusedtospecifythatthenumber
istobeprintedintheEformat(scientificnotation).Ahashsignmustbe
usedinadditiontothefourcaretstospecifythefieldwidth.Thecarets
mustappearafterthehashsignintheformatfield.Fourcaretsmustbe
specifiedwhenanumberistobeprintedinEformat.Iffewerthanfour
caretsarespecified,asyntaxerrorresults.Ifmorethanfourcaretsare
specified,onlythefirstfourareused.Thefifthandsubsequentcarets
areinterpretedastextsymbols.Youcanspecifya{+}or{}signafter
thecaretsifyourequireatrailingsign.Anequal{=}signisusedto
centreastringinafield.Thefieldwidthisspecifiedbythenumberof
characters(thehashsignsandanequalsign)intheformatfield.Ifthe
stringcontainsfewercharactersthanthefieldwidth,thestringiscen
teredinthefield.Ifthestringcontainsmorecharactersthancanbe
fittedintothefield,thentherightmostcharactersaretruncatedandthe
stringfillstheentirefield.Agreaterthan{>}signisusedtoright
justifyastringinafield.Othercharacterscanbeincludedinaformat
string,thesearetreatedasliterals.Thisallowsyoutobuilduptables
andcharts.Seeline30intheprogrambelowforaspecificexampleof
this.
EXAMPLE:
5X=32:Y=100.23:A$="CAT":B$="COMPUTER"
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6F$=*#=##########*#$##.##*+CHR$(13)
10PRINTUSING"$##.##";13.25,X,Y
20PRINTUSING"###>#";"CBM",A$
30PRINTUSINGF$;A$,X,B$,Y
(CHR$(13)is{return})
WhenthisprogramisRUN,line10prints:
$13.25$32.00$*****Fiveasterisks{*****}areprintedinsteadofaY
value,becauseYhasfivedigitswhichdoesnotcon
formtotheformatlist(asexplainedabove).
Line20printsthis:
CBMCAT
Leavestwospacesbeforeprintingthestring,asdefinedintheformat
list.
Line30printsthis:
*CAT*$23.00*
*COMPUTER*$100.23*
17.69PUDEF
RedefinesymbolsinPRINTUSINGstatements.
PUDEF"nnnn"
Where"nnnn"isanycombinationofcharacters,uptofourinall,PUDEF
allowsyoutoredefineanyofthefollowingfoursymbolsinthePRINTUSING
statement:blanks,commas,decimalpointsanddollarsigns.Thesefoursym
bolscanbechangedintosomeothercharacterbyplacingthenewcharacter
inthecorrectpositioninthePUDEFcontrolstring.
Position1isthefillercharacter.Thedefaultisablank.Placeanew
characterhereforanothercharactertoappearinplaceofblanks.
Position2isthecommacharacter.Defaultisacomma.
Position3isthedecimalpoint.Defaultisadecimalpoint.
Position4isthedollarsign.Defaultisadollarsign.
EXAMPLE:
10PUDEF"*"PRINTs*intheplaceofblanks.
20PUDEF"<"PRINTs<intheplaceofcommas.
NOTE:Allpositionsuptotheone(s)tobechangedmustbespecified.
ForexamplePUDEF"$"wouldprintthe$inplaceofthedollarsign,but
thedecimalpoint,commaandfillercharacterwouldallbesettospace.
PUDEFonlyaffectsnumericformatsi.e.PUDEF"0"willchangefillerspaces
innumberstoleading0s,butwillnotaffectfillerspacesinstrings.
Thecharactertoreplacethe$hasnoeffectunlessthe$intheformat
stringofPRINTUSINGisprecededbya#(i.e.isfloating).
17.70READ
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ReaddatafromDATAstatementsandinputitintothecomputer'smemory
(whiletheprogramisRUNning)
READvariablelist
ThisstatementtakesinformationfromDATAstatementsandstoresthemin
variables,wherethedatacanbeusedbytheRUNningprogram.TheREAD
statementvariablelistmaycontainbothstringsandnumbers.Becarefulto
avoidreadingstringswheretheREADstatementexpectsanumber,thispro
ducesaTYPEMISMATCHERRORmessage.
ThedataintheDATAstatementsareREADinsequentialorder.EachREAD
statementcanreadoneormoredataitems.EveryvariableintheREAD
statementrequiresaDATAitem.Ifoneisnotsupplied,anOUTOFDATA
ERRORoccurs.
Inaprogram,youcanREADthedataandthereREADbyissuingtheRESTORE
statement.TheRESTOREstatementsetsthesequentialdatapointerbackto
thebeginning,wherethedatacanbeREADagain.SeetheRESTOREstatement,
inparagraph17.75.
EXAMPLES:
10READA,B,C
20DATA3,4,5
READ3dataitems(whichmustbenumericoranerrorwilloccur)into
variablesA,BandC.
10READA$,B$,C$
20DATAJOHN,PAUL,GEORGE
READthreestringsfromDATAstatements.
10READA,B$,C
20DATA1200,NANCY,345
READanumericvalue,astring,andanothernumericvalue.
17.71RECORD
Positionrelativefilepointers.
RECORD#logicalfilenumber,recordnumber[,byte]
Thisstatementpositionsarelativefilepointertoselectanybyte
(character)ofanyrecordintherelativefile.Thelogicalfilenumbercan
beintherangebetween1and255.Therecordnumbercanbeintherange1
through65535.Bytenumberisintherange1through254.Seeyourdisk
drivemanualfordetailsaboutrelativefiles.
Whentherecordnumbervalueissethigherthanthelastrecordnumberin
thefile,thefollowingoccurs:
Forawrite(PRINT#)operation,additionalrecordsarecreatedtoexpand
thefiletothedesiredrecordnumber.
Foraread(INPUT#orGET#)operation,anullrecordisreturnedanda
RECORDNOTPRESENTerroroccurs.
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EXAMPLE:
10DOPEN#2,"CUSTOMER"
20RECORD#2,10,1
30PRINT#2,A$
40DCLOSE#2
Thisexampleopensanexistingrelativefilecalled"CUSTOMER"asfile
number2inline10.Line20positionstherelativefilepointeratthe
firstbyteinrecordnumber10.Line30actuallywritesthedata,A$,to
thefile.
TheRECORDcommandacceptsvariablesforitsparameters.Itisoftencon
venienttoplacetheRECORDcommandwithinaFOR...NEXTorDOloop.Also
seeDOPEN,inparagraph17.31.
17.72REM
Commentorremarkabouttheoperationofaprogramline.
REM[message]
TheREMarkstatementisanotetowhoeverisreadingalistingofthepro
gram.REMmayexplainasectionoftheprogram,giveinformationaboutthe
author,etc.REMstatementsdonotaffecttheoperationoftheprogram,
excepttoaddlengthtoit(andthereforeusemorememory).Nothingtothe
rightofthekeywordREMisinterpretedbythecomputerasanexecutable
instruction.Therefore,nootherexecutablestatementcanfollowaREMon
thesameline.
EXAMPLE:
1010NEXTX:REMENDOFMAINPROGRAMLOOP
17.73RENAME
Changethenameofafileondisk.
RENAME[Ddrivenumber,]"oldfilename"TO"newfilename"
[<ON|,>Udevicenumber]
Thiscommandisusedtorenameafileondisk,fromtheoldfilenametothe
newfilename.ThediskdrivedoesnotRENAMEafileifitisOPEN.
EXAMPLES:
RENAMED0,"TEST"TO"FINALTEST"Changethenameofthefile"TEST"to
"FINALTEST".
RENAMED0,(A$)TO(B$),U9ChangethefilenamespecifiedinA$
tothefilenamespecifiedinB$on
drive0,devicenumber9.Remember,
wheneveravariablenameisusedasa
filename,itmustbeenclosedin
parentheses.
17.74RENUMBER
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RenumberlinesofaBASICprogram.
RENUMBER[newstartinglinenumber][,increment]
[,oldstartinglinenumber]
Thenewstartinglineisthenumberofthefirstlineintheprogramafter
renumbering;thedefaultis10.Theincrementistheintervalbetweenline
numbers(i.e.10,20,30,etc.);theincrementdefaultvalueisalso10.
Theoldstartinglinenumberisthefirstlinenumberbeforeyourenumber
theprogram.Thedefaultinthiscaseisthefirstlineoftheprogram.
Thiscommandcanonlybeexecutedfromdirectmode.
AnUNRESOLVEDREFERENCEerroroccursifanyreferencetonumberthatdoes
notexistisencountered.AnOUTOFMEMORYoccursifRENUMBERingexpands
theprogrambeyonditslimits.ALINENUMBERTOOLARGEerroroccursif
RENUMBERgeneratesalinenumberof64000orhigher.Theseerrorsleavethe
programunharmed.
EXAMPLES:
RENUMBERRenumberstheprogramstartingat10,andincrements
eachadditionallineby10.
RENUMBER20,20,15Startingatline15,renumberstheprogram.Line15
becomes20,andotherlinesarenumberedinincre
mentsof20.
RENUMBER,,65Startingatline65,renumbersinincrementsof10.
Line65becomes10.Ifyouomitaparameter,youmust
stillenteracommaasaplaceholder.Theremustbe
nolinebetween10and64inclusive.
ALWAYSSAVEYOURPROGRAMBEFORERENUMBERING,becauseverylongprogramscan
causeaSYSTEMcrashwhenRENUMBERedwithlargerlinenumbers.
AlsonotethatlongprogramsshouldbeRENUMBERedinFASTmodeastheywill
takealongtimetorenumber(upto30minutesfora55KprograminFAST).
Ifyouonlyhavea40columndisplayuseFAST:RENUMBER...{return}.Then
typeSLOW{return}.WhileRENUMBERingistakingplaceyouwillnotseeany
thinghappening.WhenRENUMBERinghasfinished,youdisplaywillreturn.
Ifyouhavean80columndisplayor40/80columndisplayselectthe80
columnscreenbeforetypingFAST.
17.75RESTORE/RESTORE
ResetREADpointertoDATAstatementsotheDATAcanbereREAD.
RESTORE(C64mode)
RESTORE[line#](C128mode)
Whenexecutedinaprogram,thepointertotheiteminaDATAstatement
thatistobeREADnextisresettothefirstitemintheDATAstatement.
ThisprovidesthecapabilitytoreREADthedata.Ifalinenumberfollows
theRESTOREstatementtheREADpointerissettothefirstdataitemafter
thespecifiedprogramline.Otherwisethepointerisresettothebeginning
oftheBASICprogram.InC64modethereisnooptiontospecifytheline
number,i.e.youcanonlyRESTOREtothebeginningoftheprogram.
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EXAMPLES:
10FORI=1TO3
20READX
30T=X+T
40NEXT
45PRINTT
50RESTORE
69GOTO10
70DATA10,20,30
ThisexampleREADsthedatainline70andstoresitinnumericvariableX.
Itaddsthetotal(T)ofallthenumericdataitems.Onceallthedatahas
beenREAD,threecyclesthroughtheloop,theREADpointerisRESTOREdto
thebeginningoftheprogramanditreturnstoline10andperformsrepeti
tively.
10READA,B,C
20DATA100,500,750
30READX,Y,Z
40DATA36,24,38
50RESTORE40
60READS,P,Q
70PRINTA,B,C
80PRINTX,Y,Z
90PRINTS,P,Q
ThisexampleRESTOREstheDATApointertothefirstdataiteminline40.
Whenline60isexecuted,itwillREADtheDATA36,24,38fromline40,
sinceyoudon'tneedtoREADline20'sDATAagain.
NOTE:Ifalinenumberisspecifiedthelinemustexist!Avariablecanbe
usede.g.RESTORELR.
17.76RESUME
Definewheretheprogramwillcontinue(RESUME)afteranerrorhasbeen
trapped.
RESUME[line#|NEXT]
ThisstatementisusedtorestartprogramexecutionafterTRAPpingan
error.Withnoparameters,RESUMEattemptstoreexecutethelineinwhich
theerroroccurred.RESUMENEXTresumesexecutionatthestatementim
mediatelyfollowingtheonecontainingtheerror;RESUMEfollowedbyaline
numberwillGOTOthespecificlineandresumesexecutionfromthatline
number.RESUMEcanonlybeusedinprogrammode.
EXAMPLE:
10TRAP100
20INPUT"ENTERANUMBER";A
30B=100/A
40PRINT"THERESULT=",B:PRINT"THEEND"
50PRINT"DOYOUWANTTORUNITAGAIN(Y/N)":GETKEYZ$:IFZ$="Y"THEN20
60STOP
100INPUT"ENTERANOTHERNUMBER(NOTZERO)";A
110RESUME
Thisexampletrapsadivisionbyzeroerrorinline30if0isenteredin
line20.Ifzeroisentered,theprogramgoestoline100,whereyouare
askedtoinputanothernumberbesides0.Line110returnstoline30to
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completethecalculation.Line50asksifyouwanttorepeattheprogram
again.Ifyoudo,pressthe{y}key.
17.77RETURN
Returnfromsubroutine.
RETURN
ThisstatementisalwayspairedwiththeGOSUBstatement.Whenaprogram
encountersaRETURNstatement,itgoestothestatementimmediatelyfol
lowingthelastGOSUBcommandexecuted.IfnoGOSUBwaspreviouslyissued,
theaRETURNWITHOUTGOSUBerrormessageisdisplayedandtheprogram
stops.AllsubroutinesendwithaRETURNstatement.
EXAMPLE:
10PRINT"ENTERSUBROUTINE"
20GOSUB100
30PRINT"ENDOFSUBROUTINE"
.
.
.
90STOP
100PRINT"SUBROUTINE1"
110RETURN
Thisexamplecallsthesubroutineatline100whichprintsthemessage
"SUBROUTINE1"andRETURNstoline30,therestoftheprogram.
17.78RREG
ReadthecontentsoftheaccumulatorAC,XregisterXR,YregisterYRand
StatusregisterSR.
RREG[var1][,[var2][,[var3][,[var4]]]]
AfteraSYScommandisissued,thecontentsoftheCPUregistersAC,XR,
YRandSRarestoredinmemorybeforetheC128returnstoBASIC.Thememory
locationsofthesestoresare:
AC>6
XR>7
YR>8
SR>5
WiththeRREGcommandthevaluesinthesememorystoresareloadedintothe
specifiedvariables.Thevaluesrangebetweenzeroand255(inclusive).
Notallvariableshavetobespecified.Forinstance,itispossibleto
onlyreadthecontentsofYR:
RREG,,YR:PRINTYR
EXAMPLE:
100FORI=4864TO4870
110READD:POKEI,D
120NEXTI
130DATA169,6,162,7,160,8,96
131REMMLPRG
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132REM
133REM01300LDA#6;LOADACWITHVALUE6
134REM01302LDX#7;LOADXRWITHVALUE7
135REM01304LDY#8;LOADYRWITHVALUE8
136REM01306RTS;ENDMLSUBROUTINE
140SYS4864
150RREGAC,XR,YR
160PRINT"AC=";AC,"XR=";XR,"YR=";YR
170M6=PEEK(6):REMMEMORYLOCATION6
200PRINT"MEMORYLOCATIONS6,7AND8:";M6;","M7;","M8
Line160printsthis:
AC=6XR=7YR=8
Line200printsthis:
MEMORYLOCATIONS6,7AND8:6,7,8
17.79RUN/RUN
ExecuteBASICprogram.
RUN[line#]
RUN"filename"[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber](BASIC7.0only)
OnceaprogramhasbeentypedintomemoryorLOADed,theRUNcommandexe
cutesit.RUNclearsallvariablesintheprogrambeforestartingprogram
execution.IfthereisanumberfollowingtheRUNcommand,executionstarts
atthatlinenumber.IfthereisafilenamefollowingtheRUNcommand,the
namedfileisloadedfromthediskdriveandRUN,withnofurtheraction
requiredbytheuser.RUNmaybeusedwithinaprogram.Thedefaultdrive
numberis0anddefaultdevicenumberis8.
EXAMPLES:
RUN
Startsexecutionfromthebeginningoftheprogramcurrentlyinmemory.
RUN100Startsprogramexecutionatline100.
RUN"PRG1"DLOADs"PRG1"fromdiskdrive8,andrunsitfromthefirst
line.
RUN(A$)DLOADstheprogramnamedinthevariableA$andrunsitfrom
thefirstline.
17.80SAVE
Storetheprograminmemorytodiskortape.
SAVE["filename"][,devicenumber][,EOTflag]
Thiscommandstorestheprogramcurrentlyinmemoryontocassettetapeor
diskforlaterretrieval.IfSAVEistypedaloneanunnamedfilewillbe
savedtotape.Tapeisasequentialsystemand,therefore,itisuptothe
usertoensurethatthereisnothingimportantonthetapebeforeSAVEing
(seeVERIFY,inparagraph17.100).Togiveyourprogramanamesimplyen
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closethechosennameinquotes(oruseastringvariable)immediatelyafter
typingSAVE.Afilenamecanbeupto16characters.
NOTE:WhenSAVEingtodiskyoumustspecifyafilenameoryouwillgeta
MISSINGFILENAMEERROR.
Tospecifythedevicenumber(e.g.1fortape)placeacommafollowedby
thedevicenumberaftertheclosingquotefollowingthefilename.
Thefinalparameter(EOT)followsthedevicenumberandisagainseperated
byacomma.Ithasnosignificancewhenusedwithdiskandcanhaveoneof
fourvalueswhenusedwithtape.Theseoptionsare:
0Defaultnoaction.
1SAVEsothattherelocatefunctionofLOADdoesnotwork,i.e.the
filewillalwaysloadbackattheaddressfromwhichitwasSAVEd.
2WriteanENDOFTAPEmarkerattheendofthefileattemptstoLOAD
beyondtheendofafilesavedthiswaywillgenerateaFILENOTFOUND
ERROR.
3SAVEsinnonrelocatableformat(1)andwritestheEOT(2).
NOTE:IfyouspecifythedevicenumberorEOTparameterthefilename
(anddevicenumber)mustbeincluded.Fortapethismaybeanull
("").Seethefollowingexamples.
EXAMPLES:
SAVE"HELLO"Storesaprogramontape,underthenameHELLO
SAVEA$,8Storesondisk,withthenamestoredinvariable
A$.
SAVE"HELLO",8Storesondisk,withthenameHELLO(equivalentto
DSAVE"HELLO").
SAVE"HELLO",1,2Storesontape,withthenameHELLO,andplacesan
ENDOFTAPEmarkeraftertheprogram.
SAVE"",1,3Storesontape,withnoname,placesanEOTmarker
aftertheprogram,doesnotallowtheprogramtobe
relocatedonloading.
17.81SCALE
Alterscalingingraphicsmode.
SCALEn[,xmax,ymax]
where:
n=1(on)or0(off)
xmaxisintherange32032767,
default1023(hires)
default2047(multicolor)
ymaxisintherange20032767,
default1023
Changesthescalingofthebitmapdisplaycoordinatesinbothmulticolor
andhighresolutionmodes.CoordinatesfortheMOVSPRcommandarealso
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scaled.Mapsmanylogicalpointstoonephysicalpoint.
Thisishelpfulwhenyouneedtoplotdataoverawiderangeofvaluesit
willnothelpifyouhavealargeclusterofdatawithonlyhighvalues.
Becausemulticoloruses2physicalpixelsonthexaxisperdot,itsnormal
displayis:
X=0to159;Y=0to199
asopposedto
X=0to319;y=0to199
IfyouwishtousethesamecoordinatesformulticolorandhiresuseSCALE
1,640,200aftersettingupamulticolorscreenandusethedefaultSCALE
valuesforbothtypesofscreen.
NOTE:TheGRAPHICcommandturnsscalingoff,i.e.usingGRAPHIC(something)
isequivalenttoGRAPHIC...:SCALE0.
EXAMPLE:
10GRAPHIC1:GOSUB100
20SCALE1:GOSUB100
30SCALE1,5000,5000:GOSUB100
40END
100CIRCLE1,160,100,60:RETURN
17.82SCNCLR
Clearscreen.
SCNCLR[modenumber]
ModeNumberMode
040column(VIC)text.
1bitmap*.
2splitscreenbitmap*.
3multicolorbitmap*.
4splitscreenmulticolorbitmap*.
580column(VDC8563)text.
Thisstatementwithnoargumentsclearsthegraphicsscreen,ifitispre
sent,otherwisethecurrenttextscreeniscleared**.
EXAMPLES:
SCNCLR5Clears80columntextscreen.
SCNCLR1Clearsthe(VIC)bitmapscreen.
SCNCLR4Clearsthe(VIC)multicolorbitmapsplitscreen.
NOTE*:Thebitmapareaisthesameforbothhiresandmulticolor,the
differentmodenumbersselectotherparameterstocleare.g.40columntext
(2and4)andcolorRAM(3and4).
NOTE**:Ifagraphicsscreenhasbeencreatedbutisnotselected
(GRAPHIC=0)itwillnotbecleared.Ifyouareusing2screens(80column
fortextand40columnforgraphics)SCNCLRwillclearbothtextand
graphicsscreensifcalledfromthe80columnscreen.
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17.83SCRATCH
Deleteafilefromthediskdirectory.
SCRATCH"filename"[,Ddrivenumber][<ON|,>Udevicenumber]
Thiscommanddeletesafileformthediskdirectory.Asaprecaution,the
systemasks"Areyousure?"(indirectmodeonly)beforetheCommodore128
startstheoperation.Typea{y}toperformtheSCRATCHorpressanyother
keytocanceltheoperation.
Usethiscommandtoeraseunwantedfiles,andtocreatemorespaceonthe
disk.Thefilenamemaycontaintemplate,orwildcards(?,*).Thedefault
drivenumberis0anddefaultdevicenumberis8.
EXAMPLE:
SCRATCH"MYBACK",D0Thiserasesthefile"MYBACK"fromthediskin
drive0ofunit8.
17.84SLEEP
Delayprogramforaspecificperiodoftime.
SLEEPn
wherenisseconds(0<n<65536)
Ifyouselectadelaywhichistoolongforyourprogramandyouwantto
haltit,the{stop}keycanbeusedtobreakintoadelay.
17.85SLOW
ReturntheCommodore128to1Mhzoperation.
SLOW
TheCommodore128iscapableofrunningthe8502microprocessorataspeed
of1or2Megahertz(Mhz).
TheSLOWcommandslowsdownthemicroprocessorto1Megahertzfrom2Mega
hertz.TheFASTcommandsetstheCommodore128at2Mhz.TheCommodore128
canprocesscommandssubstantiallyfasterat2Mhzthanat1Mhz.Note,
however,thatthe40columnscreencannotbeusedat2Mhz.
17.86SOUND
Outputssoundeffectsandmusicalnotes.
SOUNDv,f,d[,dir][,m][,s][,w][,p]
where:v=voice1,2or3
f=frequencyvalue(065535)
d=duration(032767)
dir=stepdirection(0=up,1=down,2=oscillate),default=0
m=minimumfrequency(065535)ifthesweepisused,default=0
s=stepvalueforsweep(065535),default=0
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w=waveform(0=triangle,1=sawtooth,2=pulse,3=
noise),default=2
p=pulsewidth(04095),default=2048
TheSOUNDcommandisafastandeasywaytocreatesoundeffectsandmusi
caltones.Thethreerequiredparametersv,fanddselectthevoice,fre
quencyanddurationofthesound.Thedurationisinunitscalledjiffies.
Sixtyjiffiesequals1second.
TheSOUNDcommandcansweepthroughaseriesoffrequencieswhichallows
soundeffectstopassthrougharangeofnotes.Specifythedirectionof
thesweepwiththedirparameter.Settheminimumfrequencyofthesweep
withmandthestepvalueofthesweepwiths.Selecttheappropriatewave
formwithwandspecifypasthewidthofthevariablepulsewaveformif
selectedinw.
EXAMPLES:
SOUND1,40960,60PlayaSOUNDatfrequency40960invoice1
for1second.
SOUND2,2000,5,0,2000,100Outputasoundbysweepingthroughthefre
quenciesstartingat2000andincrementing
upwardinunitsof100.
SOUND3,5000,1,2,3000,500,1Thisexampleoutputsarangeofsounds
startingataminimumfrequencyof3000,
through5000,inincrementsof500.Thedi
rectionofthesweepisbackandforth
(oscillating).Theselectedwaveformissaw
toothandthevoiceselectedis3.
17.87SPRCOLOR
Setmulticolor1and/ormulticolor2colorsforallsprites.
SPRCOLOR[smcr1][,smcr2]
where:
smcr1=multicolor1forallsprites.
smcr2=multicolor2forallsprites.
Theseparametersmaybeanycolorfrom1through16.
EXAMPLES:
SPRCOLOR3,7Setsspritemulticolor1toredandmulticolor2toblue.
SPRCOLOR1,2Setsspritemulticolor1toblackandmulticolor2to
white.
17.88SPRDEF
EntertheSPRiteDEFinitionmodetocreateandeditspriteimages(40
columndisplayonly).
SPRDEF
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TheSPRDEFcommanddefinesspritesinteractively.
EnteringtheSPRDEFcommand,displaysaspriteworkareaonthescreen
whichis24characterswideby21characterstall.Eachcharacterposition
inthegridcorrespondstoaspritepixelinthespritedisplayedtothe
rightoftheworkarea.HereisasummaryoftheSPRiteDEFinitionmode
operationsandthekeysthatperformthem:
AttheSPRITENUMBER?prompt
userinputdescription
{return}ExitsSPRiteDEFinitionmodeattheSPRITENUMBER?promptonly.
{1}{8}Selectsaspritenumberandentersspriteeditmode.
Inthespriteeditmode
userinputdescription
{a}TurnsonandoffAutomaticcursormovement.
{crsr}Movescursor.
keys
{return}Movescursortostartofnextline.
{home}Movescursortotopleftcornerofspriteworkarea.
{clr}Erasesentiregrid.
{1}{4}Selectscolorsource:
1=clear
2=foreground
3=multicolor1
4=multicolor2
{ctrl1}Selectsspriteforegroundcolor(18).
{ctrl8}
{C=1}Selectsspriteforegroundcolor(916).
{C=8}
{stop}CancelschangesandreturnstotheREADYprompt.
{shiftSavesspriteinmemoryandreturnstotheSPRITENUMBER?
return}prompt.
{x}ExpandsspriteinX(horizontal)directionToggle.
{y}ExpandsspriteinY(vertical)directionToggle.
{m}Standardsprite/MulticolorspriteToggle.
{c}Copiesspritedatafromonespritetoanother.
NOTE:UsingSPRDEFwillclearthebitmapscreen.
17.89SPRITE
Turnonoroff,color,expandandsetscreenprioritiesforasprite.
SPRITE<number>[,on/off][,fgnd][,priority][,xexp][,yexp][,mode]
TheSPRITEstatementcontrolsmostofthecharacteristicsofasprite.
ParameterDescription
numberSpritenumber(18).
on/offTurnsspriteon(1)oroff(0).
fgndSpriteforegroundcolor(116).
priorityPriorityis0ifspritesappearinfrontofobjectonthescreen;
priorityis1ifspritesappearbehindobjectsonthescreen.
xexpHorizontalEXPansionon(1)oroff(0).
yexpVerticalEXPansionon(1)oroff(0).
modeSelectstandardsprite(0)ormulticolorsprite(1).(See
SPRCOLOR,inparagraph17.87)
Unspecifiedparametersinsubsequentspritestatementstakeonthecharac
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teristicsofthepreviousSPRITEstatement.Youcancheckthecharacteris
ticsofaSPRITEwiththeRSPRITEfunction.
EXAMPLES:
SPRITE1,1,3TurnonSPRITEnumber1andcoloritred.
SPRITE2,1,7,1,1,1TurnonSPRITEnumber2,coloritblue,makeit
passbehindobjectsonthescreenandexpandit
inhorizontalandverticaldirections.
SPRITE6,1,1,0,0,1,1TurnonSPRITEnumber6,coloritblack.The
firstappearing0tellsthecomputerdisplaythe
spritesareinfrontofobjectsonthescreen.
Thesecond0andthefollowing1telltheC128to
expandthespriteverticallyonly.Thelast1
specifiesthespritetobedisplayedinmultico
lormode.UsetheSPRCOLORcommandtoselectthe
sprite'smulticolor.
SPRITE7,,,,1SetthehorizontalexpansionofSPRITEnumber7
allotheroptionsretaintheirprevioussettings.
17.90SPRSAV
Storeaspritedatafromatextstringvariableintoaspritestoragearea
orviceversa.
SPRSAVorigin,destination
Thiscommandtransfersaspriteimagefromastringvariabletoasprite
storagearea.Itcanalsotranferdatafromthespritestorageareaintoa
stringvariable.Eithertheoriginorthedestinationcanbeaspritenum
berorastringvariablebuttheybothcannotbestringvariables(they
bothCANbespritenumbers,however).Ifyouaremovingastringintoa
sprite,onlythefirst63bytesofdataareused.Therestareignored,
sinceaspritecanonlyhold63databytes.
NOTE:SPRSAVsprite,stringproducesastringinthesameformatasSSHAPE
sothatitcanbeusedwithGSHAPEto'fix'aspriteontohiresscreen.
Thestringwillbe67characterslong.
EXAMPLES:
SPRSAV1,A$Transferstheimagepatternfromsprite1tothestring
namedA$.
SPRSAVB$,2TransfersthedatafromthestringvariableB$intosprite
2.
SPRSAV2,3Transfersthedatafromsprite2tosprite3.
17.91SSHAPE/GSHAPE
Save/retrieveshapesto/fromstringvariables.
SSHAPEandGSHAPEareusedtosaveandloadrectangularareasofmulticolor
orstandardbitmappedscreento/fromBASICstringvariables.Thecommand
tosaveanareaofthescreenintoastringvariableis:
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SSHAPEstringvariable,x1,y1[,x2,y2]
where:
stringvariableStringnametosavedatain
x1,y1Cornercoordinates(0,0through319,199)(scaled).
x2,y2Cornercoordinatesopposite(x1,y1)(defaultisthePC)
BecauseBASIClimitsstringsto255characters,thesizeoftheareathat
canbesavedislimited.Thestringsizerequiredcanbecalculatedusing
oneofthefollowing(unscaled)formulas:
L(hires)=INT((ABS(x1x2)+1)/8+.99)*(ABS(y1y2)+1)+4
L(multicolor)=INT((ABS(x1x2)+1)/4+.99)*(ABS(y1y2)+1)+4
NOTE:Theupperlimitsofthecoordinates(319,199forstandardand159,199
formulticolorbitmappedgraphics)applytotheunSCALEdcoordinate
system.WhenSCALEisturnedon,thelimitaresetbytheSCALEcommand.
Thecommandtoretrieve(load)thedatafromastringvariableanddisplay
itonspecifiedscreencoordinatesis:
GSHAPEstringvariable,[x,y][,mode]
where:
stringContainsshapetobedrawn.
x,yTopleftcoordinates(0,0through319,199)tellingwhere
todrawtheshape(scaled),defaultisthepixelcursor.
modeReplacementmode:
0:placeshapeasis(default).
1:invert(reverse)shape.
2:ORshapewitharea.
3:ANDshapewitharea.
4:XORshapewitharea.
Thereplacementmodeallowsyoutochangethedatainthestringvariable
sothatyoucaninvertit,performalogicalOR,exclusiveORorAND
operationontheimage.
pixelcursor.
EXAMPLES:
SSHAPEA$,10,10Savesarectangularareafromthecoordinates
(10,10)tothelocationofthepixelcursor,into
stringvariableA$.
SSHAPEB$,20,30,47,51Savesarectangularareafromtopleftcoordinates
(20,30)throughtbottomcoordinates(47,51)into
stringvariableB$.
GSHAPEA$,120,20RetrievesshapedcontainedinstringvariableA$and
displaysitattopleftcorneratcoordinates(120,
20).
GSHAPEB$,30,30,1RetrievesshapecontainedinstringB$anddisplays
itattopleftcoordinates(30,30).Theshapeis
invertedduetothereplacementmodebeingselected
bythe1.
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NOTE:Bewareusingmodes14withmulticolorshapes.Youmayobtainunpre
dictableresults.
17.92STASH
MovecontentsofhostmemorytoexpansionRAM.
STASH#bytes,intsa,expsa,expb
RefertoFETCHcommandfordescriptionofparameters.
17.93STOP
Haltprogramexecution.
STOP
Thisstatementhaltstheprogram.Amessage,BREAKINLINExxxoccurs(in
programmode),wherexxxisthelinenumbercontainingtheSTOPcommand.
TheprogramcanberestartedatthestatementfollowingSTOPiftheCONT
commandisusedimmediately,withoutanyeditingoccuringinthelisting.
TheSTOPstatementisoftenusedwhiledebuggingaprogram.
17.94SWAP
SwapcontentsofhostRAMwithcontentsofexpansionRAM.
SWAP#bytes,intsa,expsa,expb
RefertoFETCHcommandfordescriptionofparameters.
17.95SYS/SYS
Callandexecuteamachinelanguagesubroutineatthespecifiedaddress.
SYSaddress(C64mode)
SYSaddress[,[a][,[x][,[y][,[s]]]]](C128mode)
Thisstatementperformsacalltoamachinecodesubroutineatthegiven
addressinamemoryconfigurationsetupaccordingtotheBANKcommand.
Optionally,argumentsa,x,yandsareloadedintotheaccumulator,x,y
andstatusregistersrespectively,beforethesubroutineiscalled.
Theaddressrangeis0to65535(bothinclusive).Theprogrambeginsexe
cutingthemachinelanguageprogramstartingatthatmemorylocation.Also
seetheBANKcommand,inparagraph17.4.
EXAMPLES:
SYS40960Callsandexecutesthemachinelanguageroutineatlocation
40960.
SYS8192,0Callsandexecutesthemachinelanguageroutineatlocation
8192andloadszerointotheaccumulator.
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17.96TEMPO
Definethespeedofthesongbeingplayed.
TEMPOn
wherenisarelativedurationbetween1and255(inclusive).
Theactualdurationforawholenoteisdeterminedbyusingtheformula
givenbelow:
wholenoteduration=23.06/nseconds
Thedefaultvalueofnis8,andnotedurationdecreaseswithn.
EXAMPLES:
TEMPO16DefinestheTEMPOat16.
TEMPO1DefinestheTEMPOattheslowestspeed.
TEMPO250DefinestheTEMPOat250.
17.97TRAP
DetectandhandleprogramerrorswhileaBASICprogramisRUNning.
TRAP[line#]
Whenturnedon,TRAPinterceptsallerrorconditions(excludingDOSerror
messages,butincludingthe{stop}key).Intheeventofanyexecutioner
ror,theerrorflagissetandexecutionistransferredtothelinenumber
specifiedintheTRAPstatement.
Thelinenumberinwhichtheerroroccurredcanbefoundbyusingthe
systemvariableEL.Thespecificerrorconditioniscontainedinsystem
variableER.ThestringfunctionERR$(ER)givestheerrormessagecorres
pondingtotheerrorcondition.
TheRESUMEstatementcanbeusedtoresumeprogramexecution.TRAPwithno
linenumberturnsofferrortrapping.AnerrorinaTRAProutinecannotbe
trapped,unlessitcontainsaTRAPstatementofitsown.
EXAMPLE:
100TRAP1000Ifanerroroccurs,gotoline1000.
1000?ERR$(ER);ELPrinttheerrormessage,andtheerrorlinenumber.
1010RESUMEResumeprogramexecution.
17.98TROFF
TurnOFFerrorTRacingmode.
TROFF
Thisstatementturnsofftracemode.
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17.99TRON
TurnONerrorTRacingmode.
TRON
TRONisusedinprogramdebugging.Thisstatementbeginstracemode.When
youRUNtheprogram,thelinenumbersoftheprogramappearinbracketsbe
foreanyactionforthatlineoccurs.
Ifyouhavemultistatementlines,thelinenumberwillbeprintedbefore
eachstatementisprocessed.
17.100VERIFY
Verifyprograminmemoryagainstonesavedtodiskortotape.
VERIFY["filename"][,devicenumber][,relocateflag]
ThiscommandcausestheCommodore128tochecktheprogramontapeordisk
againsttheoneinmemory,todetermineiftheprogramisreallySAVEd.
ThiscommandisalsoveryusefulforpositioningatapesothattheCommo
dore128writesafterthelastprogramontape.
VERIFY,withnoargumentsafterthecommand,causestheCommodore128to
checkthenextprogramontape,regardlessofitsname,againsttheprogram
nowinmemory.VERIFY,followedbyaprogramnameinquotesorastring
variable,searchesthetapeforthatprogramandwhenfoundchecksit
againsttheprograminmemory.VERIFY,followedbyaname,acommaanda
number,checkstheprogramonthedevicewiththatnumber(1fortape,8
fordisk).TherelocateflagisthesameasintheLOADcommand.Itveri
fiestheprogramfromthememorylocationfromwhichitwasSAVEd.(Seealso
DVERIFY,inparagraph17.34.)
EXAMPLES:
VERIFY"HELLO"SearchesforHELLOontape,checksitagainstmemory.
VERIFY"HELLO",8,1SearchesforHELLOondisk,thenchecksitagainst
memory.
VERIFY"LASTFILE"SearchestapeforLASTFILE,checksit,reportsan
errorifthereisnomatch.Youcanthensaveyounew
programafterit,withouterasingpreviousprograms.
NOTE:IfgraphicareaisallocatedordeallocatedafteraSAVE,VERIFYand
DVERIFYwillreportanerror.Technicallythisiscorrect.BASICtextin
thiscasehasmovedfromitsoriginal(SAVEd)locationtoanotheraddress
range.Hence,VERIFY,whichperformsbytetobytecomparisons,willfail,
eventhoughtheprogramisvalid.
17.101VOL
Defineoutputlevelofsound.
VOLvolumelevel
ThisstatementsetsthevolumeforSOUNDandPLAYstatements.VOLUMElevel
canbesetfrom0to15,where15isthemaximumvolume,and0isoff.VOL
affectsallvoices.
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EXAMPLES:
VOL0Turnsvolumeoff.
VOL1Setsvolumetoitslowestaudiblelevel.
VOL15SetsvolumeforSOUNDandPLAYstatementstoitshighestlevel.
17.102WAIT
Pauseprogramexecutionuntiladataconditionissatisfied.
WAITlocation,mask1[,mask2]
TheWAITstatementcausesprogramexecutiontobesuspendeduntilagiven
memoryaddressrecognizesaspecificbitpatternorvalue.Inotherwords,
WAITcanbeusedtohalttheprogramuntilsomeexternaleventhasoccur
red.ThisisdonebymonitoringthestatusofbitsintheInput/Outputre
gisters.ThedataitemsusedwiththeWAITcanbeanyvalues.Formostpro
grammers,thisstatementshouldneverbeused.Itcausestheprogramtobe
haltuntilaspecificmemorylocation'sbitschangeinaspecificway.
ThisisusedforcertainI/Ooperationsandalmostnothingelse.TheWAIT
statementtakesthevalueinthememorylocationandperformsalogicalAND
operationwiththevalueinmask1.Ifmask2isspecified,theresultofthe
firstoperationisexclusivelyORedwithmask2.Inotherwords,mask1
"filtersout"anybitsnottobetested.Wherethebitis0inmask1,the
correspondingbitintheresultwillalwaysbe0.Themask2valueflips
anybits,sothatanoffconditioncanbetestedaswellasanoncondi
tion.Anybitsbeingtestedfora0shouldhavea1inthecorresponding
bitpositioninmask2.Ifcorrespondingbitsofthemask1andmask2
operandsdiffer,theexclusiveORoperationgivesabitresultof1.Ifthe
correspondingbitsgetthesamethebitis0.Itispossibletoenteran
infinitepausewiththeWAITstatement,inwhichcasethe{run/stop}and
{restore}keyscanbeusedtorecover.WAITmayrequireabankcommandif
thememoryyouwishtoaccessisnotinthecurrentlyselectedBANK.
ThefollowingexamplesarefortheC128modeonly.ThefirstexampleWAITs
untilakeyispressedonthetapeunittocontinuewiththeprogram.The
secondexamplewillWAITuntilthe{shift}keyispressedandthen
released.ThethirdexamplewillWAITuntileitherbit7(128)isonor
bit4(16)ifoff.
EXAMPLES:
WAIT1,32,32
WAIT211,1:WAIT211,1,1
WAIT36868,144,16
(144and16arebinarymasks.144=%10010000inbinaryand16=%10000in
binary.)
17.103WIDTH
Setthewidthofdrawnlines.
WIDTHn
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ThiscommandsetsthewidthoflinesdrawnusingBASIC'sgraphiccommands
toeithersingleordoublewidth.Givingnavalueof1definesasingle
widthline;avalueof2definesadoublewidthline.
EXAMPLES:
WIDTH1Setwidthforgraphiccommands.
WIDTH2Setdoublewidthfordrawnlines.
17.104WINDOW
Definesascreenwindow.
WINDOWtopleftcol,topleftrow,botrightcol,botrightrow[,clear]
Thiscommanddefinesalogicalwindowwithinthe40or80columntext
screen.Thecoordinatesmustbeintherange039/79forcolumnvaluesand
024forrowvalues.Theclearflag,ifprovided(1),causesascreenclear
tobeperformed(butonlywithinthelimitsofthenewlydescribedwindow).
EXAMPLES:
WINDOW5,5,35,20Definesawindowwithtopleftcornercoordinates
(5,5)andbottomrightcornercoordinates(35,20).
WINDOW10,2,33,34,1Definesawindowwithupperleftcornercoordinates
(10,2)andlowerrightcoordinates(33,24).Also
clearstheportionofthescreenwithinthewindowas
specifiedbythe1.
NOTE:Ifyouspecifyacolumngreaterthan39ona40columndisplayyou
willgetan"ILLEGALQUANTITYERROR".
SECTION18
18.BasicFunctions
Theformatofthefunctiondescriptionis:
FUNCTION(argument)
wheretheargumentcanbeanumericvalue,variableorstring.Eachfunc
tiondescriptionisfollowingbyanexample.
18.1ABS
Returnabsolutevalue.
ABS(x)
Theabsolutevaluefunctionreturnsthepositivevalueoftheargument.
EXAMPLE:
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PRINTABS(7*(5))
35
18.2ASC
ReturnCBMASCIIcodeforcharacter.
ASC(x$)
ThisfunctionreturnstheASCIIcodeforthefirstcharacterofx$.InC128
modeyounolongerhavetoappendCHR$(0)toanullstring;ILLEGAL
QUANTITYERRORisnolongerissued.
EXAMPLE:
X$="C128":PRINTASC(X$)
67
18.3ATN
ReturnanglewhosetangentisXradians.
ATN(x)
Thisfunctionreturnstheanglewhosetangentisx,measuredinradians.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTATN(3)
1.24904577
18.4BUMP
Returnspritecollisioninformation.
BUMP(n)
Todeterminewhichspriteshavecollidedsincethelastcheck,usetheBUMP
function.BUMP(1)recordswhichspriteshavecollidedwitheachotherand
BUMP(2)recordswhichspriteshavecollidedwithotherobjectsonthe
screen.COLLISIONneednotbeactivetouseBUMP.Thebitpositions(07)
intheBUMPvaluecorrespondtosprites1through8respectively.BUMP(n)
isresettozeroaftereachcall.
ThevaluereturnedbyBUMPistheresultoftworaisedtothepowerofthe
bitposition.Rememberbitpositionrangefromzerotoseven,soabitpo
sitioncorrespondstothespritenumber1.Forexample,ifBUMPreturned
avalueof16,sprite5wasinvolvedsince2raisedtothepower(5minus
1)equals16.
EXAMPLES:
PRINTBUMP(1)Indicatesthatsprites3and4havecollided.
12
PRINTBUMP(2)Indicatesthatsprite6hascollidedwithanobjecton
32thescreen.
18.5CHR$
ReturnASCIIcharacterforspecifiedCBMASCIIcode.
CHR$(x)
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ThisistheoppositeofASCandreturnsthestringcharacterwhoseCBM
ASCIIcodeisx.RefertoAppendixEforatableofCHR$codes.
EXAMPLES:
PRINTCHR$(65)Printstheacharacter
A
PRINTCHR$(147)Clearsthetextscreen.
18.6COS
Returncosineofangleofxradians.
COS(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsthevalueofthecosineofx,wherexisanangle
measuredinradians.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTCOS({pi})
1
18.7DEC
Returndecimalvalueofhexadecimalnumberstring.
DEC(hexadecimalstring)
Thisfunctionreturnsthedecimalvalueofhexadecimalstring.
EXAMPLES:
PRINTDEC("D020")
53280
F$="F":PRINTDEC(F$)
15
18.8ERR$
Returnthestringdescribinganerrorcondition.
ERR$(n)
Thisfunctionreturnsastringdescribinganerrorcondition.Alsosee
systemvariablesELandER,inparagraph19.1,andAppendixAforalistof
BASICerrormessages.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTERR$(10)
NEXTWITHOUTFOR
18.9EXP
Returnvalueofanapproximationofe(2.7182813)raisedtothepowerx.
EXP(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsavalueofe(2.7182813)raisedtothepowerx.
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EXAMPLE:
PRINTEXP(1)
2.7182813
18.10FNxx
Returnvaluefromuserdefinedfunction.
FNxx(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsthevaluefromtheuserdefinedfunctionxxcreated
byaDEFFNxxstatement.
EXAMPLE:
10DEFFNAA(X)=(X32)*5/9
20INPUTX
30PRINTFNAA(X)
RUN
?40(?isinputprompt)
4.44444445
18.11FRE
Returnnumberofavailablebytesinmemory.
FRE(x)
Wherexisthebanknumber.x=0BASICprogramstorage,andx=1tocheck
foravailableBASICvariablestorage.
EXAMPLES:
PRINTFRE(0)ReturnsthenumberoffreebytesforBASICprograms.
48893
PRINTFRE(1)ReturnsthenumberoffreebytesforBASICvariable
64256storage.
18.12HEX$
Returnhexadecimalnumberstringfromdecimalnumber.
HEX$(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsafourcharacterstringcontainingthehexadecimal
representationofvaluex(0<=x<65536).Thedecimalcounterpartofthis
functionisDEC.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTHEX$(53280)
D020
NOTE:HEX$(0)is"0000".
18.13INSTR
Returnpositionofstring1instring2.
INSTR(string1,string2[,startingposition])
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TheINSTRfunctionsearchesforthefirstoccurranceofstring2within
string1,andreturnsthepositionwithinstring1wherethematchis
found.Theoptionalparameterforstartingpositionestablishestheposi
tioninstring1wherethesearchbegins.Thestartingpositionmustbein
therangeof1through255.Ifnomatchisfoundor,ifstartingposition
isgreaterthanthelengthofstring1orifstring1isnull,INSTRre
turnsthevalue0.Ifstring2isnull,INSTRreturns0.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTINSTR("COMMODORE128","128")
11
18.14INT
Returnintegerform(wholenumberpart)ofafloatingpointvalue.
INT(x)
Thisfunctionreturnstheintegervalueoftheexpression.Iftheexpres
sionispositive,thefractionalpartisleftout.Iftheexpressionis
negative,anyfractioncausesthenextlowerintegertobereturned.
EXAMPLES:
PRINTINT(3.14)
3
PRINTINT(3.14)
4
18.15JOY
Returnpositionofjoystickandthestatusofthefirebutton.
JOY(n)
wherenequals:
1JOYreturnspositionofjoystick1
2JOYreturnspositionofjoystick2
Anyvalueof128ormoremeansthatthefirebuttonisalsopressed.To
findtheJOYvalue,addthedirectionvalueofthejoystickplus128,if
theJOYfirebuttonispressed.Thedirectionisindicatedasfollows:
1
82
703
64
5
EXAMPLES:
JOY(2)is135
Whenjoystick2firesandgoestotheleft.
IF(JOY(1)AND128)=128THENPRINT"FIRE"
Determineswhetherthefirebuttonofjoystick1ispressed.
18.16LEFT$
Returntheleftmostcharactersofstring.
LEFT$(string,length)
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Thisfunctionreturnsastringcomprisedofthenumberofleftmostcharac
tersofthestringdeterminedbythelengthargument.Thelengthargument
mustbeanintegerintherangeof0to255.Ifthisintegervalueis
greaterthanthelengthofthestring,theentirestringisreturned.If
thevalueisequaltozero,thenanullstring(ofzerolength)isretur
ned.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTLEFT$("COMMODORE",5)
COMMO
18.17LEN
Returnthelengthofastring.
LEN(string)
Thisfunctionreturnsthenumberofcharactersinthestringexpression.
Nonprintablecharactersandblanksareincluded.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTLEN("COMMODORE128")
12
18.18LOG
Returnnaturallogofx.
LOG(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsthenaturallogofx.Thenaturallogislogtothe
basee(seeEXP(x),inparagraph18.9).Toconverttologbase10,divideby
LOG(10).
EXAMPLE:
PRINTLOG(37/5)
2.00148
18.19MID$
Returnasubstringfromalargerstringoroverlayasubstringintoa
largerstring.
MID$(string,startingposition[,length])
Thisfunctionreturnsasubstringspecifiedbythelength,startingatthe
characterspecifiedbythestartingposition.Thestartingpositionofthe
substringdefinesthefirstcharacterwherethesubstringbegins.The
lengthofthesubstringisspecifiedbythelengthargument.Bothofthe
numericargumentscanhavevaluesrangingfrom0to255.Ifthestarting
positionvalueisgreaterthanthelengthofthestring,orifthelength
ofthestringiszero,thenMID$returnsanullstringvalue(oflength
zero).Ifthelengthargumentisleftout,allcharacterstotherightof
thestartingpositionarereturned(whichisequivalentwithRIGHT$).
EXAMPLE:
PRINTMID$("COMMODORE128",3,5)
MMODO
EXAMPLEusingoverlay:
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A$="123456":MID$(A$,3,2)="ABCDE":PRINTA$
12AB56
NOTE:Overlaycannotbeusedtoexpandthesizeofastring,thusinthe
exampleaboveMID$(A$,3,5)isnotpossible.
18.20PEEK
Returncontentsofaspecificmemorylocation.
PEEK(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsthecontentsofmemorylocationx,wherexis
locatedintherange0through65535,returningaresultbetween0and255
(inclusive).ThisisthecounterpartofthePOKEstatement.Thedatawill
bereturnedfromthebankselectedbythemostrecentBANKcommand.See
theBANKcommand,inparagraph17.4ofSection17.
EXAMPLE:
10BANK15:VIC=DEC("D000")
20FORI=1TO47
30PRINTPEEK(VIC+I)
40NEXT
ThisexampledisplaysthecontentsoftheregistersoftheVICchip.
18.21PEN
Returnxandycoordinatesofthelightpen.
PEN(n)
where:
n=0PENreturnsthexcoordinateofthelightpenposition.
n=1PENreturnstheycoordinateofthelightpenposition.
n=2PENreturnsthexcoordinateofthelightpenpositionofthe
80columndisplay.
n=3PENreturnstheycoordinateofthelightpenpositionofthe
80columndisplay.
n=4PENreturnsthelightpentriggervalue.
Notethat,likespritecoordinates,thePENvalueisnotscaledanduses
realcoordinates,notgraphicbitmapcoordinates.Thexpositionisgiven
asanumber,rangingfromapproximately60to320,whiletheyposition
canbeanynumberfrom50to250.Thesearethevisiblescreencoordinate
ranges,whereallothervaluesarenotvisibleonthescreen.Avalueof
zeroforeitherpositionmeansthelightpenisoffscreenandhasnot
triggeredaninterruptsincethelastread.NotethatCOLLISIONneednot
beactivetousePEN.Awhitebackgroundisusuallyrequiredtostimulate
thelightpen.PENvaluesvaryfromsystemtosystem.
Unlikethe40column(VIC),the80column(VDC8563)coordinatesare
characterrowandcolumnpositionsandnotpixelcoordinates,liketheVIC
screen.
Boththe40and80columnscreencoordinatevaluesareapproximateand
vary,duetothenatureoflightpens.Thereadvaluesarenotvaliduntil
PEN(4)istrue.
EXAMPLES:
10PRINTPEN(0);PEN(1)Displaythexandycoordinatesofthe
lightpen.
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10DOUNTILPEN(4):LOOPEnsurethereadvaluesarevalid.
20X=PEN(2)
30X=PEN(3)
40REM:RESTOFPROGRAM
18.22{pi}
Returnthevalueofpi(3.14159265).
{pi}
EXAMPLE:
PRINT{pi}
3.14159265
18.23POINTER
Returntheaddressofavariablename.
POINTER(variablename)
EXAMPLE:
PRINTPOINTER(Z)
ThisexamplereturnstheaddressofvariableZ.
18.24POS
Returnthecurrentcursorcolumnpositionwithinthecurrentscreenwindow.
POS(x)
ThePOSfunctionindicateswherethecursoriswithinthedefinedscreen
window.Xisadummyargument,whichmustbespecified,butthevalueis
ignored.
EXAMPLE:
PRINT"0123456789"POS(1)
012345678910
Thisdisplaysthecurrentcursorpositionwithinthedefinedtext
window,inthiscase10.
18.25POT
Returnthevalueofthegamepaddlepotentiometer.
POT(n)
when:
n=1,POTreturnsthepositionofpaddle#1.
ThevaluesforPOTrangefrom0to255.Anyvalueof256ormoremeans
thatthefirebuttonisalsodepressed.
EXAMPLE:
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10PRINTPOT(1)
20IFPOT(1)>=256THENPRINT"FIRE"
Thisexampledisplaysthevalueofthegamepaddle1.
Note:Avalueof255isreturnedifnopaddlesareconnected.
18.26RCLR
Returncolorofcolorsource.
RCLR(n)
Thisfunctionreturnsthecolor(1to16)assignedtothecolorsourcen
(0<=n<=6),wherethefollowingnvaluesapply:
0=RCLRreturnsthe40columnbackgroundcolor.
1=RCLRreturnsthebitmapforegroundcolor.
2=RCLRreturnsmulticolor1.
3=RCLRreturnsmulticolor2.
4=RCLRreturnsthe40columnbordercolor.
5=RCLRreturnsthe40or80columncharactercolor.
6=RCLRreturnsthe80columnbackgroundcolor.
ThecounterparttotheRCLRfunctionistheCOLORcommand.
EXAMPLE:
10FORI=0TO6
20PRINT"SOURCE";I;"ISCOLORCODE";RCLR(I)
30NEXT
Thisexampleprintsthecolorcodesforallsevencolorsources.
18.27RDOT
Returncurrentpositionorcolorofpixelcursor.
RDOT(n)
where:
n=0returnsthexcoordinateofthepixelcursor.
n=1returnstheycoordinateofthepixelcursor.
n=2returnsthecolorsourceofthepixelcursor.
Thisfunctionreturnsthelocationofthecurrentpositionofthepixel
cursor(PC)orthecurrentcolorsourceotthepixelcursor.
EXAMPLES:
PRINTRDOT(0)ReturnsxpositionofPC.
PRINTRDOT(1)ReturnsypositionofPC.
PRINTRDOT(2)ReturnscolorsourceofPC(0to3).
18.28RGR
Returncurrentgraphicmode.
RGR(x)
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Thisfunctionreturnsthecurrentgraphicmode.xisadummyargument,
whichmustbespecified.ThecounterpartoftheRGRfunctionisthe
GRAPHICcommand.ThevaluereturnedbyRGR(x)pertainstothefollowing
modes:
VALUEGRAPHICMODE
040column(VIC)text.
1Standardbitmap.
2Splitscreenbitmap.
3Multicolorbitmap.
4Splitscreenmulticolorbitmap.
580column(VDC8563)text.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTRGR(0)
1
Thisdisplaysthecurrentgraphicmode,inthiscase,standardbit
mapmode.
18.29RIGHT$
Returnsubstringfromrightmostendofstring.
RIGHT$(<string>,<length>)
Thisfunctionreturnsasubstringtakenfromtherightmostcharactersof
thestringargument.Thelengthofthesubstringisdefinedbythelength
argument,whichcanbeanyintegerintherangeof0to255.Ifthevalue
oflengthiszero,thenanullstring("")isreturned.Ifthevaluegiven
inthelengthargumentisgreaterthanthelengthofthestring,the
entirestringisreturned.AlsoseeLEFT$andMID$functions,inparagraphs
18.16and18.19,respectively.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTRIGHT$("BASEBALL",5)
EBALL
18.30RND
Returnarandomnumber.
RND(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsarandomnumber,whichvalueliesbetween0(inclu
sive)and1(exclusive).Thisisusefullingames,tosimulatediceroll
andotherelementsofchance.Itisalsousedinsomestatisticalappli
cations.
Ifx=0RNDreturnsarandomnumberbasedonthehardwareclock.
Ifx>0RNDgeneratesareproducablepseudorandomnumberbased
ontheseedvalue(seebelow"Ifx<0").
Ifx<0Producesarandomnumberwhichisusedasabasecalled
aseed.
Tosimulatetherollingofadice,usetheformulaINT(RND(1)*6+1).
Firsttherandomnumberismultipliedby6,whichexpandstherangeto
06(actually,lessthansix).Then1isadded,makingtherangefrom1to
lessthan7.TheINTfunctiontruncatesallthedecimalplaces,leaving
theresultasadigitfrom1to6.
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EXAMPLES:
PRINTRND(0)Thisdisplaysarandomnumber.
.507824123
PRINTINT(RND(1)*100+1)Thisdisplaysarandompositivenumber
89lessthan100.
18.31RSPCOLOR
Returnspritemulticolorvalues.
RSPCOLOR(n)
When:
n=1RSPCOLORreturnsthespritemulticolor1.
n=2RSPCOLORreturnsthespritemulticolor2.
Thereturnedcolorvalueisavaluebetween1and16(inclusive).The
counterpartoftheRSPCOLORfunctionistheSPRCOLORcommand.Alsoseethe
SPRCOLORcommand,inparagraph17.87ofSection17.
EXAMPLE:
10SPRITE1,1,2,0,1,1,1
20SPRCOLOR5,7
30PRINT"SPRITEMULTICOLOR1IS";RSPCOLOR(1)
40PRINT"SPRITEMULTICOLOR2IS";RSPCOLOR(2)
RUN
SPRITEMULTICOLOR1IS5
SPRITEMULTICOLOR2IS7
Inthisexampleline10turnsonsprite1,colorsitwhite,expandsitin
boththexandydirectionsanddisplaysitinmulticolormode.Line20
selectsspritemulticolors1and2.Lines30and40printtheRSPCOLOR
valuesformulticolor1and2.
18.32RSPPOS
Returnthespeedandpositionvaluesofasprite.
RSPPOS(spritenumber,n)
wherespritenumberidentifieswhichspriteisbeingcheckedandn
specifiesxandycoordinatesorthesprite'sspeed.
Whennequals:
0RSPPOSreturnsthecurrentxpositionofthespecifiedsprite.
1RSPPOSreturnsthecurrentypositionofthespecifiedsprite.
2RSPPOSreturnsthespeed(015)ofthespecifiedsprite.
EXAMPLE:
10SPRITE1,1,2
20MOVSPR1,45#13
30PRINTRSPPOS(1,0);RSPPOS(1,1);RSPPOS(1,2)
Thisexamplereturnsthecurrentxandyspritecoordinatesandthe
speed(13),allofsprite1.
18.33RSPRITE
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Returnspritecharacteristics.
RSPRITE(spritenumber,characteristic)
RSPRITEreturnsspritecharacteristicsthatwerespecifiedintheSPRITE
command.Spritenumberspecifiesthespriteyouarecheckingandthe
argumentcharacteristicsspecifiesthesprite'sdisplayqualitiesas
follows:
CharacteristicRSPRITEreturnsthesevalues:
0Enabled(1)/Disabled(0).
1Spritecolor(016).
2Spritesaredisplayedinfrontof(0)orbehind(1).
3Expandinxdirection,yes=1,no=0.
4Expandinydirection,yes=1,no=0.
5Multicolor,yes=1,no=0.
EXAMPLE:
10FORI=0TO5Thisexampleprintsall6characteristicsof
20PRINTRSPRITE(1,I)sprite1.
30NEXT
18.34RWINDOW
Returnthesizeofthecurrentwindow.
RWINDOW(n)
Whennequals:
0RWINDOWreturnsthenumberoflinesinthecurrentwindow.
1RWINDOWreturnsthenumberofrowsinthecurrentwindow.
2RWINDOWreturnseitherofthevalues40or80,dependingonthe
currentscreenoutputformatyouareusing.
ThecounterpartoftheRWINDOWfunctionistheWINDOWcommand.
EXAMPLE:
10WINDOW1,1,10,10
20PRINTRWINDOW(0);RWINDOW(1);RWINDOW(2);
RUN
9940
Thisexamplereturnsthenumberoflines(9)andcolumns(9)inthecurrent
window.Theexampleassumesyouaredisplayingthewindowin40column
format.
18.35SGN
Returnsignofargumentx.
SGN(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsthesign(positive,negativeorzero)ofx.The
resultis+1ifx>0,0ifx=0,and1ifx<0.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTSGN(4.5);SGN(0);SGN(2.3)
101
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18.36SIN
Returnsineofargumentx.
SIN(x)
Thisisthetrigonometricsinefunction.Theresultisthesineofx,where
xisananglemeasuredinradians.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTSIN({pi}/3)
.866025404
18.37SPC
Skipspacesonthescreen.
SPC(x)
ThisfunctionisusedinPRINTorPRINT#commandstocontroltheformatting
ofdata,aseitheroutputtothescreenoroutputtoalogicalfile.The
numberofSPaCesspecifiedbythexparameterdeterminesthenumberof
characterstofillwithspacesacrossthescreenorinafile.Forscreen
ortapefiles,thevalueoftheargumentisintherange0to255,andfor
diskfilesthemaximumis254.Forprinterfiles,anautomaticcarriage
returnandlinefeedwillbeperformedbytheprinterifaSPaCeisprinted
inthelastcharacterpositionofaline;noSPaCesareprintedonthefol
lowingline.
EXAMPLE:
PRINT"COMMODORE";SPC(3);"128"
COMMODORE128
18.38SQR
Returnsquarerootofargument.
SQR(x)
ThisfunctionreturnsthevalueoftheSQuareRootofx,wherexisaposi
tivenumberor0.Thevalueoftheargumentmustnotbenegative,orthe
BASICerrormessage?ILLEGALQUANTITYERRORisdisplayed.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTSQR(25)
5
18.39STR$
Returnstringrepresentationofnumber.
STR$(x)
ThisfunctionreturnstheSTRingrepresentationofthenumericvalueofthe
argumentx.WhentheSTR$valueisconverted,anynumberdisplayedispre
cededandfollowedbyaspaceexceptfornegativenumbers,whichare
precededbyaminussign.ThecounterpartoftheSTR$functionistheVAL
function.
EXAMPLES:
PRINTSTR$(123.45)
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123.45
PRINTSTR$(89.03)
89.03
PRINTSTR$(1E20)
1E+20
18.40TAB
Movescursortotabpositioninpresentstatement.
TAB(x)
Thisfunctionmovesthecursorforwardifpossibletoarelativeposition
onthetextscreengivenbytheargumentx,startingwiththeleftmost
positionofthecurrentline.Thevalueoftheargumentcanrangefrom0to
255.Ifthecurrentprintpositionisalreadybeyondpositionx,theTAB
functionisignored.TheTABfunctionshouldonlybeusedwiththePRINT
statement,sinceithasvariedeffectsifusedwiththePRINT#toalogical
file,dependingonthedevicebeingused.
EXAMPLE:
10PRINT"COMMODORE"TAB(25)"128"
COMMODORE128
18.41TAN
Returntangentofargument.
TAN(x)
Thisfunctionreturnsthetangentofx,wherexisananglemeasuredin
radians.
EXAMPLE:
PRINTTAN(.785398163)
1
18.42USR
Calluserdefinedsubfunction
USR(x)
Whenthisfunctionisused,theprogramjumpstoamachinelanguageprogram
whosestartingpointiscontainedinmemorylocations(loworderbyte
first,highorderbytelast):
4633($1219)and4634($121A)...C128mode
785($0311)and786($0312)...C64mode
Theparameterxispassedtothemachinelanguageprograminthefloating
pointaccumulator.AvalueisreturnedtotheBASICprogramthroughthe
callingvariable.Youmustredirectthevalueintoavariableinyour
programinordertoreceivethevaluebackfromthefloatingpointaccumu
lator.
AnILLEGALQUANTITYERRORresultsifyoudon'tspecifythisvariable.This
allowstheusertoexchangeavariablebetweenmachinecodeandBASIC.
EXAMPLE(128Only):
10POKE4633,0
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20POKE4634,192NOTE:DefaultCommodore128bankis15.
30A=USR(X)
40PRINTA
Placestartinglocation($C000=49152:$00=0:$C0=192)ofmachinelanguage
routineinlocation4633and4634.Line30storesthereturningvaluefrom
thefloatingpointaccumulator.
18.43VAL
Returnthenumericvalueofanumberstring.
VAL(numericstring)
Thisfunctionconvertsthenumericstringargumentintoanumber.Itisthe
inverseoperationofSTR$.Thestringisexaminedfromtheleftmost
charactertotheright,forasmanycharactersasareinrecognizablenum
berformat.IftheCommodore128findsillegalcharacters,onlytheportion
ofthestringuptothatpointisconverted.Ifnonumericcharactersare
presentVALreturnsa0.
EXAMPLE:
10A$="120"
20B$="365"
30PRINTVAL(A$)+VAL(B$)
485
18.44XOR
ReturnsexclusiveOR
XOR(n1,n2)
ThisfunctionprovidestheexclusiveORoftheargumentvaluesn1andn2.
x=XOR(n1,n2)
wheren1,n2are2unsignedvalues(065535).
EXAMPLE:
PRINTXOR(128,64)
192
NOTE:n1andn2neednotbewholenumbers.
SECTION19
19.VariablesandOperators
19.1VARIABLES
19.2OPERATORS
19.1VARIABLES
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TheCommodore128usesthreetypesofvariablesinBASIC.Theseare:normal
numeric,integernumeric,string(alfanumeric).
NormalNUMERICVARIABLES,alsocalledfloatingpointvariables,canhave
anyexponentvaluefrom10to+10,withuptoninedigitsofaccuracy.
Whenanumberbecomeslargerthanninedigitscanshow,thecomputerdis
playsitinscientificnotationform,withthenumbernormalizedtoone
digitandeightdecimalplaces,followedbytheletterEandthepowerof
10bywhichthenumberismultiplied.Forexample,thenumber12345678901
isdisplayedas1.23456789E+10.
INTEGERVARIABLEScanbeusedwhenthenumberisfrom+32767to32768
(inclusive),andwithnofractionalportion.Anintegervariableisanum
berlike5,10or100.Integerstakeuplessspacethanfloatingpoint
variables,particularlywhenusedinanarray(seebelow).
STRINGVARIABLESarethoseusedforcharacterdata,whichmaycontainnum
bers,lettersandanyothercharacterstheCommodore128candisplay.An
exampleofastringvariableis"COMMODORE128".
VARIABLENAMESmayconsistofasingleletter,aletterfollowedbyanum
ber,ortwoletters.Variablenamesmaybelongerthantwocharacters,but
onlythefirsttwoaresignificant.Anintegerisspecifiedbyusingthe
percentsign(%)afterthevariablename.Stringvariableshaveadollar
sign($)aftertheirnames.
EXAMPLES:
NumericVariableNames:A,A5,BZ
IntegerVariableNames:A%,A5%,BZ%
StringVariableNames:A$,A5$,BZ$
ARRAYSarelistsofvariableswiththesamename,usinganextranumber(or
numbers)tospecifyanelementofthearray.Arraysaredefinedusingthe
DIMstatementandmaybefloatingpoint,integerorstringvariablearrays.
Thearrayvariablenameisfollowedbyasetofparentheses()enclosing
thenumberofthevariableinthelist.
EXAMPLE:
A(7),BZ%(11),A$(87)
Arrayscanhavemorethanonedimension.Atwodimensionalarraymaybe
viewedashavingrowsandcolumns,withthefirstnumberidentifyingthe
rowandthesecondnumberidentifyingthecolumn(asspecifyingacertain
gridonthemap).
EXAMPLE:
A(7,2),BZ%(2,3,4),Z$(3,2)
RESERVEDVARIABLENAMESarenamesreservedforusebytheCommodore128,
andmaynotbeusedforanyotherpurpose.Thesearethevariables:DS,
DS$,ER,EL,ST,TIandTI$.
KEYWORDSsuchasTOandIForanyothernamethatcontainkeywords,suchas
RUN,NEWorLOADcannotbeusedasvariablenames.
STisastatusvariableforinputandoutput(exceptnormalscreen/keyboard
operations).ThevalueofSTdependsontheresultofthelastI/Oopera
tion.Ingeneral,ifthevalueofSTis0,thentheoperationwassuccess
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ful.
TIandTI$arevariablesthatrelatetotherealtimeclockbuiltintothe
Commodore128.Thesystemclockisupdatedevery1/60thofasecond.It
startsat0whentheCommodore128isturnedon,andisresetonlyby
changingthevalueofTI$.ThevariableTIgivesthecurrentvalueofthe
clockin1/60thofasecond.TI$isastringthatreadsthevalueofthe
realtimeclockasan24hourclock.ThefirsttwocharactersofTI$con
tainthehour,thethirdandfourthcharactersareminutesandthefifth
andsixthcharactersareseconds.Thisvariablecanbesettoanyvalue(so
longasallcharactersarenumbers)andwillbeupdatedautomaticallyasa
24hourclock.
EXAMPLE:
TI$="101530"setstheclockto10:15and30seconds(AM).
ThevalueoftheclockislostwhentheCommodore128isturnedoff.It
startsatzerowhentheCommodore128isturnedon,andisresettozero
whenthevalueoftheclockexceeds235959(23hours,59minutesand59
seconds).
ThevariableDSreadsthediskdrivecommandchannelandreturnsthecur
rentstatusofthedrive.Togetthisinformationinwords,PRINTDS$.
Thesestatusvariablescanbeusedafteradiskoperation,likeDLOADand
DSAVE,tofindoutwhytherederrorlightonthediskdriveisblinking.
ERandELarevariablesusedinerrortrappingroutines.Theyareusually
onlyusefulwithinaprogram.ERreturnsthelasterrorencounteredsince
theprogramwasRUN.EListhelinewheretheerroroccurred.ERR$isa
functionthatallowstheprogramtoprintoneoftheBASICerrormessages.
PRINTERR$(ER)printsoutthepropererrormessage.
19.2Operators
TheBASICOPERATORSinclude:ARITHMETICOPERATORS,RELATIONALOPERATORSand
LOGICALOPERATORS.TheARITHMETICOPERATORSincludethefollowingsigns:
+addition
subtraction
*multiplication
/division
^raisingtoapower(exponentiation)
Onalinecontainingmorethanoneoperator,thereisasetorderinwhich
operationsalwaysoccur.Ifseveraloperatorsareusedtogether,thecompu
terassignsprioritiesasfollows:Firstexponentiation,thenmultiplica
tionanddivision,andlast,additionandsubtraction.Iftwooperators
havethesamepriority,thencalculationsareperformedinorderfromleft
toright.Iftheseoperationsaretooccurinadifferentorder,Commodore
128BASICallowsgivingacalculationhigherprioritybyplacingparenthe
sesaroundit.Operationsenclosedwithparentheseswillbecalculatedbe
foreanyotheroperation.Makesuretheequationshavethesamenumberof
leftandrightparentheses,oraSYNTAXERRORmessageisdisplayedwhenthe
programisrun.
Therearealsooperatorsforequalitiesandinequalities,calledRELATIONAL
OPERATORS.Arithmeticoperatorsalwaystakepriorityoverrelationalopera
tors.
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=isequalto
<islessthan
>isgreaterthan
<=or=<islessthanorequalto
>=or=>isgreaterthanorequalto
<>or><isnotequalto
Finally,therearethreeLOGICALOPERATORS,withlowerprioritythanboth
arithmeticandrelationaloperators:
AND
OR
NOT
ThesearemostoftenusedtojoinmultipleformulasinIF...THENstate
ments.Whentheyareusedwitharithmeticoperators,theyareevaluated
last(i.e.after+and).Iftherelationshipstatedintheexpressionis
true,theresultisassignedanintegervalueof1.Iffalse,avalueof0
(zero)isassigned.
EXAMPLES:
IFA=BANDC=DTHEN100RequiresbothA=BandC=Dtobetrue.
IFA=BORC=DTHEN100AllowseitherA=B,C=D,orboth,to
betrue.
A=5:B=4:PRINTA=BDisplaysavalueofzero.
A=5:B=4:PRINTA>3Displaysavalueof1.
PRINT123AND15:PRINT5OR7Displays11and7.
SECTION20
20.ReservedWordsandSymbols
20.1ReservedSystemWords(Keywords)
20.2ReservedSystemSymbols
20.1ReservedSystemWords(Keywords)
ThissectionliststhewordsandsymbolsusedtomakeuptheBASIC7.0
language.Thesewordsandsymbolscannotbeusedwithinaprogramasother
thanacomponentoftheBASIClanguage.Theonlyexceptionisthattheymay
beusedwithinquotesinaPRINTorLETstatement.
ABSDIMHEX$PRINTSPRITE
ANDDIRECTORYIFPRINT#SPRSAV
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APPENDDLOADINPUTPUDEFSQR
ASCDOINPUT#QUIT**SSHAPE
ATNDOPENINSTRRCLRST
AUTODRAWINTRDOTSTASH
BACKUPDSJOYREADSTEP
BANKDSAVEKEYRECORDSTOP
BEGINDS$LEFT$REMSTR$
BENDDVERIFYLENRENAMESWAP
BLOADELLET*RENUMBERSYS
BOOTELSELISTRESTORETAB(
BOXENDLOADRESUMETAN
BSAVEENVELOPELOCATERETURNTEMPO
BUMPERLOGRGRTHEN
CATALOGERR$LOOPRIGHT$TI
CHAREXITMID$RNDTI$
CHR$EXPMONITORRREGTO
CIRCLEFASTMOVSPRRSPCOLORTRAP
CLOSEFETCHNEWRSPPOSTROFF
CLRFILTERNEXTRSPRITETRON
CMDFNNOTRUNUNTIL
COLLECTFOROFF**RWINDOWUSING
COLLISIONFREONSAVEUSR
COLORGETOPENSCALEVAL
CONCATGETKEYORSCNCLRVERIFY
CONTGET#PAINTSCRATCHVOL
COPYGO64PEEKSGNWAIT
COSGOSUBPENSINWHILE
DATAGOTO{pi}SLEEPWIDTH
DCLEARGOTOPLAYSLOWWINDOW
DCLOSEGRAPHICPOINTERSOUNDXOR
DECGSHAPEPOKESPC(
DEFHEADERPOSSPRCOLOR
DELETEHELPPOTSPRDEF
*LETmaybeleftoutofthestatement,soLETA=10maybewrittenasA=10.
**OFFandQUITareunimplemented.
20.2ReservedSystemSymbols
Thefollowingcharactersarereservedsystemsymbols.
SymbolUse(s)
+PlussignArithmeticaddition;stringconcatenation;rela
tivespritemovement;declaredecimalnumberin
machinelanguagemonitor.
MinussignArithmeticsubtraction;negativenumber;unary
minus;relativespritemovement.
*AsteriskArithmeticmultiplication.
/SlashArithmeticdivision.
^UparrowArithmeticexponentiation.
BlankspaceSeparatekeywordsandvariablenames.
=EqualsignValueassignment;relationshiptesting.
<LessthanRelationshiptesting.
>GreaterthanRelationshiptesting.
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,CommaFormatoutputinvariablelists;separatemul
tiplefunctionparametersincommandsorstate
ments.
.PeriodDecimalpointinfloatingconstants.
;SemicolonFormatoutputinvariablelists.
:ColonSeparatemultipleBASICstatementsonaprogram
line;logicalendoflineinmachinelanguage
monitor.
""QuotationmarkEnclosestringconstants
?QuestionmarkAbbreviationforthekeywordPRINT;logicalend
oflineinmachinelanguagemonitor.
(LeftparenthesisExpressionevaluationandfunctions.
)RightparenthesisExpressionevaluationandfunctions.
%PercentDeclareavariablenameasinteger;declare
binarynumberinmachinelanguagemonitor.
#HashPrecedethelogicalfilenumberininput/output
statements.
$DollarsignDeclareavariablenameasastring;declare
hexadecimalnumberinmachinelanguagemonitor.
&AndsignDeclareoctalnumberinmachinelanguage
monitor.
{pi}PiDeclarethenumericconstantapproximately
3.14159265
APPENDICES
APPENDIXABASICLANGUAGEERRORMESSAGES
APPENDIXBDOSERRORMESSAGES
APPENDIXCCONNECTORS/PORTSFORPERIPHERALEQUIPMENT
APPENDIXDSCREENDISPLAYCODES
APPENDIXEASCIIANDCHR$CODES
APPENDIXFSCREENANDCOLORMEMORYMAPS
APPENDIXGDERIVEDMATHEMATICALFUNCTIONS
APPENDIXHMEMORYMAP
APPENDIXICONTROLANDESCAPECODES
APPENDIXJMACHINELANGUAGEMONITOR
APPENDIXKBASIC7.0ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDIXLDISKCOMMANDSUMMARY
APPENDIXA
A.BASICLANGUAGEERRORMESSAGES
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ThefollowingerrormessagesaredisplayedbyBASIC.Errormessagescan
alsobedisplayedwiththeuseoftheERR$()function.Theerrornumbers
belowreferonlytothenumberassignedtotheerrorforusewiththe
ERR$()function.
ERROR#ERRORNAMEDESCRIPTION
1TOOMANYFILESThereisalimitof10filesOPENatone
time.
2FILEOPENAnattemptwasmadetoopenafileusing
thenumberofanalreadyopenfile.
3FILENOTOPENThefilenumberspecifiedinanI/Ostate
mentmustbeopenedbeforeuse.
4FILENOTFOUNDEithernofilewiththatnameexists(disk)
oranendoftapemarkerwasread(tape).
5DEVICENOTPRESENTTherequiredI/Odeviceisnotavailableor
buffersdeallocated(cassette).
Checktomakesurethedeviceisconnected
andturnedon.
6NOTINPUTFILEAnattemptwasmadetoGETorINPUTdata
fromafilethatwasspecifiedasoutput
only.
7NOTOUTPUTFILEAnattemptwasmadetosenddatatoafile
thatwasspecifiedasinputonly.
8MISSINGFILENAMEFilenamemissingincommand.
9ILLEGALDEVICEAnattemptwasmadetouseadeviceim
NUMBERproperly(SAVEtothescreen,etc.).
10NEXTWITHOUTFOREitherloopsarenestedincorrectly,or
thereisavariablenameinaNEXTstate
mentthatdoesn'tcorrespondwithonein
FOR.
11SYNTAXAstatementnotrecognizedbyBASIC.This
couldbebecauseofamissingorextra
parenthesis,misspelledkeyword,etc.
12RETURNWITHOUTARETURNstatementwasencounteredwhenno
GOSUBGOSUBstatementwasactive.
13OUTOFDATAAREADstatementwasencounteredwithout
dataleftunREAD.
14ILLEGALQUANTITYAnumberusedastheargumentofafunction
orstatementisoutsidetheallowable
range.
15OVERFLOWTheresultofacomputationislargerthan
thelargestnumberallowed
(1.701411833E+38).
16OUTOFMEMORYEitherthereisnomoreroomforprogram
codeand/orprogramvariables,orthereare
toomanynestedDO,FORorGOSUBstatements
ineffect.
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17UNDEF'DSTATEMENTAlinenumberreferenceddoesn'texistin
theprogram.
18BADSUBSCRIPTTheprogramtriedtoreferenceanelement
ofanarrayoutoftherangespecifiedby
theDIMstatement.
19REDIM'DARRAYAnarraycanonlybeDIMensionedonce.
20DIVISIONBYZERODivisionbyzeroisnotallowed.
21ILLEGALDIRECTINPUTorGET,orINPUT#orGET#statements
areonlyallowedwithinaprogram.
22TYPEMISMATCHThisoccurswhenanumericvalueisusedin
placeofastringorviceversa.
23STRINGTOOLONGAstringcancontainupto255characters.
24FILEDATABaddatareadfromatapeordiskfile.
25FORMULATOOThecomputerwasunabletounderstandthis
COMPLEXexpression.Simplifytheexpression(break
intotwopartsorusefewerparentheses).
26CAN'TCONTINUETheCONTcommanddoesnotworkifthepro
gramwasnotRUN,therewasanerror,ora
linehadbeenedited.
27UNDEFINEDFUNCTIONAuserdefinedfunctionwasreferencedthat
wasneverdefined.
28VERIFYTheprogramontapeordiskdoesnotmatch
theprograminmemory.
29LOADTherewasaproblemloading.Tryagain.
30BREAKThestopkeywashittohaltprogramexe
cution.
31CAN'TRESUMEARESUMEstatementwasencounteredwithout
aTRAPstatementineffect.
32LOOPNOTFOUNDTheprogramhasencounteredaDOstatement
andcannotfindthecorrespondingLOOP.
33LOOPWITHOUTDOLOOPwasencounteredwithoutaDOstatement
active.
34DIRECTMODEONLYThiscommandisallowedonlyindirect
mode,notfromaprogram.
35NOGRAPHICSAREAAcommand(DRAW,BOX,etc.)tocreate
graphicswasencounteredbeforetheGRAPHIC
commandwasexecuted.
36BADDISKAnattemptfailedtoHEADERadiskette,
becausethequickheadermethod(noID)was
attemptedonaunformatteddisketteorthe
disketteisbad.
37BENDNOTFOUNDTheprogramencounteredan"IF...THEN
BEGIN"or"IF...THEN...ELSEBEGIN"con
struct,andcouldnotfindaBENDkeyword
tomatchtheBEGIN.
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38LINE#TOOLARGEAnerrorhasoccurredinrenumberinga
BASICprogram.Thegivenparametersresult
inalinenumber>63999beinggenerated;
therefore,therenumberingwasnotper
formed.
39UNRESOLVEDAnerrorhasoccurredinrenumberinga
REFERENCEBASICprogram.Alinenumberreferredtoby
acommand(e.g.,GOTO999)doesnotexist.
Thereforetherenumberingwasnotper
formed.
40UNIMPLEMENTEDAcommandnotsupportedbyBASIC7.0was
COMMANDencountered.
41FILEREADAnerrorconditionwasencounteredwhile
loadingorreadingaprogramorfilefrom
thediskdrive(e.g.,openingthedisk
drivedoorwhileaprogramwasloading).
APPENDIXB
B.DOSERRORMESSAGES
ThefollowingerrormessagesarereturnedthroughtheDSandDS$
variables.TheDSvariablecontainsjusttheerrornumberandtheDS$
variablecontainstheerrornumber,theerrormessagesandanycorrespon
dingtrackandsectornumber.
Note:Errormessagenumberslessthan20shouldbeignoredwiththeexcep
tionof01,whichgivesinformationaboutthenumberoffiles
scratchedwiththeSCRATCHcommand.
ERRORERRORMESSAGEAND
NUMBERDESCRIPTION
20:READERROR(blockheadernotfound)
Thediskcontrollerisunabletolocatetheheaderoftherequested
datablock.Causedbyanillegalsectornumber,ortheheaderhas
beendestroyed.
21:READERROR(nosynccharacter)
Thediskcontrollerisunabletodetectasyncmarkonthedesired
track.Causedbymisalignmentoftheread/writehead,nodiskette
ispresent,orunformattedorimproperlyseateddiskette.Canalso
indicateahardwarefailure.
22:READERROR(datablocknotpresent)
Thediskcontrollerhasbeenrequestedtoreadorverifyadata
blockthatwasnotproperlywritten.Thiserroroccursinconjunc
tionwiththeBLOCKcommandsandindicatesanillegaltrackand/or
sectorrequest.
23:READERROR(checksumerrorindatablock)
Thiserrormessageindicatesthereisanerrorinoneormoreof
thedatabytes.ThedatahasbeenreadintotheDOSmemory,butthe
checksumoverthedataisinerror.Thismessagemayalsoindicate
hardwaregroundingproblems.
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24:READERROR(bytedecodingerror)
ThedataorheaderhasbeenreadintotheDOSmemorybutahardware
errorhasbeencreatedduetoaninvalidbitpatterninthedata
byte.Thismessagemayalsoindicategroundingproblems.
25:WRITEERROR(writeverifyerror)
Thismessageisgeneratedifthecontrollerdetectsamismatchbe
tweenthewrittendataandthedatainDOSmemory.
26:WRITEPROTECTON
Thismessageisgeneratedwhenthecontrollerhasbeenrequestedto
writeadatablockwhilethewriteprotectswitchisdepressed.
Thisiscausedbyusingadiskettewithawriteprotecttabover
thenotch.
27:READERROR(checksumerrorinheader)
Thismessageisgeneratedwhenachecksumerrorhadbeendetected
intheheaderoftherequesteddatablock.Theblockhasnotbeen
readintoDOSmemory.
28:WRITEERROR(longdatablock)
Thiserrormessageisgeneratedwhenadatablockistoolongand
overwritesthesyncmarkofthenextheader.
29:DISKIDMISMATCH
Thismessageisgeneratedwhenthecontrollerhasbeenrequestedto
accessadiskettewhichhasnotbeeninitialized.Themessagecan
alsooccurifadiskettehasabadheader.
30:SYNTAXERROR(generalsyntax)
TheDOScannotinterpretthecommandsenttothecommandchannel.
Typically,thisiscausedbyanillegalnumberoffilenames,or
patternsareillegallyused.Forexample,filenamesappearonthe
leftsideoftheCOPYcommand.
31:SYNTAXERROR(invalidcommand)
TheDOSdoesnotrecognizethecommand.Thecommandmuststartin
thefirstposition.
32:SYNTAXERROR(longline)
Thecommandsentislongerthan58characters.Useabbreviateddisk
commands.
33:SYNTAXERROR(invalidfilename)
PatternmatchingisinvalidlyusedintheOPENorSAVEcommand.
Spelloutthefilename.
34:SYNTAXERROR(nofilegiven)
ThefilenamewasleftoutofthecommandortheDOSdoesnot
recognizeitassuch.Typically,acolon{:}hasbeenleftoutof
thecommand.
39:SYNTAXERROR(invalidcommand)
Thiserrormayresultifthecommandsenttothecommandchannel
(secondaryaddress15)isunrecognizedbytheDOS.
50:RECORDNOTPRESENT
ResultofdiskreadingpastthelastrecordthroughINPUT#orGET#
commands.Thismessagewillalsooccurafterpositioningtoa
recordbeyondtheendoffileinarelativefile.Iftheintentis
toexpandthefilebyaddingthenewrecord(withaPRINT#com
mand),theerrormessagemaybeignored.INPUT#orGET#shouldnot
beattemptedafterthiserrorisdetectedwithoutfirstreposi
tioning.
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51:OVERFLOWINRECORD
PRINT#statementexceedsrecordboundery.Informationistruncated.
Sincethecarriagereturnwhichissentasarecordterminatoris
countedintherecordsize,thismessagewilloccurifthetotalof
charactersintherecord(includingthefinalcarriagereturn)
exceedsthedefinedsizeoftherecord.
52:FILETOOLARGE
Recordpositionwithinarelativefileindicatesthatdiskoverflow
willresult.
60:WRITEFILEOPEN
Thismessageisgeneratedwhenawritefilethathasnotbeen
closedisbeingopenedforreading.
61:FILENOTOPEN
Thismessageisgeneratedwhenafileisbeingaccessedthathas
notbeenopenedintheDOS.Sometimes,inthiscase,amessageis
notgenerated;therequestissimplyignored.
62:FILENOTFOUND
Therequestedfiledoesnotexistontheindicateddrive.
63:FILEEXISTS
Thefilenameofthefilebeingcreatedalreadyexistsonthedis
kette.
64:FILETYPEMISMATCH
Therequestedfileaccessisnotpossibleusingfilesofthetype
named.Rereadthechaptercoveringthatfiletype.
65:NOBLOCK
OccursinconjunctionwithBlockAllocation.Thesectoryoutried
toallocatedisalreadyallocated.Thetrackandsectornumbersre
turnedarethenexthighertrackandsectoravailable.Ifthetrack
numberreturnedzero(0),allremainingsectorsarefull.Ifthe
disketteisnotfullyet,tryalowertrackandsector.
66:ILLEGALTRACKANDSECTOR
TheDOShasattemptedtoaccessatrackorblockwhichdoesnot
existintheformatbeingused.Thismayindicateaproblemreading
thepointerofthenextblock.
67:ILLEGALSYSTEMTORS
Thisspecialerrormessageindicatesanillegalsystemtrackor
sector.
70:NOCHANNEL(available)
Therequestedchannelisnotavailable,orallchannelsareinuse.
Amaximumoffivebuffersareavailableforuse.Asequentialfile
requirestwobuffers;arelativefilerequiresthreebuffers;and
theerror/commandchannelrequiresonebuffer.Youmayuseanycom
binationofthoseaslongasthecombinationdoesnotexceedfive
buffers.
71:DIRECTORYERROR
TheBAM(BlockAvailabilityMap)onthediskettedoesnotmatchthe
copyondiskmemory.Tocorrect,initializethediskette.
72:DISKFULL
Eithertheblocksonthedisketteareusedorthedirectoryisat
itsentrylimit.DISKFULLissentwhentwoblocksarestill
availableonthediskette,inordertoallowthecurrentfiletobe
closed.
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73:DOSMISMATCH(VERSIONNUMBER)
DOS1and2arereadcompatiblebutnotwritecompatible.Disksmay
beinterchangeablyreadwitheitherDOS,butadiskformattedon
oneversioncannotbewrittenuponwiththeotherversion,because
theformatisdifferent.Thiserrorisdisplayedwheneveran
attemptismadetowriteuponadiskwhichhasbeenformattedina
noncompatibleformat.Thismessagewillalsoappearafterpowerup
andisnotanerrorinthiscase.
74:DRIVENOTREADY
Anattempthasbeenmadetoaccessthediskdrivewithoutanyin
serteddiskette;orthedriveleverordoorisopen.
APPENDIXC
C.CONNECTORS/PORTSFORPERIPHERALEQUIPMENT
[PICTURESAREMISSING]
C.1SidePanelConnections
1.PowerSocketThefivepinsquareplugfromthepowersupplyiscon
nectedhere.
2.PowerSwitchTurnsonpowerfromthepowersupply.
3.ResetButtonResetscomputer(warmstart).
4.ControllerPortsTherearetwoControllerports,numbered1and2.
EachControllerportcanacceptajoystickorgamecontrollerpaddle.
Thelightpencanbepluggedonlyintoport1,theportclosesttothe
frontofthecomputer.Usetheportsasinstructedwiththesoftware.
ControlPort1
++++
|Pin|Type|Note|++
|1|JOYA0||/12345\
|2|JOYA1||+OOOOO+
|3|JOYA2||\/
|4|JOYA3||+OOOO+
|5|POTAY||\6789/
|6|BUTTONA/LP||++
|7|+5V|MAX.50mA|
|8|GND||
|9|POTAX||
++++
ControlPort2
++++
|Pin|Type|Note|
|1|JOYB0||
|2|JOYB1||
|3|JOYB2||
|4|JOYB3||
|5|POTBY||
|6|BUTTONB||
|7|+5V|MAX.50mA|
|8|GND||
|9|POTBX||
++++
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C.2RearConnections
5.ExpansionPortThisrectangularslotisaparallelportthataccepts
programsorgamecartridgesaswellasspecialinterfaces.
CartridgeExpansionSlot
++++++++++++
|Pin|Type||Pin|Type||Pin|Type||Pin|Type|
++++++++++++
|1|GND||12|BA||A|GND||N|A9|
|2|+5V||13|/DMA||B|/ROMH||P|A8|
|3|+5V||14|D7||C|/RESET||R|A7|
|4|/IRQ||15|D6||D|/NMI||S|A6|
|5|R/W||16|D5||E|02||T|A5|
|6|DotClock||17|D4||F|A15||U|A4|
|7|I/O1||18|D3||H|A14||V|A3|
|8|/GAME||19|D2||J|A13||W|A2|
|9|/EXROM||20|D1||K|A12||X|A1|
|10|I/O2||21|D0||L|A11||Y|A0|
|11|/ROML||22|GND||M|A10||Z|GND|
++++++++++++
2221111111111
2109876543210987654321
+@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@+
||
+@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@+
ZYXWVUTSRPNMLKJHFEDCBA
6.CassettePortA1530Datassetterecordercanbeattachedhereto
storeprogramsandinformation.
CassettePort
+++
|Pin|Type|
+++
|A1|GND|123456
|B2|+5V|+@@@@@@+
|C3|CASSETTEMOTOR|||
|D4|CASSETTEREAD|+@@@@@@+
|E5|CASSETTEWRITE|ABCDEF
|F6|CASSETTESENSE|
+++
7.SerialPortACommodoreSerialprinterordiskdrivecanbeattached
directlytotheCommodore128throughthisport.
SerialI/OPort
+++
|Pin|Type|++++
+++/++\
|1|/SERIALSRQIN|/51\
|2|GND|+OO+
|3|SERIALATNOUT||6|
|4|SERIALCLKIN/OUT||O|
|5|SERIALDATAIN/OUT|||
|6|/RESET|+OO+
+++\4O2/
\3/
++
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Note:TheCommodoreSerialPortisnotRS232compatible.TTLRS232levels
canbeobtainedfromtheUserPort.
8.40ColumnVideoConnectorThisDINconnectorprovidesaudioandcom
positevideosignalswhichcanbedirectlyconnectedtosuitableaudio
andmonitorequipment.ThesesignalscanbeconnectedtotheCommodore
monitororusedwithseparatecomponents.
Audio/CompositeVideoConnector
+++
|Pin|Type|++++
+++/8++7\
|1|LUMINANCE/SYNC|/OO\
|2|GND||6|
|3|AUDIOOUT||3OOO1|
|4|VIDEOOUT|||
|5|AUDIOIN|+OO+
|6|CHROMINANCE|\5O4/
|7|NC|\2/
|8|NC|++
+++
9.RFConnectorThisconnectorsuppliesbothpictureandsoundtoyour
televisionset.(Atelevisioncandisplayonlya40columnpicture.)
10.80ColumnRGBIConnectorThis9pinconnectorsuppliesanRGBI(Red/
Green/Blue/Intensity)signal.
80ColumnRGBIConnector
+++
|Pin|Signal|++
+++/12345\
|1|Ground|+OOOOO+
|2|Ground|\/
|3|Red|+OOOO+
|4|Green|\6789/
|5|Blue|++
|6|Intensity|
|7|Monochrome|
|8|HorizontalSync|
|9|VerticalSync|
+++
11.UserPortVariousinterfacedevicescanbeattachedhere.
UserI/O
UserI/OPort
++++++++
|Pin|Type|Note||Pin|Type|Note|
++++++++
|1|GND|||A|GND||
|2|+5V|MAX.100mA||B|/FLAG2||
|3|/RESET|||C|PB0||
|4|CNT1|||D|PB1||
|5|SP1|||E|PB2||
|6|CNT2|||F|PB3||
|7|SP2|||H|PB4||
|8|/PC2|||I|PB5||
|9|SER.ATNOUT|||K|PB6||
|10|9VAC|MAX.100mA||L|PB7||
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|11|9VAC|MAX.100mA||M|PA2||
|12|GND|||N|GND||
++++++++
111
123456789012
+@@@@@@@@@@@@+
||
+@@@@@@@@@@@@+
ABCDEFHJKLMN
APPENDIXD
D.SCREENDISPLAYCODES40Columns
ThefollowingchartlistsallofthecharactersbuiltintotheCommodore
screencharactersets.ItshowswhichnumbersshouldbePOKEDintoscreen
memory(locations10242023)togetadesiredcharacteronthe40column
screen(Remember,tosetcolormemory,uselocations55296to56295).Also
showniswhichcharactercorrespondstoanumberPEEKedfromthescreen.
Twocharactersetsareavailable.Bothareavailablesimultaneouslyin80
columnmode,butonlyisavailableatatimeonthe40columnscreen.The
setsareswitchedbyholdingdownthe{shift}and{C=}(Commodore)keys
simultaneously.
FromBASIC,PRINTCHR$(142)willswitchtouppercase/graphicsmodeand
PRINTCHR$(14)willswitchtoupper/lowercasemode.
AnynumberonthechartmayalsobedisplayedinREVERSE.Thereverse
charactercodemaybeobtainedbyadding128tothevaluesshown.
SET1SET2POKE|SET1SET2POKE|SET1SET2POKE
++
@0|+43|V86
Aa1|,44|W87
Bb2|45|X88
Cc3|.46|Y89
Dd4|/47|Z90
Ee5|048|91
Ff6|149|92
Gg7|250|93
Hh8|351|94
Ii9|452|SPACE95
Jj10|553|96
Kk11|654|97
Ll12|755|98
Mm13|856|99
Nn14|957|100
Oo15|:58|101
Pp16|;59|102
Qq17|<60|103
Rr18|=61|104
Ss19|>62|105
Tt20|?63|106
Uu21|64|107
Vv22|A65|108
Ww23|B66|109
Xx24|C67|110
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Yy25|D68|111
Zz26|E69|112
[27|F70|113
pound28|G71|114
]29|H72|115
^30|I73|116
<31|J74|117
SPACE32|K75|118
!33|L76|119
"34|M77|120
#35|N78|121
$36|O79|122
%37|P80|123
&38|Q81|124
'39|R82|125
(40|S83|126
)41|T84|127
*42|U85|
Codesfrom128255arereversedimagesofcodes0127.
APPENDIXE
E.ASCIIANDCHR$CODES
ThisappendixshowsyouwhatcharacterswillappearifyouPRINTCHR$(X),
forallpossiblevaluesofX.Itwillalsoshowthevaluesobtainedby
typingPRINTASC("x"),wherexisanycharacterthatcanbedisplayed.This
isusefulinevaluatingthecharacterreceivedinaGETstatement,conver
tinguppertolowercase,andprintingcharacterbasedcommands(like
switchtoupper/lowercase)thatcouldnotbeenclosedinquotes.
+++++
|PRINTSCHR$|PRINTSCHR$|PRINTSCHR$|PRINTSCHR$|
+++++
|0|048|96|{black}144|
|1|149|97|{up}145|
|2|250|98|{rvsoff}146|
|3|351|99|{clear}147|
|4|452|100|{inst}148|
|{white}5|553|101|{brown}149|
|6|654|102|{lt.red}150|
|7|755|103|{grey1}151|
|disSHIFT+C=8|856|104|{grey2}152|
|enaSHIFT+C=9|957|105|{lt.green}153|
|10|:58|106|{lt.blue}154|
|11|;59|107|{grey3}155|
|12|<60|108|{purple}156|
|return13|=61|109|{left}157|
|lowercase14|>62|110|{yellow}158|
|15|?63|111|{cyan}159|
|16|@64|112|SPACE160|
|{down}17|A65|113|161|
|{rvson}18|B66|114|162|
|{home}19|C67|115|163|
|{del}20|D68|116|164|
|21|E69|117|165|
|22|F70|118|166|
|23|G71|119|167|
|24|H72|120|168|
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|25|I73|121|169|
|26|J74|122|170|
|27|K75|123|171|
|{red}28|L76|124|172|
|{right}29|M77|125|173|
|{green}30|N78|126|174|
|{blue}31|O79|127|175|
|SPACE32|P80|128|176|
|!33|Q81|{orange}129|177|
|"34|R82|130|178|
|#35|S83|131|179|
|$36|T84|132|180|
|%37|U85|f1133|181|
|&38|V86|f3134|182|
|'39|W87|f5135|183|
|(40|X88|f7136|184|
|)41|Y89|f2137|185|
|*42|Z90|f4138|186|
|+43|[91|f6139|187|
|,44|pound92|f8140|188|
|45|]93|shift+ret.141|189|
|.46|^94|uppercase142|190|
|/47|{arrowleft}95|143|191|
+++++
CODES192223SAMEAS96127
CODES224254SAMEAS160190
CODE255SAMEAS126
Note:TheabovecodesareforC64mode.SeeAppendixIforspecialcodesin
C128mode.
APPENDIXF
F.SCREENANDCOLORMEMORYMAPSC128Mode,40ColumnandC64Mode
Thefollowingmapsdisplaythememorylocationsusedin40columnmode
(C128andC64)foridentifyingthecharactersonthescreenaswellas
theircolor.Eachmapisseparatelycontrolledandconsistsof1,000posi
tions.
Thecharacterdisplayedonthemapscanbecontrolleddirectlywiththe
POKEcommand.
F.1SCREENMEMORYMAP
COLUMN1063
010203039/
+/
1024||0
1064||
1104||
1144||
1184||
1224||
1264||
1304||
1344||
1384||
1424||10
1464||
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1504||ROW
1544||
1584||
1624||
1664||
1704||
1744||
1784||
1824||20
1864||
1904||
1944||
1984||24
+\
TheScreenMapisPOKEdwithaScreenDisplayCodevalue(seeAppendixD).
Forexample:
POKE1024,13
willdisplaytheletter{M}intheupperleftcornerofthescreen.
F.2COLORMEMORYMAP
COLUMN55335
010203039/
+/
55296||0
55336||
55376||
55416||
55456||
55496||
55536||
55576||
55616||
55656||
55696||10
55736||
55776||ROW
55816||
55856||
55896||
55936||
55976||
56016||
56056||
56096||20
56136||
56176||
56216||
56256||24
+\
56295
IfthecolormapisPOKEdwithacolorvalue,thischangesthecharacter
color.Forexample:
POKE55296,1
willchangetheletter{M}insertedabovefromlightgreentowhite.
F.3ColorCodes40Columns
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0Black8Orange
1White9Brown
2Red10LightRed
3Cyan11DarkGray
4Purple12MediumGray
5Green13LightGreen
6Blue14LightBlue
7Yellow15LightGray
BorderControlMemory53280
BackgroundControlMemory53281
APPENDIXG
G.DERIVEDTRIGONOMETRICFUNCTIONS
+++
|FUNCTION|BASICEQUIVALENT|
+++
|SECANT|SEC(X)=1/COS(X)|
|COSECANT|CSC(X)=1/SIN(X)|
|COTANGENT|COT(X)=1/TAN(X)|
|INVERSESINE|ARCSIN(X)=ATN(X/SQR(X*X+1))|
|INVERSECOSINE|ARCCOS(X)=ATN(X/SQR(X*X+1))+{pi}/2|
|INVERSESECANT|ARCSEC(X)=ATN(SQR(X*X1))|
|INVERSECOSECANT|ARCCSC(X)=ATN(1/SQR(X*X1))|
|INVERSECOTANGENT|ARCCOT(X)=ATN(1/X)|
|HYPERBOLICSINE|SINH(X)=(EXP(X)EXP(X))/2|
|HYPERBOLICCOSINE|COSH(X)=(EXP(X)+EXP(X))/2|
|HYPERBOLICTANGENT|TANH(X)=(EXP(X)EXP(X))/(EXP(X)+EXP(X))|
|HYPERBOLICSECANT|SECH(X)=2/(EXP(X)+EXP(X))|
|HYPERBOLICCOSECANT|CSCH(X)=2/(EXP(X)EXP(X))|
|HYPERBOLICCOTANGENT|COTH(X)=EXP(X)/(EXP(X)EXP(X))*2+1|
|INVERSEHYPERBOLICSINE|ARCSINH(X)=LOG(X+SQR(X*X+1))|
|INVERSEHYPERBOLICCOSINE|ARCCOSH(X)=LOG(X+SQR(X*X1))|
|INVERSEHYPERBOLICTANGENT|ARCTANH(X)=LOG((1+X)/(1X))/2|
|INVERSEHYPERBOLICSECANT|ARCSECH(X)=LOG(SQR(X*X+1)+1)/X)|
|INVERSEHYPERBOLICCOSECANT|ARCCSCH(X)=LOG((SGN(X)*SQR(X*X+1)+1/X)|
|INVERSEHYPERBOLICCOTANGENT|ARCCOTH(X)=LOG((X+1)/(X1))/2|
+++
APPENDIXH
H.MEMORYMAP
SYSTEMMEMORYMAP
TheCommodore128BASICmemorymapisshownbelow:
COMMODORE128MODE
MEMORYMAP
C128RAMC128ROM
FFFF++FFFF++
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FFFA|NMIRSTIRQ|||
|CP/MRAMCode|||
FFD0||FF4D++KernalJumpTable
|krnlRAMCode|||&HardwareVectors|
FF05++FF05++Kernalinterrupt
|MMU|||DispatchCode|
|Configuration|||
|Register||||
FF00++FF00|/////////////|MMUConfiguration
||||Registers|\
||FC80||ROMReservedfor|HIGH
||||ForeignLang.|/ROM
||||Versions
||FA00||EditorTables|
||||
||E000||KernalROMCode|
|||/////////////|
||D000|/////////////|I/OSpace|
||||
||C000||EditorROMCode|
||||
||B000||MonitorROMCode|\_MID
||||/ROM
||8000|||
||||
|||||\LOW
|||||ROM
4000++4000++BasicROMCode|/
COMMODORE128MODE
MEMORYMAP
C128RAM
4000++
|VICBITMAPScreen|
2000||
|VICBITMAPColor(VM#2)|
1C00++
|Reservedfor|
|FunctionKeySoftware|
1800++
|Reservedfor|
|ForeignLang.Systems|
1400++
||
1300++
|BasicAbsoluteVariables|
1200++
|BasicDOS/VSPVariables|
1108++
|CP/MResetCode|
1100++
|FunctionKeyBuffer|
1000++
|SpriteDefinitionArea|
0E00++
|RS/232OutputBuffer|
0D00++
|RS/232InputBuffer|
0C00++
|(DiskBootPage)|
0BC0||
|CassetteBuffer|
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0B00++
|Monitor&KernalAbsoluteValues|
0A00++
|BasicRunTimeStack|
0800++
|VICTextScreen(VM#1)|
0400++
COMMODORE128MODE
MEMORYMAP
C128RAM
0400++
|BasicRAMCode|
0380++
|KernalTables|
033C++
|Indirects|
02FC++
|KernalRAMCode|
02A2++
|Basic&MonitorInputBuffer|
0200++
|SystemStack|
0149++
|BasicDOSUsing|
0110++
|FBuffer|
0100++
|KernalZ.P.|
0090++
|BasicZ.P.|
0002++
0000++
APPENDIXI
I.CONTROLANDESCAPECODES
I.1CONTROLCODES
Effective
KeyinMode:
CHR$SequenceFunctionC64C128
CHR$(2)CTRLBUnderline(80)*
CHR$(5)CTRL2orSetcharactercolortowhite
CTRLE(40)and(80)**
CHR$(7)CTRLGProducebelltone*
CHR$(8)CTRLHDisablecharactersetchange*
CHR$(9)CTRLIEnablecharactersetchange*
Movecursortonexttab
position*
CHR$(10)CTRLJSendacarriagereturnwith
linefeed*
Sendalinefeed*
CHR$(11)CTRLKDisablecharactersetchange*
CHR$(12)CTRLLEnablecharactersetchange*
CHR$(13)CTRLMSendacarriagereturnandline
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feedtothecomputerandenter
alineofBASIC**
CHR$(14)CTRLNSetcharactersettolower/upper
caseset**
CHR$(15)CTRLOTurnflashon(80)*
CHR$(17)CRSRDOWNorMovethecursordownonerow**
CTRLQ
CHR$(18)CTRL9characterstobeprintedin
reversefield**
CHR$(19)HOMEorMovethecursortothehome
CTRLSposition(topleft)ofthe
display(thecurrentwindow)**
CHR$(20)DELorDeletelastcharactertypedand
CTRLTmoveallcharacterstotheright
onespacetotheleft**
CHR$(24)CTRLXTabset/clear*
CHR$(27)ESCorCTRL[SendanESCcharacter*
CHR$(28)CTRL3orSendcharactercolortored
CTRL/(40)and(80)**
CHR$(29)CRSRRIGHTorMovecursoronecolumntothe
CTRL]right**
CHR$(30)CTRL6orSetcharactercolortogreen
CTRL^(40)and(80)**
CHR$(34)"Printadoublequoteonscreen
andplaceeditorinquotemode**
CHR$(129)C=1Setcharactercolortoorange
(40);darkpurple(80)**
CHR$(130)Underlineoff(80)*
CHR$(131)Runaprogram.ThisCHR$code
doesnotworkinPRINTCHR$(131),
butworksfromkeyboardbuffer*
CHR$(133)F1ReservedCHR$codeforF1key*
CHR$(141)SHIFTRETURNSendacarriagereturnandline
feedwithoutenteringaBASIC
line**
CHR$(142)Setthecharactersettoupper
case/graphics**
CHR$(143)Turnflashoff(80)*
CHR$(144)CTRL1Setcharactercolortoblack
(40)and(80)**
CHR$(145)CRSRUPMovecursororprintingposition
uponerow**
CHR$(146)CTRL0Terminatereversefielddisplay**
CHR$(147)HOMEClearthewindowscreenandmove
thecursortothetopleft
position**
CHR$(148)INSTMovecharacterfromcursor
positionrightonecolumn**
CHR$(149)C=2Setcharactercolortobrown
(40);darkyellow(80)**
CHR$(150)C=3Setcharactercolortolightred
(40)and(80)**
CHR$(151)C=4Setcharactercolortodarkgray
(40);darkcyan(80)**
CHR$(152)C=5Setcharactercolortomedium
gray(40)and(80)**
CHR$(153)C=6Setcharactercolortolight
green(40)and(80)**
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blue(40)and(80)**
gray(40)and(80)**
CHR$(156)CTRL5Setcharactercolortopurple
(40)and(80)**
CHR$(157)CRSRLEFTMovecursorleftonecolumn**
CHR$(158)CTRL8Setcharactercolortoyellow
(40)and(80)**
CHR$(159)CTRL4Setcharactercolortocyan
(40);lightcyan(80)**
Note:(40)...40columnscreenonly;(80)...80columnscreenonly
I.2ESCAPECODES
FollowingarekeysequencesfortheESCapefunctionsavailableonthe
Commodore128.ESCapesequencesareenteredbypressingandreleasingthe
{ESC}key,followingbypressingthekeylistedbelow.
ESCAPEFUNCTIONESCAPEKEY
CancelquoteandinsertmodeESCO
ErasetoendofcurrentlineESCQ
ErasetostartofcurrentlineESCP
ErasetoendofscreenESC@
MovetostartofcurrentlineESCJ
MovetoendofcurrentlineESCK
EnableautoinsertmodeESCA
DisableautoinsertmodeESCC
DeletecurrentlineESCD
InsertlineESCI
Setdefaulttabstops(8spaces)ESCY
ClearalltabstopsESCZ
EnablescrollingESCL
DisablescrollingESCM
ScrollupESCV
ScrolldownESCW
Enablebell(byCTRLG)ESCG
DisablebellESCH
SetcursortononflashingmodeESCE
SetcursortoflashingmodeESCF
SetbottomofscreenwindowatcursorpositionESCB
SettopofscreenwindowatcursorpositionESCT
Swap40/80columndisplayoutputdeviceESCX
ThefollowingESCapesequencesarevalidonan80columnscreenonly.(See
Section8forinformationonusingan80columnscreen.)
ChangetounderlinedcursorESCU
ChangetoblockcursorESCS
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SetscreentoreversevideoESCR
Setscreentonormal(nonreversevideo)stateESCN
APPENDIXJ
J.MACHINELANGUAGEMONITOR
J.1Introduction
Commodore128hasabuiltinmachinelanguagemonitorwhichletstheuser
writeandexaminemachinelanguageprogramseasily.Commodore128MONITOR
includesamachinelanguagemonitor,aminiassemblerandadisassembler.
ThebuiltinmonitorworksonlyinC128mode;either40columnor80
column.
MachinelanguageprogramswrittenusingCommodore128MONITORcanrunby
themselvesorbeusedasveryfastsubroutinesforBASICprogramssincethe
Commodore128MONITORhastheabilitytocoexistpeacefullywithBASIC.
Caremustbetakentopositiontheassemblylanguageprogramsinmemoryso
theBASICprogramdoesnotoverwritethem.
ToenterthemonitorfromBASIC,type:
MONITOR{return}
SummaryofCommodore128MonitorCommands
ASSEMBLEAssemblesalineof8502code.
COMPAREComparestwosectionsofmemoryandreportsdifferences.
DISASSEMBLEDisassemblesalineof8502code.
FILLFillsarangeofmemorywiththespecifiedbyte.
GOStartsexecutionatthespecifiedaddress.
HUNTHuntsthroughmemorywithinaspecifiedrangeforalloccur
rancesofasetofbytes.
JUMPJumpstothesubroutine.
LOADLoadsafilefromtapeordisk.
MEMORYDisplaysthehexadecimalvaluesofmemorylocations.
REGISTERSDisplaysthe8502registers.
SAVESavestotapeordisk.
TRANSFERTransferscodefromonesectionofmemorytoanother.
VERIFYComparesmemorywithtapeordisk.
EXITExitsCommodore128MONITOR
(period)Assemblesalineof8502code(sameasAssemble).
(greaterthan)Modifiesmemory.
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(semicolon)Modifies8502registerdisplays.
@(atsign)Displaysdiskstatus,sendsdiskcommand,displaysdirec
tory.
TheCommodore128displays5digithexadecimaladdresseswithinthemachine
languagemonitor.Normally,ahexadecimalnumberisonlyfourdigits,
representingtheallowableaddressrange.Theextraleftmost(highorder)
digitspecifiestheBANKconfiguration(atthetimethegivencommandis
executed)accordingtothefollowingmemoryconfigurationtable:
0RAM0only8EXTROM,RAM0,I/O
1RAM1only9EXTROM,RAM1,I/O
2RAM2onlyAEXTROM,RAM2,I/O
3RAM3onlyBEXTROM,RAM3,I/O
4INTROM,RAM0,I/OCKERNAL+INT(lo),RAM0,I/O
5INTROM,RAM1,I/ODKERNAL+EXT(lo),RAM0,I/O
6INTROM,RAM2,I/OEKERNAL+BASIC,RAM0,CHARROM
7INTROM,RAM3,I/OFKERNAL+BASIC,RAM0,I/O
J.2SummaryforMonitorFieldDescriptors
Thefollowingdesignatorsprecedemonitordatafields(e.g.memorydumps).
Whenencounteredasacommand,thesedesignatorsinstructthemonitorto
altermemoryorregistercontentsusingthegivendata.
.{period}precedeslinesofdisassembledcode
>{rightangle}precedeslinesofmemorydump
;{semicolon}precedeslineofaregisterdump
Thefollowingdesignatorsprecedenumberfields(e.g.addresses)andspe
cifytheradix(numberbase)ofthevalue.Enteredascommands,these
designatorsinstructthemonitorsimplytodisplaythegivenvalueineach
ofthefourradices.
{null}(default)precedeshexadecimalvalues.
${dollar}precedeshexadecimal(base16)values
+{plus}precedesdecimal(base10)values
&{ampersand}precedesoctal(base8)values
%{percent}precedesbinary(base2)values
Thefollowingcharactersareusedbythemonitorasfielddelimitersor
lineterminators(unlessencounteredwithinanASCIIstring).
{space}delimiterseperatestwofields
,{comma}delimiterseperatestwofields
:{colon}terminatorlogicalendofline
?{question}terminatorlogicalendofline
J.3Commanddescriptions
Note:<>encloserequiredparameters
[]encloseoptionalparameters
Pleasenotethatanynumberfield(e.g.addresses,devicenumber,anddata
bytes)maybespecifiedasabasednumber.Thisaffectstheoperandfield
oftheASSEMBLEcommandaswell.Alsonotetheadditionofthedirectory
syntaxtothediskcommand.
Asafurtheraidtoprogrammers,theKernelerrormessagefacilityhasbeen
automaticallyenabledwhileintheMonitor.ThismeanstheKernelwill
display"I/OERROR#"andtheerrorcode,shouldtherebeanyfailedI/O
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attemptfromtheMONITOR.Themessagefacilityisturnedoffwhenexiting
theMONITOR.
COMMAND:A
PURPOSE:Enteralineofassemblycode
SYNTAX:A<address><opcodemnemonic><operand>
<address>Ahexadecimalnumberindicatingthelocationin
memorytoplacetheopcode.
<opcode
mnemonic>AstandardMOStechnologyassemblylanguagemne
monic,e.g.LDA,STX,ROR.
<operand>Theoperand,whenrequired,canbeanyofthelegal
addressingmodes.
A{return}isusedtoindicatetheendoftheassemblyline.Ifthereare
anyerrorsontheline,aquestionmarkisdisplayedtoindicateanerror,
andthecursormovestothenextline.Thescreeneditorcanbeusedto
correcttheerror(s)onthatline.
EXAMPLE:A01200LDX#$00
A1202
NOTE:Aperiod(.)isequaltotheASSEMBLEcommand.
EXAMPLE:.02000LDA#$23
COMMAND:C
PURPOSE:Comparetwoareasofmemory
SYNTAX:C<address1><address2><address3>
<address1>Anumberindicatingthestartaddressoftheareaof
memorytocompareagainst.
<address2>Anumberindicatingtheendaddressoftheareaof
memorytocompareagainst.
<address3>Anumberindicatingthestartaddressoftheother
areaofmemorytocomparewith.
Addressesthatdonotagreeareprintedonthescreen.
COMMAND:D
PURPOSE:Disassemblemachinecodeintoassemblylanguagemnemonicsand
operands.
SYNTAX:D[<address1>][<address2>]
<address1>Anumbersettingtheaddresstostartthedis
assembly.
<address2>Anoptionalendingaddressofcodetobedis
assembled.
Theformatofthedisassemblydiffersslightlyfromtheinputformatofan
assembly.Thedifferenceisthatthefirstcharacterofadisassemblyisa
periodratherthananA(forreadability),andthehexadecimalcodeis
listedaswell.
Adisassemblylistingcanbemodifiedusingthescreeneditor.Makeany
changestothemnemonicoroperandonthescreen,thenhitthecarriage
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return.Thisentersthelineandcallstheassemblerforfurthermodifi
cations.
Adisassemblycanbepaged.TypingaD{return}causesthenextpageof
disassemblytobedisplayed.
EXAMPLE:D30003003
.03000A900LDA#$00
.03002FF???
.03003D02BBNE$3030
COMMAND:F
PURPOSE:Fillarangeoflocationswithaspecifiedbyte.
SYNTAX:F<address1><address2><byte>
<address1>Thefirstlocationtofillwiththe<byte>.
<address2>Thelastlocationtofillwiththe<byte>.
<byte>Numbertobewritten.
ThiscommandisusefulforinitializingdatastructuresoranyotherRAM
area.
EXAMPLE:F04000518EA
Fillmemorylocationsfrom$0400to$0518with$EA(aNOP
instruction).
COMMAND:G
PURPOSE:Beginexecutionofaprogramataspecifiedaddress.
SYNTAX:G[<address>]
<address>Anaddresswhereexecutionistostart.Whenaddress
isleftout,executionbeginsatthecurrentPC.
(ThecurrentPCcanbeviewedusingtheRcommand.)
TheGOcommandrestoresallregisters(displayablebyusingtheRcommand)
andbeginsexecutionatthespecifiedstartingaddress.Cautionisrecom
mendedinusingtheGOcommand.ToreturntoCommodore128MONITORmode
afterexecutingamachinelanguageprogram,usetheBRKinstructionatthe
endoftheprogram.
EXAMPLE:G140C
Executionbeginsatlocation$140C.
COMMAND:H
PURPOSE:Huntthroughmemorywithinaspecifiedrangeforalloccurrences
ofasetofbytes.
SYNTAX:H<address1><address2><data>
<address1>Beginningaddressofhuntprocedure.
<address2>Endingaddressofhuntprocedure.
<data>Datasettosearchfordatamaybenumbersoran
ASCIIstring.
EXAMPLES:HA000A101A9FF4C
Searchfordata$A9,$FF,$4C,from$A000to$A101.
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H20009800'CASH
Searchforthealphastring"CASH".
COMMAND:J
PURPOSE:Beginexecutionofaprogramataspecifiedaddress.
SYNTAX:J[<address>]
<address>Anaddresswhereexecutionistostart.Whenaddress
isleftout,executionbeginsatthecurrentPC.
(ThecurrentPCcanbeviewedusingtheRcommand.)
TheJUMPcommandrestoresallregisters(displayablebyusingtheRcom
mand)andbeginsexecutionatthespecifiedstartingaddress.Cautionis
recommendedinusingtheJUMPcommand.ToreturntoCommodore128MONITOR
modeafterexecutingamachinelanguageprogram,usetheRTSinstructionat
theendoftheprogram.
EXAMPLE:J1300
Executionbeginsatlocation$1300.
COMMAND:L
PURPOSE:Loadafilefromcassetteordisk.
SYNTAX:L<"filename">[,<device>[,altloadaddress]]
<"filename">AnylegalCommodore128filename.
<device>Ahexadecimalnumberindicatingthedevice
toloadfrom,1iscassette,8isdisk(or
9,A,etc.).
[altloadaddress]Optiontoloadafiletoaspecificaddress
(4digitnumber),orabankconfiguration
andaddress(5digitnumber).
TheLOADcommandcausesafiletobeloadedintomemory.Ifthealternate
loadaddressisnotused,thefilewillbeloadedtotheaddressinbank0
thatisspecifiedinthecassetteheader,orthefirsttwobytesofadisk
file.Thealternateloadaddressisusedtospecifyadifferentstart
address,whichmayrangefrom$00000to$FFFFF.
EXAMPLE:L"PROGRAM",$12000
LoadsthefilenamedPROGRAMinfromthediskintobank1,
startingat$2000.
COMMAND:M
PURPOSE:TodisplaymemoryasahexadecimalandASCIIdumpwithinthe
specifiedaddressrange.
SYNTAX:M[<address1>[<address2>]]
<address1>Firstaddressofmemorydump.Optional.Ifomitted,
onepageisdisplayed.Thefirstbyteisthebank
numbertobedisplayed,thenextfourbytesarethe
firstaddresstobedisplayed.
<address2>Lastaddressofmemorydump.Optional.Ifomitted,
onepageisdisplayed.Thefirstbyteisthebank
numbertobedisplayed,thenextfourbytesarethe
endingaddresstobedisplayed.
Memoryisdisplayedinthefollowingformat:
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>0300045582E56414C5545:EX.VALUE
Memorycontentmaybeeditedusingthescreeneditor.Movethecursorto
thedatatobemodified,typethedesiredcorrectionandhit{return}.If
thereisabadRAMlocationoranattempttomodifyROMhasoccurred,an
errorflag(?)isdisplayed.
AnASCIIdumpofthedataisdisplayedinREVERSE(tocontrastwithother
datadisplayedonthescreen)totherightofthehexdata.Whenacharac
terisnotprintable,itisdisplayedasareverseperiod(.).
Aswiththedisassemblycommand,pagingdownisaccomplishedbytypingM
and{return}.
EXAMPLE:MF4151F4201
>F41F120434F4D4D4F444F:COMMODO
>F41F9524520454C454354:REELECT
>F4201524F4E4943532C20:TRONICS,
NOTE:Theabovedisplayisproducedbythe40columneditor.
COMMAND:R
PURPOSE:Showimportant8502registers.Theprogramstatusregister,the
programcounter,theaccumulator,theXandYindexregistersand
thestackpointeraredisplayed.
SYNTAX:R
ThevaluesofPC,SR,AC,XR,YRandSParetransferedtothe8502before
theGoorJumpcommandisexecuted.
EXAMPLE:R
PCSRACXRYRSP
;0100201020304F6
NOTE:;{semicolon}canbeusedtomodifyregisterdisplaysin
thesamefashionas>(greaterthan)canbeusedtomodify
memoryregisters.
COMMAND:S
PURPOSE:Saveanareaofmemoryontotapeordisk.
SYNTAX:S<"filename">,<device>,<address1>,<address2>
<"filename">AnylegalCommodore128filename.Tosavethe
datathenamemustbeenclosedindoublequotes.
Singlequotescannotbeused.
<device>Ahexadecimalnumberindicatingonwhichdevice
thefileistobeplaced.Cassetteis1;diskis
8,9,etc.
<address1>Startingaddressofmemorytobesaved.
<address2>Endingaddressofmemorytobesaved+1.Alldata
upto,butnotincludingthebyteofdataatthis
address,issaved.
Thefilemayberecalled,usingtheLcommand.Whensavingtocassetteonly
bank0canbesavedfrom.
EXAMPLE:S"GAME",8,0400,0C00
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Savesmemoryfrom$0400to$0C00ontodisk.
COMMAND:T
PURPOSE:Transfersegmentsofmemoryfromonememoryareatoanother.
SYNTAX:T<address1><address2><address3>
<address1>Startingaddressofdatatobemoved.
<address2>Endingaddressofdatatobemoved.
<address3>Startingaddressofofnewlocationwheredatawill
bemoved.
Datacanbemovedfromlowmemorytohighmemoryandviceversa.Additional
memorysegmentsofanylengthcanbemovedforwardorbackward.Anauto
matic"compare"isperformedaseachbyteistransferred,andanydifferen
cesarelistedbyaddress.
EXAMPLE:T140016001401
Shiftsdatafrom$1400uptoandincluding$1600onebytehigher
inmemory.
COMMAND:V
PURPOSE:Verifyafileoncassetteordiskwiththememorycontents.
SYNTAX:L<"filename">[,<device>[,altstartaddress]]
<"filename">AnylegalCommodore128filename.
<device>Ahexadecimalnumberindicatingthedevicetoload
from,1iscassette,diskis8,9,etc.).
[altstart
address]Optiontostartverificationatthisaddress(4
digitnumber),orabankconfigurationandaddress
(5digitnumber).
TheVerifycommandcomparesafiletomemorycontents.TheCommodore128
respondswithVERIFYING.IfanerrorisfoundthewordERRORisadded;if
thefileissuccessfullyverifiedthecursorreappears.
EXAMPLE:V"WORKLOAD",8
COMMAND:X
PURPOSE:ExittoBASIC.
SYNTAX:X
COMMAND:.{point}
PURPOSE:Canbeusedtoenteralineofassemblycode.
SYNTAX:seetheAcommand.
COMMAND:>(greaterthan)
PURPOSE:Canbeusedtosetupto8or16memorylocations.
SYNTAX:><address>[<databyte1...8/16>]
<address>Firstmemoryaddresstoset.
<databyte1...8/16>
Datatobeplacedinsuccesivememorylocations
followingtheaddress,withaspaceprecedingeach
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databyte.
Themaximumnumberofbytesthatcanbeenteredis8(in40columnmode)or
16(in80columnmode).Whenthe{return}keyispressedthecontentsof
the8/16locationsaftertheaddressaredisplayedinhexadecimalvalueand
asASCIIcharacter.
EXAMPLES:>2000
Displayslineofbytesfollowing$2000.
>2000313238
Entersvaluesat$2000anddisplayslineofbytesfollowing
$2000.
COMMAND:;{semicolon}
PURPOSE:Canbeusedtomodifythedisplayofimportant8502registers.
SYNTAX:;[<PC>[<SR>[<AC>[<XR>[<YR>[<SP>]]]]]]
<PC>A5digithexadecimalnumber,consistingofthe
(leading)1digitbankconfigurationnumberand
4digitvalueofthe8502ProgramCounter.
<SR>A2digithexadecimalnumber,indicatingthevalue
ofthe8502StatusRegister.
<AC>A2digithexadecimalnumber,indicatingthevalue
ofthe8502Accumulator.
<XR>A2digithexadecimalnumber,indicatingthevalue
ofthe8502XindexRegister.
<YR>A2digithexadecimalnumber,indicatingthevalue
ofthe8502YindexRegister.
<SP>A2digithexadecimalnumber,indicatingthevalue
ofthe8502StackPointer.
ItiseasiertousetheRcommand,becausetheregisterlabelsarelisted
abovethelinecontainingtheregistervalues.
ThevaluesofPC,SR,AC,XR,YRandSParetransferedtothe8502before
theGoorJumpcommandisexecuted.
COMMAND:@{atsign}
PURPOSE:Canbeusedtodisplaythediskstatus.
SYNTAX:@[<unit#>],<diskcmdstring>
<unit#>Deviceunitnumber(optional).
<diskcmdstring>
Stringcommandtodisk.
NOTE:@alonegivesthestatusofthediskdrive.
EXAMPLES:@
00,OK,00,00
Checksdiskstatus.
@,I
Initializesdrive8.
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@,$
Displaysdirectoryofdrive8.
APPENDIXK
K.BASIC7.0ABBREVIATIONS
Note:Theabbreviationsbelowoperateinuppercase/graphicmode.Pressthe
letterkey(s)indicated,thenholddownthe{shift}keyandpress
theletterkeyfollowingthewordSHIFT.
KEYWORDABBREVIATION
ABSASHIFTB
ANDASHIFTN
APPENDASHIFTP
ASCASHIFTS
ATNASHIFTT
AUTOASHIFTU
BACKUPBASHIFTC
BANKBSHIFTA
BEGINBSHIFTE
BENDBESHIFTN
BLOADBSHIFTL
BOOTBSHIFTO
BOXnone
BSAVEBSHIFTS
BUMPBSHIFTU
CATALOGCSHIFTA
CHARCHSHIFTA
CHR$CSHIFTH
CIRCLECSHIFTI
CLOSECLSHIFTO
CLRCSHIFTL
CMDCSHIFTM
COLLECTCOLLSHIFTE
COLINTnone
COLLISIONCOLSHIFTL
COLORCOLSHIFTO
CONCATCSHIFTO
CONTnone
COPYCOSHIFTP
COSnone
DATADSHIFTA
DECnone
DCLEARDCLSHIFTE
DCLOSEDSHIFTC
DEFFNnone
DELETEDESHIFTL
DIMDSHIFTI
DIRECTORYDISHIFTR
DLOADDSHIFTL
DOnone
DOPENDSHIFTO
DRAWDSHIFTR
DSnone
DS$none
DSAVEDSHIFTS
DVERIFYDSHIFTV
ELnone
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ELSEESHIFTL
ENDnone
ENVELOPEESHIFTN
ERnone
ERR$ESHIFTR
EXITEXSHIFTI
EXPESHIFTX
FASTnone
FETCHFSHIFTE
FILTERFSHIFTI
FNnone
FORFSHIFTO
FREFSHIFTR
GETGSHIFTE
GETKEYGETKSHIFTE
GET#none
GO64none
GOSUBGOSHIFTS
GOTOGSHIFTO
GRAPHICGSHIFTR
GSHAPEGSHIFTS
HEADERHESHIFTA
HELPHESHIFTL
HEX$HSHIFTE
IFnone
INPUTnone
INPUT#ISHIFTN
INSTRINSHIFTS
INTnone
JOYJSHIFTO
KEYKSHIFTE
LEFT$LESHIFTF
LENnone
LETLSHIFTE
LISTLSHIFTI
LOADLSHIFTO
LOCATELOSHIFTC
LOGnone
LOOPLOSHIFTO
MID$MSHIFTI
MONITORMOSHIFTN
MOVSPRnone
NEWnone
NEXTNSHIFTE
NOTNSHIFTO
ONnone
OPENOSHIFTP
ORnone
PAINTPSHIFTA
PEEKPESHIFTE
PENPSHIFTE
(PI)none
PLAYPSHIFTL
POINTERPOSHIFTI
POKEPOSHIFTK
POSnone
POTPSHIFTO
PRINT?
PRINT#PSHIFTR
PRINTUSING?USSHIFTI
PUDEFPSHIFTU
RCLRRSHIFTC
RDOTRSHIFTD
READRESHIFTA
RECORDRSHIFTE
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REMnone
RENAMERESHIFTN
RENUMBERRENSHIFTUKEYWORD
ABBREVIATION
RESTORERESHIFTS
RESUMERESSHIFTU
RETURNRESHIFTT
RGRRSHIFTG
RIGHT$RSHIFTI
RNDRSHIFTN
RREGRSHIFTR
RSPCOLORRSPSHIFTC
RSPPOSRSHIFTS
RSPRITERSPSHIFTR
RUNRSHIFTU
RWINDOWRSHIFTW
SAVESSHIFTA
SCALESCSHIFTA
SCNCLRSSHIFTC
SCRATCHSCSHIFTR
SGNSSHIFTG
SINSSHIFTI
SLEEPSSHIFTL
SLOWnone
SOUNDSSHIFTO
SPC(none
SPRCOLORSPRSHIFTC
SPRDEFSPRSHIFTD
SPRITESSHIFTP
SPRSAVSPRSHIFTS
SQRSSHIFTQ
SSHAPESSHIFTS
STASHSSHIFTT
STnone
STEPSTSHIFTE
STOPSTSHIFTO
STR$STSHIFTR
SWAPSSHIFTW
SYSnone
TAB(TSHIFTA
TANnone
TEMPOTSHIFTE
THENTSHIFTH
TInone
TI$none
TOnone
TRAPTSHIFTR
TROFFTROSHIFTF
TRONTRSHIFTO
USRUSHIFTS
VALnone
VERIFYVSHIFTE
VOLVSHIFTO
WAITWSHIFTA
WHILEWHSHIFTI
WIDTHWSHIFTI
XORXSHIFTO
APPENDIXL
L.DISKCOMMANDSUMMARY
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ThisappendixliststhecommandsusedfordiskoperationinC128andC64
modesontheCommodore128.Fordetailedinformationonanyofthesecom
mands,seeChapterV,BASIC7.0Encyclopaedia.Yourdiskdrivemanualalso
hasinformationondiskcommands.
ThenewBASIC7.0commandscanbeusedonlyinC128mode.AllBASIC2.0
commandscanbeusedinbothC128andC64modes.
CommandUseBasic2.0Basic7.0
APPENDAppenddatatofile*X
BLOADLoadabinaryfilestartingat
thespecifiedmemorylocationX
BOOTLoadandexecuteprogramX
BSAVESaveabinaryfilefromthe
specifiedmemorylocationX
CATALOGDisplaydirectorycontentsofdisk
onscreen*X
CLOSECloselogicaldiskfileXX
CMDRedirectscreenoutputtodiskfileXX
COLLECTFreeinaccessiblediskspace*X
CONCATConcatenatestwodatafiles*X
COPYCopyfilesbetweendrives*X
DCLEARResetsandinitializesdisk
drives*X
DCLOSECloselogicaldiskfiles*X
DIRECTORYDisplaydirectoryofcontentsof
diskonscreen*X
DLOADLoadaBASICprogramfromdisk*X
DOPENOpenadiskfileforareadand/or
writeoperation*X
DSAVESaveaBASICprogramtodisk*X
DVERIFYVerifyprograminmemoryagainst
programondisk*X
GET#ReceiveinputfromopendiskfileXX
HEADERFormatadisk*X
LOADLoadafilefromdiskXX
OPENOpenafileforinputoroutputXX
PRINT#OutputdatatofileXX
RECORDPositionrelativefilepointers*X
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RENAMEChangenameofafileondisk*X
RUNfilenameExecuteBASICprogramfromdiskX
SAVEStoreprograminmemorytodiskXX
VERIFYVerifyprograminmemoryagainst
programondiskXX
*AlthoughthereisnosingleequivalentcommandinBASIC2.0,thereisan
equivalentmulticommandinstruction.Seeyourdrivemanualforthese
BASIC2.0conventions.
GLOSSARY
Thisglossaryprovidesbriefdefinitionsoffrequentlyusedcomputing
terms.
AcousticCouplerorAcousticModem:Adevicethatconvertsdigitalsignals
toaudibletonesfortransmissionovertelephonelines.Speedis
limitedtoabout1,200baud,orbitspersecond(bps).Comparedirect
connectmodem.
Address:Thelabelornumberidentifyingtheregisterormemorylocation
whereaunitofinformationisstored.
Alphanumeric:Letters,numbersandspecialsymbolsfoundonthekeyboard,
excludinggraphiccharacters.
ALU:ArithmeticLogicUnit.ThepartofaCentralProcessingUnit(CPU)
wherebinarydataisactedupon.
Animation:Theuseofcomputerinstructionstosimulatemotionofanobject
onthescreenthroughgradual,progressivemovements.
Array:Adatastoragestructureinwhichaseriesofrelatedconstantsor
variablesarestoredinconsecutivememorylocations.Eachconstantor
variablecontainedinanarrayisreferredtoasanelement.Anele
mentisaccessedusingasubscript.Seesubscript.
ASCII:AcronymforAmericanStandardCodeforInformationInterchange.A
sevenbitcodeusedtorepresentalphanumericcharacters.Itisuseful
forsuchthingsassendinginformationfromakeyboardtothecom
puter,andfromonecomputertoanother.SeeCharacterStringCode.
Assembler:Aprogramthattranslatesassemblylanguageinstructionsinto
machinelanguageinstructions.
AssemblyLanguage:Amachineorientatedlanguageinwhichmnemonicsare
usedtorepresenteachmachinelanguageinstruction.EachCPUhasits
ownspecificassemblylanguage.SeeCPUandmachinelanguage.
AsynchronousTransmission:Aschemeinwhichdatacharactersaresentat
randomtimeintervals.Limitsphonelinetransmissiontoabout2,400
baud(bps).SeeSynchronousTransmission.
Attack:Therateatwhichthevolumeofamusicalnoterisesfromzeroto
peakvolume.
BackgroundColor:Thecoloroftheportionofthescreenthatthecharac
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tersareplacedupon.
BASIC:AcronymforBeginner'sAllpurposeSymbolicInstructionCode.
Baud:Serialdatatransmissionspeed.Originallyatelegraphterm,300baud
isapproximatelyequaltoatransmissionspeedof30charactersper
second.
Binary:Abase2numbersystem.Allnumbersarerepresentedasasequence
ofzerosandones.
Bit:TheabbreviationforBinarydigIT.Abitisthesmallestunitina
computer.Eachbinarydigitcanhaveoneoftwovalues,zeroorone.
Abitisreferredtoasenabledor"on"ifitequalsone.Abitis
disabledor"off"ifitequalszero.
BitControl:Ameansoftransmittingserialdatainwhicheachbithasa
significantmeaningandasinglecharacterissurroundedwithstart
andstopbits.
BitMapMode:AnadvancedgraphicmodeintheCommodore128inwhichyou
cancontroleverydotonthescreen.
BorderColor:Thecoloroftheedgesaroundthescreen.
Branch:Tojumptoasectionofaprogramandexecuteit.GOTOandGOSUB
areexamplesofBASICbranchinstructions.
BubbleMemory:Arelativelynewtypeofcomputermemory;itusestiny
magnetic"pockets"or"bubbles"tostoredata.
BurstMode:Aspecialhighspeedmodeofcommunicationbetweenadiskdrive
andacomputer,inwhichinformationistransmittedatmanytimes
normalspeed.
Bus:Parallelorseriallinesusedtotransfersignalsbetweendevices.
Computersareoftendescribedbytheirbusstructure(i.e.S100bus
computers,etc.).
BusNetwork:Asysteminwhichallstationsorcomputerdevicescommunicate
byusingacommondistributionchannelorbus.
Byte:Agroupofeightbitsthatmakeupthesmallestunitofaddressable
storageinacomputer.EachmemorylocationintheCommodore128con
tainsonebyteofinformation.Onebyteistheunitofstorageneeded
torepresentonecharacterinmemory.SeeBit.
CarrierFrequency:Aconstantsignaltransmittedbetweencommunicating
devicesthatismodulatedtoencodebinaryinformation.
Character:Anysymbolonthecomputerkeyboardthatisprintedonthe
screen.Charactersincludenumbers,letters,punctuationandgraphic
symbols.
CharacterMemory:TheareainCommodore128'smemorywhichstorestheen
codedcharacterpatternsthataredisplayedonthescreen.
CharacterSet:Agroupofrelatedcharacters.TheCommodore128character
setconsistsof:uppercaseletters,lowercaselettersandgraphic
characters.
CharacterStringCode:ThenumericvalueassignedtorepresentaCommodore
128characterinthecomputer'smemory.
Chip:Aminiatureelectroniccircuitthatperformsacomputeroperation
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suchasgraphics,soundandinput/output.
Clock:Thetimingcircuitforamicroprocessor.
Clocking:Atechniqueusedtosynchronizeasendingandareceivingdata
communicationsdevicethatismodulatedtoencodebinaryinformation.
CollisionDetection:Therecognitionofthecollisionofspriteswithother
spritesordisplaydata.
ColorMemory:TheareaintheCommodore128'smemorythatcontrolsthe
colorofeachlocationinscreenmemory.
Command:ABASICinstructionusedindirectmodetoperformanaction.See
DirectMode.
Compiler:Aprogramthattranslatesahighlevellanguage,suchasBASIC,
intomachinelanguage.
CompositeMonitor:Adeviceusedtoprovidea40columnvideodisplay.
Computer:Anelectronic,digitaldevicethatstoresandprocessesinfor
mation.
Condition:Expression(s)betweenthewordsIFandTHEN,evaluatedaseither
trueorfalseinanIF...THENstatement.Theconditioninthe
IF...THENstatementgivesthecomputertheabilitytomakedecissions.
Coordinate:Asinglepointonagridhavingvertical(Y)andhorizontal(X)
values.
Counter:Avariableusedtokeeptrackofthenumberoftimesaneventhas
occurredinaprogram.
CPU:AcronymforCentralProcessingUnit.Thepartofthecomputercon
tainingthecircuitsthatcontrolandperformtheexecutionofcom
puterinstructions.
Crunch:Tominimizetheamountofcomputermemoryusedtostoreaprogram.
Cursor:Theflashingsquarethatmarksthecurrentlocationonthescreen.
Data:Numbers,lettersorsymbolsthatareinputintothecomputertobe
processed.
DataBase:Alargeamountofdatastoredinawellorganizedmanner.A
databasemanagementsystemisaprogramthatallowsaccesstothe
information.
DataLinkLayer:Alogicalportionofdatacommunicationcontrolthat
mainlyensuresthatcommunicationbetweenadjacentdevicesiserror
free.
DataPacket:Ameansoftransmittingserialdatainanefficientpackage
thatincludesanerrorcheckingsequence.
DataRateorDataTransferRate:Thespeedatwhichdataissenttoa
receivingcomputergiveninbaud,orbitspersecond(bps).
Datassette:Adeviceusedtostoreprogramsanddatafilessequentiallyon
tape.
Debug:Tocorrecterrorsinaprogram.
Decay:Therateatwhichthevolumeofamusicalnotedecreasesfromits
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peakvaluetoamidrangevolumecalledthesustainlevel.See
Sustain.
Decrement:Todecreaseanindexvariableorcounterbyaspecificvalue.
DedicatedLineorLeasedLine:Aspecialtelephonelinearrangementsup
pliedbythetelephonecompany,andrequiredbycertaincomputersor
terminals,wherebytheconnectionisalwaysestablished(anexclusive,
rentedline).
DelayLoop:AnemptyFOR...NEXTloopthatslowstheexecutionofaprogram.
DialUpLine:Thenormalswitchedtelephonelinethatcanbeusedasa
transmissionmediumfordatacommunications.
Digital:Oforrelatingtothetechnologyofcomputersanddatacommunica
tionswhereallinformationisencodedasbitsof1sand0sthatre
presentonoroffstates.
Dimension:Thepropertyofanarraythatspecifiesthedirectionalongan
axisinwhichthearrayelementsarestored.Forexample,atwo
dimensionalarrayhasanXaxisforcolumnsandaYaxisforrows.See
Array.
DirectMode:ThemodeofoperationthatexecutesBASICcommandsimmediately
afterthe{return}keyispressed.AlsocalledImmediateMode.See
Command.
DirectConnectModem:Adigitalnonacousticmodem.
Disable:Toturnoffabit,byteorspecificoperationofthecomputer.
DiskDrive:Arandomaccess,massstoragedevicesthatsavesandloads
filestoandfromafloppydiskette.
DiskOperatingSystem:Programusedtotransferinformationtoandfroma
disk.OftenreferredtoasDOS.
Duration:Thelengthoftimeamusicalnoteisplayed.
ElectronicMailorEMail:Acommunicationsserviceforcomputerusers
wheretextualmessagesaresenttoacentralcomputer,orelectronic
"mailbox",andlaterretreivebytheaddressee.
Enable:Toturnonabit,byteorspecificoperationofthecomputer.
EnvelopeGenerator:PortionoftheCommodore128thatproducesspecific
envelopes(attack,decay,sustain,release)formusicalnotes.See
Waveform.
EPROM:APROMthatcanbeerasedbytheuser,usuallybyexposingitto
ultravioletlight.SeePROM.
ErrorCheckingorErrorDetection:Softwareroutinesthatidentify,and
oftencorrect,erroneousdata.
Execute:Toperformthespecifiedinstructionsinacommandorprogram
statement.
Expression:Acombinationofconstants,variablesorarrayelementsacted
uponbylogical,mathematicalorrelationaloperatorsthatreturna
numericvalue.
File:Aprogramorcollectionofdatatreatedasaunitandstoredondisk
ortape.
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Firmware:ComputerinstructionsstoredinROM,asinagamecartridge.
Frequency:Thenumberofsoundwavespersecondofatone.Thefrequency
correspondstothepitchoftheaudibletone.
FullDuplexMode:Allowstwocomputersonthesamelinetotransmitand
receivedataatthesametime.
Function:Apredefinedoperationthatreturnsasinglevalue.
FunctionKeys:ThefourkeysonthefarrightoftheCommodore128key
board.Eachkeycanbeprogrammedtoexecuteaseriesofinstructions.
SincethekeyscanbeSHIFTed,youcancreateeightdifferentsetsof
instructions.
Graphics:Visualscreenimagesrepresentingcomputerdatainmemory(i.e.
characters,symbolsandpictures).
GraphicCharacters:Nonalphanumericcharactersonthecomputer'skeyboard.
Grid:Atwodimensionalmatrixdividedintorowsandcolumns.Gridsare
usedtodesignspritesandprogrammablecharacters.
HalfDuplexMode:Allowstransmissioninonlyonedirectionatatime;if
onedeviceissending,theothermustsimplyreceivedatauntilit's
timeforittotransmit.
Hardware:Physicalcomponentsinacomputersystemsuchaskeyboard,disk
driveandprinter.
Hexadecimal:Referstothebase16numbersystem.Machinelanguageprograms
areoftenwritteninhexadecimalnotation.
Home:Theupperleftcornerofthescreen.
IC:IntegratedCircuit.Asiliconchipcontaininganelecticcircuitmade
upofcomponentssuchastransistors,diodes,resistorsandcapaci
tors.Integratedcircuitsaresmaller,fasterandmoreefficientthat
theindividualcircuitsusedinoldercomputers.
Increment:Toincreaseanindexvariableorcounterwithaspecifiedvalue.
Index:ThevariablecounterwithinaFOR...NEXTloop.
Input:Datafedintothecomputertobeprocessed.Inputsourcesinclude
thekeyboard,diskdrive,Datassetteormodem.
Integer:Awholenumber(i.e.anumbercontainingnofractionalpart),such
as0,1,2,etc.
Interface:Thepointofmeetingbetweenacomputerandanexternalentity,
whetheranoperator,aperipheraldeviceoracommunicationsmedium.
Aninterfacemaybephysical,involvingaconnector,orlogical,in
volvingsoftware.
I/O:Input/Output.Referstotheprocessotenteringdataintothecom
puter,ortransferringdatafromthecomputertoadiskdrive,printer
orstoragemedium.
Keyboard:Inputcomponentofacomputersystem.
Kilobyte(K):1,024bytes.
LocalNetwork:Oneofseveralshortdistancedatacommunicationsschemes
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typifiedbycommonuseofatransmissionmediumbymanydevicesand
highdataspeeds.AlsocalledaLocalAreaNetwork,orLAN.
Loop:Aprogramsegmentexecutedrepitivelyaspecifiednumberoftimes.
MachineLanguage:Thelowestlevellanguagethecomputerunderstands.The
computerconvertsallhighlevellanguages,suchasBASIC,into
machinelanguagebeforeexecutinganystatements.Machinelanguageis
writteninbinaryformthatacomputercanexecutedirectly.Also
calledmachinecodeorobjectcode.
Matrix:Atwodimensionalrectanglewithrowandcolumnvalues.
Memory:Storagelocationsinsidethecomputer.ROMandRAMaretwodif
ferenttypesofmemory.
Memorylocation:Aspecificstorageaddressinthecomputer.Thereare
131,072memorylocationsintheCommodore128.
Microprocessor:ACPUthatiscontainedonasingleintegratedcircuit
(IC).MicroprocessorsusedinCommodorepersonalcomputersincludethe
6510,the8502andtheZ80.
Mode:Astateofoperation.
Modem:AcronymforMODulator/DEModulator.Adevicethattransformsdigital
signalsfromthecomputerintoelectricalimpulsesfortransmission
overtelephonelines,anddoesthereverseinreception.
Monitor:Adisplaydeviceresemblingatelevisionsetbutwithahigher
resolution(sharper)imageonthevideoscreen.
Motherboard:Inabusorientedsystem,theboardthatcontainsthebus
linesandedgeconnectorstoaccommodatetheotherboardsinthe
system.
MultiColorCharacterMode:Agraphicmodethatallowsyoutodisplayfour
differentcolorswithinan8X8charactergrid.
MultiColorBitMapMode:Agraphicmodethatallowsyoutodisplayoneof
fourcolorsforeachpixelwithinan8X8charactergrid.SeePixel.
MultiAccessNetwork:Aflexiblesystembywhicheverystationcanhave
accesstothenetworkatalltimes;provisionsaremadefortimeswhen
twocomputersdecidetotransmitatthesametime.
NullString:Anemptycharacter("").Acharacterthatisnotyetassigned
acharacterstringcode.
Octave:Onefullseriesofeightnotesonthemusicalscale.
OperatingSystem:Abuiltinprogramthatcontrolseverythingyourcomputer
does.
Operator:Asymbolthattellsthecomputertoperformamathematical,
logicalorrelationaloperationonthespecifiedvariables,constants
orarrayelementsintheexpression.Themathematicaloperatorsare
+,,*,/and^.Therelationaloperatorsare<,=,>,<=,>=and<>.
ThelogicaloperatorsareAND,OR,NOT,andXOR.
OrderofOperations:Sequenceinwhichcomputationsareperformedina
mathematicalexpression.AlsocalledHierarchyofOperations.
ParallelPort:Aportusedforsimultaneoustransmissionofdata,onebyte
atatimeovermultiplewires,onebitperwire.
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ParityBit:A1or0addedtoagroupofbitsthatidentifiesthesumof
thebitsasoddoreven.
Peripheral:Anyaccessorydeviceattachedtothecomputersuchasadisk
drive,printer,modemorjoystick.
Pitch:Thepitchofanoteisdeterminedbythefrequencyofthesound
wave.Thehigherthefrequencyofanote,thehigheritspitch.See
Frequency.
Pixel:Computertermforpictureelement.Eachdotonthescreenthatmakes
upanimageiscalledapixel.Eachcharacteronthescreenisdis
playedwithina8X8gridofpixels.Theentirescreeniscomposedof
a320X200pixelgrid.Inbitmapmode,eachpixelcorrespondstoone
bitinthecomputer'smemory.
Polling:Acommunicationscontrolmethodusedbysomecomputer/terminal
systemswherebya"master"stationasksmanydevicesattachedtoa
commontransmissionmedium,inturn,whethertheyhaveinformationto
send.
Pointer:Aregisterusedtoindicatetheaddressofalocationinmemory.
Port:AchannelthroughwhichdataistransferredtoandfromtheCPU.An
8bitCPUcanaddress256ports.
Printer:Peripheraldevicethatoutputsontoasheetofpaper.Thispaper
isreferredtoasahardcopy.
Program:Aseriesofinstructionsthatdirectthecomputertoperforma
specifictask.Programscanbestoredondisketteorcassette,reside
inthecomputer'smemory,orbelistedonaprinter.
Programmable:Capableofbeingprocessedwithcomputerinstructions.
ProgramLine:Astatementorseriesofstatementsprecededbyalinenumber
inaprogram.ThemaximumlengthofaprogramlineontheCommodore
128is160characters.
PROM:AcronymforProgrammableReadOnlyMemory.Asemiconductormemory
whosecontentscanonlybewrittentoonce,afterwhichthecontents
ispermanent.SeealsoEPROMandReadOnlyMemory(ROM).
Protocol:Therulesunderwhichcomputersexchangeinformation,including
theorganizationoftheunitsofdatatobetransferred.
RandomAccessMemory(RAM):Theprogrammableareaofthecomputer'smemory
thatcanbereadfromandwrittento(changed).AllRAMlocationsare
equallyaccessibleatanytimeinanyorder.ThecomponentsofRAMare
erasedwhenthecomputeristurnedoff.
RandomNumber:Aninedigitdecimalnumberfrom0.000000001to0.999999999
generatedbytheRaNDom(RND)function.
ReadOnlyMemory(ROM):Thepermanentportionofthecomputer'smemory.The
contentsofROMlocationscanberead,butnotchanged.TheROMinthe
Commodore128containstheBASIClanguageinterpreter,characterimage
patternsandportionsoftheoperatingsystem.
Register:AnymemorylocationinRAM.Eachregisterstoresonebyte.A
registercanstoreanyvaluebetween0and255inbinaryform.
Release:Therateatwhichthevolumeofamusicalnotedecreasesfromthe
sustainleveltozero.
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Remark:Commentusedtodocumentaprogram.Remarksarenotexecutedbythe
computer,butaredisplayedintheprogramlisting.
Resolution:Thedensityofpixelsonthescreenthatdeterminesthefine
nessofdetailofadisplayedimage.
RGBIMonitor:Red/Green/Blue/Intensity.Ahighresolutiondisplaydevice
necessarytoproducean80columnscreenformat.
RibbonCable:Agroupofattachedparallelwires.Alsocalledflatcable.
RingNetwork:Asysteminwhichallstationsarelinkedtoformaconti
nuouslooporcircle.
RS232:Arecommendedstandardforelectronicandmechanicalspecifications
orserialtransmissionports.TheCommodore128paralleluserportcan
betreatedasaserialportifaccessedthroughsoftware,sometimes
withtheadditionofaninterfacedevice.
Screen:Videodisplayunitwhichcanbeeitheratelevisionorvideo
monitor.
Screencode:Thenumberassignedtorepresentacharacterinscreenmemory.
Whenyoutypeakeyonthekeyboard,thescreencodeforthatcharac
terisenteredintoscreenmemoryautomatically.Youcanalsodisplay
acharacterbystoringitsscreencodedirectlyintoscreenmemory
withthePOKEcommand.
ScreenMemory:TheareaoftheCommodore128'smemorythatcontainsthe
informationdisplayedonthevideoscreen.
SerialPort:Aportusedforserialtransmissionofdata;bitsaretrans
mittedonebitaftertheotheroverasinglewire.
SerialTransmission:Thesendingofsequentiallyordereddatabits.
Software:Computerprograms(setsofinstructions)storedondisk,tapeor
cartridgethatcanbeloadedintorandomaccessmemory(RAM).Soft
ware,inessence,tellsthecomputerwhattodo.
SoundInterfaceDevice(SID):TheMOS6581soundsynthesizerchiprespon
sibleforalltheaudiofeaturesoftheCommodore128.
SourceCode:Anonexecutableprogramwritteninahighlevellanguage.A
compilerorassemblermusttranslatethesourcecodeintoanobject
code(machinelanguage)thatthecomputercanunderstand.
Sprite:Aprogrammable,movable,highresolutiongraphicimage.Also
calledaMovableObjectBlock(MOB).
StandardCharacterMode:ThemodetheCommodore128operatesinwhenyou
turnitonandwhenyouwriteprograms.
StartBit:Abitorgroupofbitsthatidentifiesthebeginningofadata
word.
Statement:ABASICinstructioncontainedinaprogramline.
StopBit:Abitorgroupofbitsthatidentifiestheendofadatawordand
definesthespacebetweendatawords.
String:Analphanumericcharacterorseriesofcharacterssurroundedby
quotationmarks.
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Subroutine:Anindependentprogramsegmentseparatefromthemainprogram
thatperformsaspecifictask.Subroutinesarecalledfromthemain
programwiththeGOSUBstatementandmustendwithaRETURNstatement.
Subscript:Avariableorconstantthatreferstoaspecificelementinan
arraybyitspositionwithinthearray.
Sustain:Themidrangedvolumeofamusicalnote.
SynchronousTransmission:Datacommunicationsusingasynchronizing,or
clocking,signalbetweensendingandreceivingdevices.
Syntax:Thegrammaticalrulesofaprogramminglanguage.
Tone:Anaudiblesoundofspecificpitchandwaveform.
Transparent:Describesacomputeroperationthatdoesnotrequireuser
intervention,i.e.theuserisunawarethatitistakingplace.
Variable:Aunitofstoragerespresentingacharacterstringornumeric
value.Variablenamescanbeanylength,butonlythefirsttwo
charactersarestoredbytheCommodore128.Thefirstcharactermust
bealetter.
VideoInterfaceController(VIC):TheMOS6566chipresponsibleforthe
40columngraphicfeaturesoftheCommodore128.
Voice:AsoundproducingcomponentinsidetheSIDchip.Therearethree
voiceswithintheSIDchip,sotheCommodore128canproducethree
differentsoundssimultaneously.Eachvoiceconsistsofatoneoscil
lator/waveformgenerator,anenvelopegeneratorandanamplitude
modulator.
Waveform:Agraphicrepresentationoftheshapeofasoundwave.Thewave
formdeterminessomeofthephysicalcharacteristicsofthesound.
Word:NumberofbitstreatedasasingleunitbytheCPU.Inaneightbit
machine,thewordlengthiseightbits;ina16bitmachine,theword
lengthis16bits.
INDEX
A
AbbreviationsBASIC,3.3.2,K
ABSfunction,4.6.7,18.1
Addition,3.6.1
ADM,15.2
ADSR,7.1,7.3.2.1
Altkey,5.9.3.5
Altmode,15.2
Animation,6.3,6.3.11
APPEND,17.1
Arrays,4.3.6,19.1
ASCfunction,4.6.4,18.2
ASCIIcharactercodes,4.6.4,E
ASM,12.3.7
Asteriskkey{*},3.6.2
Attack,7.3.2.1
ATNfunction,18.3
AUTO,5.6.1.1,17.2
AUXIN,14.5
AUXOUT,14.5
242/251
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B
Bach,7.4
BACKUP,17.3
Bandpass,7.3.2.4
BANK,17.4
Banktable,17.4
BAS,12.3.7
BASIC
abbreviations,3.3.2
commands,17
functions,4.6,18
mathematics,3.6
operators,3.6.1
statements,17
variables,19.1
BASIC2.0,2.1.2,16.1
BASIC7.0,2.1.1,16.1
BEGIN/BEND,17.5
Binaryfiles,6.3.12
BitMapmode,6.2.2
BLOAD,6.3.10,6.3.12.2,17.6
BOOT,17.7
Booting,11.4.3
BOX,6.1.2,6.2.4.2,17.8
BSAVE,6.3.10,6.3.12,6.3.12.1,17.9
BUMP,18.4
C
C128Mode,2.1.1
C64Mode,2.1.2
CapsLockkey,5.9.3.3
CartridgePort,C.2
CassettePort,C.2
CATALOG,17.10
CHAR,6.1.2,6.2.4.5,17.11
Charactersets,3.2.1
Characterstringcode,4.6.4
CHR$codes,9.6,E,I
CHR$function,4.6.4,18.5
CIRCLE,6.1.2,6.2.4.1,17.12
Clock,19.1
CLOSE,10.1,17.13
CLR,3.7.3,6.2.3,17.14
CLR/HOMEkey,3.2.2.9
CMD,17.15,17.28
COLLECT,17.16
COLLISION,17.17
Colon{:},4.1.1
COLOR,6.1.2,6.2.1,17.18
Color
codedisplaychart,3.3.4,6.2.1,17.18
control,3.2.2.6,3.4.6,15.2
CHR$codes,E
keys,3.3.4
memorymap,F.2
screenandborder,6.2.2
sourcecode,6.2.1
COM,11.5.1,12.3.7
Comma{,},3.3.1
Command,3.1.1
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Commandkeys,3.2.2
Commandkeyword,11.5
Commandline,11.5
Commandtail,11.5
Commodorekey,3.2.2.6,3.2.2.10
Compositemonitor,2.1.1,8.5
CONCAT,17.19
CONIN,14.5
Connections,C
CONOUT,14.5
Constants,3.7.1
CONTinuecommand,4.7,17.20
Controlcharacterstable,7.3.2.3
Controlkey,3.2.2.6,11.2
Coordinategrid,6.2.4.1
COPY,17.21
Copyingmusic,7.4
Copyingprograms,11.6.2
COSinefunction,18.6
CP/Mcharacters,12.3.6
CP/Mmode,11
CP/MPlusUser'sGuide,15.2
CP/MPlus3.0,2.1.3,11
CTRL,11.5,13.4
CuRSoRkeys,3.2.2.4.2,9.5
Cursor,3.2.2.4
Cutofffrequency,7.3.2.4
D
Datassette,3.9
DATA,4.3.4,17.22
Datafile,12.1
DATE,14.3
DCLEAR,17.23
DCLOSE,17.24
Debug,4.7,5.6.2.3
DEC,18.7
Decay,7.1,7.3.2.1
DEFFN,17.25
Delayloops,4.2.1
DELETE,5.6.1.3,17.26
DELetekey,3.2.2.5
DEVICE,14.3
Dice,4.6.3
DIMensionstatement,4.3.6.2,17.27
DIRcommand,11.5,14.3
Directmode,3.1.1
DIRECTORY,3.6.9.2,17.28
DIRSYS,14.3
Diskcommands,3.9,10.4,L
Diskdirectory,3.6.9.2,10.4
DiskParameters,3.9,11.4.2
Division,3.6.2
DLOAD",3.1.2,3.9.4,17.29
Dollarsign{$},3.7.3,7.3.2.3,10.4.2
DO/LOOP,17.30
DOPEN,17.31
DRAW,6.1.2,6.2.4.3,17.32
DriveSpecifier,12.3.1.1
DS/DS$variables,19.1
DSAVE",3.1.2,3.9.2,17.33
Dualscreens,8.5
DUMP,14.3
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Duration,7.2,7.3.2.3
DVERIFY",3.9.6.1,17.34
E
Echo,13.2
ED,12.2,14.3
Editing,3.5,13.3
ELvariable,19.1
ELSEclause,5.2.2,17.50
ENDstatement,4.1,17.35
Envelopegenerator,7.3.2.1
ENVELOPE,7.3.2.1,17.36
Equals{=},3.7.2,4.1
ERASE,14.214.3
ER/ERR$variables,5.6.2.3,18.8,19.1
Errorfunctions,5.6.2.3
Errormessages,A,B
Escapecodes,I.1
ESCapekey,6.2.3,15.2
EXIT,5.2.1.3,17.30
Exponentiation,3.6.3
EXPonentfunction,18.9
F
40/80Displaykey,5.9.3.4,8.2
FASTcommand,5.8,17.37
FETCH,17.38
File,12.2
Filename,12.3.1.3
Filespecifications,12.3.1
Filetype,12.3.1.3
FILENOTFOUND,3.9.4
FILTER,7.3.2.5,17.39
FilterSID,7.3.2.4
Flat{$},7.3.2.3
FNfunction,18.10
FOR...NEXTstatement,4.2,17.40
FORMAT,14.3
Formattingdisks,3.9.1,10.1
FREfunction,18.11
Frequency,7.2,7.3.1
Function,3.1
Functionkeys,3.2.3,5.9.1,9.6
G
Gamecontrolandports,C.1
GENCOM,14.3
GET,4.3.2,14.3,14.4,17.41
GETKEY,5.5,17.42
GET#statement,17.43
GO64,17.44
GOSUB,4.4.2,17.45
GOTO,3.4.4,17.46
GRAPHIC,6.1.2,6.2.3,17.47
Graphiccharacters,3.2.4
Graphicmodes,5.8.1,6.2.3
GSHAPE,17.91
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H
Harmonics,7.3.1
Hashmark{#},5.3.1,6.3.6,17.24,17.68
HEADER,3.9.1,17.48
HELPkey,5.6.2.1,5.9.3.1
HEX,12.3.7
HEX$,18.12
HLP,12.3.7
HOMEkey,3.2.2.9
Hyperbolicfunctions,G
I
IF...THENstatement,4.1,17.50
INITDIR,14.3
Initializing,10.4.3
INPUT,4.3.1,17.51
INPUT#,17.52
InputPrompt,4.3.1.2
INSerTkey,3.2.2.5
INSTR,18.13
INTegerfunction,4.6.2,18.14
J
JOY,18.15
Joystickports,C.1
K
KEYcommand,5.9.2,17.53
KEYFIG,14.3
Keyboard,3.2.0.1
KeyassignmentCP/M,15.1.1
L
LEFT$function,18.16
LENgthfunction,18.17
LETstatement,17.54
LineFeedkey,5.9.3.7
Linenumbers,3.4.2
LOADcommand,3.9.4,10.3.1,17.56
LOADingcassettesoftware,10.3.2
LOADingCP/Msoftware,11.4.1
LOADingdisksoftware,10.3.1
LOCATE,17.57
LOGarithmfunction,18.18
Loops,4.2
LST,14.5
M
Machinelanguage,J
Mathematics,3.6,G
Memorymaps,F,H
MID$function,18.19
Modeswitchingchart,2.2.1
246/251
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MONITOR,17.58
Monitordual,8.5
Monitormachinelanguage,5.9.1,J
Monitorswitching,6.2.3,8.5
MOVSPR,6.3.7,17.59
Multicolorbitmode,6.2.2
Multiplication,3.6.2
Musicprograms,7.3.3,7.4
Musicvideos,7.3.4
Musicalnotes,7.3.2.3
Musicalinstruments,7.3.2.1
Musicalstaff,7.4
N
Nestedloops,4.2.1
NEW,3.4.6,17.60
NEXTstatement,4.2,17.40
Noise,7.3.1
NoScrollkey,5.9.3.2,13.1
NotchRejectFilter,7.3.4
Notes,7.3.2.3
Numericfunctions,4.6.1
O
Objectcodefile,6.3.12
ONGOTO/GOSUB,4.4.2
OPENstatement,10.1,17.62
OperatingSystem,11.1
Operators,
arithmetic,3.6,19.2
logical,19.2
orderof,3.6.4
relational,4.1,19.2
P
PAINT,6.1.2,6.2.4.4,17.63
Parentheses,3.6.4,12.3.6
Password,12.3.1.4
PATCH,14.3
PEEKfunction,4.5.1.1,18.20
PEN,18.21
Period{.},7.3.2.3
PI,18.22
PIP,11.6,14.3
Pixel,6.2.2,6.3.4
PLAY,7.3.2.3,17.64
POINTER,18.23
POKE,4.5.1.2,17.65
POSfunction,18.24
POT,18.25
PRINT,3.3.1,17.66
PRINT#,10.1,17.67
PRINTUSING,5.3.1,17.68
PrintercontrolCP/M,13.2
PRN,12.3.7
Programfile,11.2
Programmode,3.1.2
Programmablekeys,5.9.1,9.6
Programmingaids,5.6
247/251
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PUDEF,5.3.2,17.69
Pulsewidth,7.2.1,7.3.2.1
PUT,14.3
Q
Questionmark{?},3.3.2,12.3.5
Quotationmarks{"},3.3.3
Quotemode,3.3.5
R
RAM,4.5.1,11.3
Randomsounds,7.2.2
RCLR,18.26
RDOT,18.27
READ,4.3.4,17.70
RECORD,17.71
Relationaloperators,4.1
REL,12.3.7
Release,7.1,7.3.2.1
REMarkstatement,3.2.5,17.72
RENAME,14.2,14.3,17.73
RENUMBER,5.6.1.2,17.74
Resetbutton,8.2
Reservedvariables,19.1
Rest,7.3.2.3
Restorekey,3.2.2.8
RESTOREstatement,4.3.5,17.75
RESUMEcommand,5.6.2.2,17.76
Returnkey,3.2.2.1
RETURNstatement,4.4.1,17.77
RGR,18.28
RIGHT$function,18.29
RREG,17.78
RSPCOLOR,18.31
RSPPOS,18.32
RSPRITE,18.33
RUNcommand,3.4.2,17.79
RUN/STOPkey,3.2.2.7,6.2.3,7.2.1,7.3.2.3,8.2
RWINDOW,18.34
S
SAVEcommand,3.9.2,10.2.1,14.3,17.80
Savingprogramsontape,3.9.3,10.2.2
Savingprogamsondisk,3.9.2,10.2.1
Sawtoothwaveform,7.3.1
SCALE,6.1.2,6.2.4.7,17.81
SCNCLRcommand,17.82
SCRATCHcommand,17.83
Screendisplaycodes,D
Screendisplay,6.2.2,8.1
Screenmemorymap,F
Scrolling,5.7.2
Sector,3.9.1
Semicolon{;},3.3.1
Serialport,C.2
SET,14.3
SETDEF,13.1
SGNfunction,18.35
Sharp{#},7.3.2.3
248/251
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Sheetmusic,7.4
Shiftkey,3.2.2.2
SHOW,14.3
SIDchip,7.1
SINefunction,18.36
Slashkey{/},3.6.2
SLEEP,5.2.4,17.84
SLOWcommand,5.8.1,17.85
Software80column,8.3
SOUND,7.2,17.86
SoundInterfaceDevice,7.1
SoundPlayerProgram,7.2.1
Soundreset,7.2.1,7.3.2.3
SPCfunction,18.37
Splitscreendisplay,6.2.2
SPRCOLOR,17.87
SPRDEF,6.1.2,6.3.9,17.88
SPRITE,6.1.2,6.3.6,17.89
SpriteCombinations,6.3.11
SpriteControl,6.3.6
SpriteEditor,6.3.9
SpriteProgramming,6.3,6.3.8
Spritememorymap,6.3.12
Spritemovement,6.3.7
Spriteviewingarea,6.3.7
Sprites,6.3
SPRSAV,6.1.2,6.3.5,17.90
SQRfunction,4.6.2,4.6.6,18.38
SSHAPE,6.1.2,6.3.4,17.91
STvariable,19.1
STASH,17.92
Statement,3.1,3.4.1
STEP,4.2.2,17.40
STOP,4.7,17.93
STOPkey,3.2.2.7
Storingprograms,3.9,10.2
Stringfunctions,4.6.4
Strings,3.3.3,3.7.3
STR$function,4.6.5.2,18.39
SUB,12.3.5.1
SUBMIT,Table142
Subroutine,4.4
Subscripts,4.3.6.1
Subtraction,3.6.1
Sustain,7.1,7.3.2.1
SWAP,17.94
Sweep,7.2
Syntax,3.1
Syntaxerror,3.2.2.1
Synthesizer,7.1,7.3.2.3
SYM,12.3.5.1
SYS,12.3.5.1,17.95
Systemprompt,11.5
T
Tabkey,5.9.3.6
TABfunction,18.40
TABstops,5.7.2
TANgentfunction,18.41
TEMPO,7.3.2.2,17.96
TerminatingCP/M,14.8
THEN,4.1,17.50
Timbre,7.3.1
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Timedelay,4.2.1
TI/TI$variables,19.1
TO,4.2,17.40
Track,3.9.1
TransientUtilityCommands,11.5.1,14.1,14.3
TRAP,5.6.2.2,17.97
Trianglewaveform,7.3.1.3
Trigonometricfunctions,G
TRON/TROFF,5.6.2.3,17.98,17.99
TYPE,Table141,Table142
Typingrules,3.2.5
U
UNTILstatement,5.2.1.1,17.30
Uparrowkey{^},3.6.3
Uppercase/graphicsset,3.2.1,9.2
Upper/Lowercaseset,3.2.1,9.2
USER,12.3.4,14.2
UserNumber,12.3.4
Userport,C.2
USRfunction,18.42
V
VALuefunction,4.6.5.1,18.43
Variables,3.7.2,4.3.6.1,19.1
VERIFYcommand,3.9.6.1,10.4.1,17.100
VICchip,6.1
Videoports,C.2
Voice,7.1
VOLume,7.2.1,7.3.2.1,17.101
W
WAITcommand,17.102
Waveform,7.1,7.3.1,7.3.2.1
WHILEstatement,5.2.1.2,17.30
WIDTH,17.103
Wildcard,12.3.5
WINDOWcommand,5.7.1,17.104
Windowing,5.7
X
XOR,18.44
Z
Z80Microprocessor,11.2
CommodoreCommodoreBuromaschinenCommodoreBuromaschinen
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