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Thomas Zwick
Received 14 September 2012
Revised 31 January 2013
Abstract
5 May 2013
Purpose Employees older than 55 years of age have a much lower share in training than other
17 October 2013
Accepted 30 October 2013
employees. The purpose of this paper is to propose that one of the reasons for this phenomenon that
has not been taken into account so far is that their training is less effective.
Design/methodology/approach This paper shows that training of older employees indeed is less
effective in the self-assessment of training participants. Training effectiveness is measured with
respect to key dimensions such as career development, earnings, adoption of new skills, flexibility or
job security. Besides age a broad range of explanatory variables is included as covariates in a large
linked employer-employee data set.
Findings The paper finds that main reason for the differences in training effectiveness during the
life cycle is that firms do not take into account differences in training motivation. Older employees
get higher returns from informal and directly relevant training and from training contents that can be
mainly tackled by crystallised abilities. Training incidence in the more effective training forms is,
however, not higher for older employees. Given that other decisive variables on self-assessed
effectiveness such as training duration, financing and initiative are not sensitive to age, the wrong
allocation of training contents and training forms therefore is the critical explanation for the lower
effectiveness of training.
Originality/value This paper therefore shows to human resource managers why old employees
rate training effectiveness lower and indicates what can be done in order to improve training
effectiveness of old employees. It uses a large and detailed data set entailing more than 6,000
employees from about 150 establishments.
Keywords Older workers, Training, Human resource management, Data analysis
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Most papers on continuing training of older employees concentrate on their lower
training incidence (Taylor and Urwin, 2001; Addio et al., 2010). Obviously, it is a
problem in a greying economy when older employees get less than optimal training
because this might negatively affect their productivity and employability. The main
reasons for the lower training incidence of older employees proposed in the literature
are the shorter amortisation period of investments (Cunha et al., 2006), their lower
motivation to invest in training (Warr and Fay, 2001) and a perceived lower
adaptability of older employees (Warr, 1993).
Less attention has been given to the question whether and why training of older
employees might be less effective than training of younger employees. Some
contributions show that training of older employees does not increase the relative
productivity of older employees (Gbel and Zwick, 2013) or that the performance of
older workers in training programmes is lower (Ng and Feldman, 2008). Relatively well
researched are reasons for the lower effectiveness from the training supply side.
Personnel managers frequently seem to think that older employees are less able or
willing to learn (Warr and Birdi, 1998). Mainly caused by a lack of data, we do not
know very much about the training demand side the opinion of older training
participants, however. This paper therefore uses recently published German linked
employer-employee data (WeLL). The data include detailed training information of
more than 6,000 employees from about 150 firms and allow us to analyse age patterns
in training characteristics and self-reported effectiveness for those employees who
participate in training with a focus on differences between age groups.
2. Background
Work motivation does not necessarily decline with age motivation for some tasks
such as training may, however, be negatively affected by age. Warr and Fay (2001), for
example argue in a theoretical model that work motivation is influenced by incentives,
habits, comparisons with (younger) peers and social pressure. Older workers might be
less motivated to participate in training because (financial) incentives are lower than for
younger employees or comparable incentives are less attractive. Training might
demand time flexibility and be perceived as unwelcome break of routines that are more
entrenched for older employees (especially when they did not have training for a long
period of time). A comparison of training effectiveness with younger peers might be
unfavourable for older employees because the capacity to learn declines in some
skill dimensions. Warr and Fay (2001) also argue that the social pressure to participate
in training might be lower than for younger employees. In two meta-analyses, Ng and
Feldman (2008, 2012) indeed find that age is negatively related to performance in
training programmes, career development motivation, motivation to learn, training
motivation and learning self-efficacy. Age is, however, not related to training
participation. They conclude that their findings suggest that the stereotype of older
workers as being less willing to engage in further career development and training
activities is consistent with the cumulated research evidence, although the stereotype
may over-state the degree to which age negatively influences the willingness to engage
in further self-development.
Stamov-Ronagel and Hertel (2010) stress that older employees mainly want to
match their resources to external demands. Younger people primarily strive for gains,
older people, however, more often focus on maintenance, harvesting of prior investment
returns and the prevention of losses. The authors argue that interest in tasks that
involve acquiring new skills, knowledge or career opportunities should decrease with
age. Motives such as autonomy, positive relationships with colleagues and supervisors
and self-realisation gain in importance during the life cycle. Callahan et al. (2003)
accordingly find in their meta-analysis that a clear motivation why training measures
are necessary with respect to relevant and topical work problems increases older
employee training performance. This might mean that training forms that support
the motivation of older employees such as training directly targeted at relevant
problems at the work place or an improvement of the work relationships are more
attractive and more efficient for older employees. A prominent and well-researched
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topic is information and communication technology (ICT) skills and ICT training for
older workers. Several papers show that older employees use less ICT and that this
may have a negative impact on their performance. Nevertheless, ICT training (that
usually implies abstract and new information that has to be processed by fluid
intelligence, see next part) has no measurable impact on ICT skills of older employees
(Bertschek and Meyer, 2009).
Kanfer and Ackerman (2004) argue that the motivation for certain tasks changes
with age on the basis of the distinction between crystallised[1] and fluid[2] intelligence.
They stress that motivation for training declines with age because a reduction in fluid
cognitive intelligence slows learning and the timeframe for the development of
crystallised expertise in which performance may be sustained with less effort
decreases. Callahan et al. (2003) also argue (but do not find) that the lecture method
that places a relatively heavy demand on cognitive ability is less effective than more
active learning methods. Efficacy in training of skills that do not place heavy demands
on fluid intellectual abilities such as conflict management might be higher for older
employees, however.
Older employees in addition have a higher interest in working time flexibility than
younger employees because they frequently have to care for their elderly parents or
need time for regeneration (OECD, 2006). In contrast to childcare, the time needs and
the time dimension of informal elderly care is uncertain. The (mainly older and female)
family members therefore only can combine informal care for elderly family members
with employment when they have sufficient working time flexibility (Ettner, 1995).
Informal and unplanned learning should therefore play a greater role for older
employees than formal and normal learning (Weiss, 2009). There are very few
empirical analyses on differences in training characteristics and effectiveness during
the life cycle. We also do not know whether employers try to adopt the training design
and methods that suit the preferences of older employees (Armstrong-Stassen and
Templer, 2005). Baethge and Baethge-Kinsky (2004) mention that self-assessed training
competence, self-managing disposition and competence development activities do not
differ between age groups. Only the anticipation of training needs declines with age in
their study. Warr and Birdi (1998) stress that voluntary learning activities and
training motivation decline with age. This goes hand in hand with the assessment of
personnel managers who say that the strongest disadvantage of older employees is
their low trainability and interest in training (Boockmann and Zwick, 2004; Loretto and
White, 2006). A more negative self-assessment and perception of managers of older
employees both may create a reduced interest in training. Peers do not expect regular
training participation of older workers and therefore social pressure is lower (Warr and
Birdi, 1998). Beicht et al. (2006) show that there are hardly any differences in the kind
of training and the financing of training, people attend during their life cycle in
Germany. The older the training participants the more sceptical are the assessments of
the benefits of training. In contrast to the present study, this paper includes employees
and people outside the labour force, does not take into account differences between
these groups, however.
The present paper concentrates on differences between training characteristics and
training efficiency during the life cycle. On the basis of the theoretical and empirical
evidence discussed above, the following four main hypotheses are proposed:
H1. Training characteristics (contents, financing, extent) do not change during
the life cycle.
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therefore should be small. All regressions have been repeated also with Probit and
Logit regressions, however, as a robustness check. The influence of the age groups
was the same in all regressions and therefore the additional evidence is not reported[4].
Our main variable of interest is self-assessed efficiency of training. The concrete
question is: Which effect did the courses, seminars or workshops you participated in
since [date about one year earlier] on the following aspects of your work from todays
point of view? Then follows a list of six efficiency dimensions: Professional
productivity, adaptation to new professional challenges, promotion chances, earnings,
job security, professional new orientation (employer change, new profession/
occupation, self-employment).
4. Training differences between age groups
Table I shows that the training extent, financing source and the party that took the
initiative for training are remarkably similar for different age groups. No indicator of
training intensity differs significantly between the oldest age group and the younger
training participants (see last column of Table I). These findings are analogous to
those reported for Germany by Beicht et al. (2006) and for the UK by Taylor and Urwin
(2001)[5] and confirm H1.
The descriptive analysis in Table I also reveals that there are highly significant
bi-variate differences between the self-assessed effects of training between the oldest
group of employees (these employees are at least 56 years old) and the younger
employees in all training effect dimensions. Training participants have been asked,
whether they experienced an increase in productivity, earnings, easier adapted to
a new job, have been promoted, increased job security or gained a new professional
orientation by their last training spell. These dimensions are considered to be the most
prominent training effects (compare, e.g. Dieckhoff, 2007).
The next estimation step shows that the differences between the age groups with
respect to the self-assessed training effectiveness are still significant when a broad
range of individual and employer characteristics are taken into account, see Table II.
This corresponds to the finding by Ng and Feldman (2008) that age is negatively
correlated with performance in training programmes measured by post-training
scores. The differences between the oldest age group and younger training participants
in addition are in the same size range with and without controlling for individual
and employer characteristics. Self-assessed training effectiveness is higher for
employees with higher tenure and higher qualification, employees in good health and
employees who do not intend to quit the labour market in the near future. Training in
larger enterprises also is more effective.
Obviously, the lower effectiveness of training of older employees is not a
consequence of lower or less costly training inputs, see Table I[6]. Another reason for
the lower training effectiveness might be that the oldest training participants are
generally more sceptical with respect to their work. Indeed, the oldest employees in the
sample are somewhat less satisfied with training, their overall satisfaction with
work is, however, not significantly lower than the satisfaction of their younger peers
(compare Table I).
Therefore, neither the training intensity, overall training satisfaction nor the general
attitude towards work can explain the differences in self-assessed training
effectiveness between training participants older than 56 years and younger training
participants. Based on H2-H4, differences in the assessment of training forms and
training contents may be a key for the explanation of this phenomenon. The WeLL
Training
older
employees
141
Table I.
Descriptive
differences between
training dimensions
and age groups
41.71
(87.87)
2.29
(1.87)
1.77
(1.39)
0.15
0.41
0.23
0.16
5.58
(2.77)
7.48
(1.71)
47.77
(115.28)
2.31
(1.87)
1.74
(1.13)
0.15
0.42
0.23
0.18
5.74
(2.69)
7.38
(1.71)
Birth years
1952-1961
43.30
(101.07)
2.34
(1.91)
1.78
(1.26)
0.16
0.41
0.23
0.18
5.73
(2.60)
7.49
(1.67)
Birth years
1962-1971
42.36
(97.79)
2.34
(1.93)
1.80
(1.25)
0.17
0.42
0.22
0.17
5.92
(2.50)
7.33
(1.71)
Significance
Work satisfaction
44.57
(104.32)
2.32
(1.89)
1.77
(1.12)
0.16
0.41
0.23
0.17
5.74
(2.64)
7.39
(1.69)
142
Entire sample
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Higher
productivity
Adoption
Promotion
Higher
earnings
Job
security
New
orientation
questionnaire covers a broad range of training topics and training forms. In the next
step, the self-assessed training efficiency therefore is compared between the oldest
training group and the younger training participants for selected training topics and
forms. In order to make sure that relative differences between age groups in the
effectiveness of training forms and contents are not related to absolute differences in
the effectiveness, in Tables III and IV also absolute training effectiveness is reported.
Self-assessed absolute effectiveness is quite comparable between training forms and
contents ( probably with the exception of training-on-the job that is rate slightly less
effective than the other training forms).
This paper proposes a new explanation why training effectiveness of older
employees is lower: Employers do not take the changes in training preferences by age
into account. According to our hypotheses, older employees should assess the
effectiveness of more abstract and formal training forms (e.g. formal seminars and
training circles[7]) worse than the effectiveness of more applied and training forms
that are directly relevant for daily work problems (e.g. training on the job[8] or
self-motivated training[9]). Indeed, the effectiveness of seminars and training circles is
assessed significantly more negative in a descriptive comparison between the oldest
and younger training participants[10]. The training effectiveness of training on the
job and self-managed learning is, however, assessed the same by older and younger
employees. These results are also obtained in a multi-variate approach (see Table III),
and therefore the bivariate results are not reported here. An additional interpretation of
the relatively high effectiveness of self-motivated training for older employees is the
higher time flexibility of this training form (Callahan et al., 2003).
In accordance to the arguments proposed by Kanfer and Ackerman (2004), training
effectiveness of contents that mainly demand fluid cognitive intelligence (such as
Training
older
employees
143
Table II.
Determinants of
self-assessed
training effects
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Table III.
Self-assessed
effectiveness
of different
training forms
Higher
productivity
Adoption Promotion
Higher
earnings
Job
security
New
orientation
Seminar
Absolute effectiveness
Birth year 1951 or older
0.53
0.08*
0.47
0.12
0.10*** 0.08***
0.05
0.09 ***
0.27
0.09***
0.14
0.12***
Training circle
Absolute effectiveness
Birth years 1951 or older
0.53
0.07*
0.49
0.10**
0.13
0.08***
0.04
0.04***
0.30
0.06*
0.44
0.02
0.40
0.04
0.10
0.05*
0.04
0.02
Effects of training
0.10
0.01
Self-managed learning
Absolute effectiveness
0.54
0.50
0.13
0.05
0.31
0.13
Birth years 1951 or older
0.01
0.08*
0.06*
0.01
0.03
0.03
Notes: First rows: share of answers indicating a positive effectiveness. Second rows:
Heteroskedasticity-consistent robust OLS regressions explaining effectiveness, Number of
observations (enterprises): seminar: 1,401 (142), training on the job: 2,104 (146), self-managed learning:
950 (134); same covariates as in Table II
Effects of training
Table IV.
Self-assessed
effectiveness of
different training
contents
0.29
0.00
0.14
0.08***
Higher
productivity
Adoption Promotion
Higher
earnings
Job
security
New
orientation
0.07
0.04**
0.04
0.03**
0.22
0.02*
0.07
0.02*
Technical training
Absolute effectiveness
Birth year 1951 or older
0.39
0.08*
0.35
0.09**
0.08
0.07***
0.03
0.02*
0.24
0.03*
0.10
0.05**
Communication training
Absolute effectiveness
Birth year 1951 or older
0.36
0.09
0.36
0.01
0.08
0.06*
0.02
0.02
0.22
0.00
0.08
0.03
Management training
Absolute effectiveness
0.38
0.36
0.08
0.03
0.24
0.09
0.02
Birth year 1951 or older
0.03
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.04
Notes: First rows: share of answers indicating a positive effectiveness. Second rows:
Heteroskedasticity-consistent robust OLS regressions explaining effectiveness, number of observations
(enterprises): information and communication technology: 937 (140), technical contents: 1,009 (143),
communication training: 554 (126), management training: 423 (127); same covariates as in Table II
Entire
sample
Training forms
Seminar
Training circle
Training on the job
Self-motivated training
0.25
0.17
0.38
0.17
Birth
Birth
Birth year
years
years
1951 or
1952-1961 1962-1971
older
0.25
0.16
0.31
0.17
0.25
0.17
0.36
0.18
0.26
0.17
0.40
0.16
Birth year
1972 or
younger
0.24
0.16
0.44
0.17
Training
older
employees
145
Significance
***
Training contents
Information and
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.16
communication technology
Technical training
0.18
0.19
0.18
0.18
0.17
Communication training
0.10
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.11
Management training
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.07
Notes: Significance column: difference between training participants who are 56 years or older and all
younger employees all significant differences are negative; rows without stars have significance
levels above 10 per cent; ***significant at o0.01 level
Table V.
Descriptive
differences in
training forms and
contents between
age groups
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decision of older women to remain in the labour market may differ from that of older
men and younger women (Altonji and Blank, 1999; Zwick, 2012).
The youngest and oldest employee groups more often intend to quit employment
than the prime-age group[13]. Interestingly, there are no age effects in training
effectiveness for those who intend to quit employment for this group, the age dummy
in an estimation analogously to Table II is insignificant for all self-assessed training
efficiency dimensions. The age effects therefore completely stem from those employees
who intend to stay in the labour market for more than one year. It is not surprising that
the share of employees who state that they are healthy declines from 85 per cent in the
youngest group to 69 per cent in the oldest group. The reductions in training
effectiveness by age are somewhat smaller for those who state that they are sick, but
they do not disappear completely and remain significant for most efficiency dimension.
Finally, the correlation between age and training effectiveness is somewhat
stronger for males than for women. Again, the age effects are not completely
absent for women nevertheless and most coefficients remain significant (these results
are not shown here).
5. Conclusions
This paper shows that old training participants assess the effectiveness of a series
of relevant training goals significantly worse than younger training participants.
This difference is stronger for male and healthy training participants and only applies
for those who intend to stay in the labour market. It does not seem to be the result
of lower training intensity of older training participants, a general decline in work
satisfaction, or a lower general effectiveness of training for older workers in dimensions
such as promotions, job security or earnings increases. Instead, this paper argues that
lower training efficiency mainly is caused by offering older employees training
contents and training forms that are not in accordance with their training preferences.
The theoretical literature on training motivation over the life cycle stresses that
older employees prefer time flexible training forms that deliver practical and
immediately relevant knowledge and training contents that mainly can be mastered by
crystallised intelligence. Indeed, this paper shows that the effectiveness of
communication and management training is higher for older employees than
training featuring abstract technical contents or information technology. Self-induced
training and training-on-the-job accordingly also is more effective for older employees
than participation in formal seminars and training circles. Unfortunately, firms
do not seem to take these preferences of older training participants into account. The
oldest group of training participants gets more or less the same training forms and
training contents as younger training participants.
The management implication of this paper is that the large gap between employers
that offer training for older employees and those that offer specific training measures
for older employees (Gbel and Zwick, 2013) should decrease. Management has to take
into consideration the specific training needs and interests of older employees in order
to increase training efficiency and the motivation to participate in training.
This paper only reports self-assessed answers of training participants. Therefore,
assessments of ( personnel) managers on training effectiveness would be valuable in
order to get the complete picture on differences in training efficiency over the life
cycle. In addition, differences in tasks and their complexity might have an influence on
the effectiveness of training during the life cycle (Wegge et al., 2008). Unfortunately,
we cannot observe tasks in this data set. Also only few establishment characteristics
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Gesundheitsverhalten, zum subjektiven Gesundheitszustand und zu der Zusammenarbeit
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im Demographischen Wandel (Education of Older People Chances in Demographic
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Further reading
Kooning, J.de and Gelderblom, A. (2006), ICT and older workers: no unwrinkled relationship,
International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 27 No. 5, pp. 467-490.
Lois, D. (2007), Determinanten der Weiterbildungsbeteiligung lterer Erwerbsttiger
(determinants of training participation of older employees), Zeitschrift fr
Arbeitsmarktforschung, Arbeitsgestaltung und Arbeitspolitik, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 5-22.
(The Appendix follows overleaf.)
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Table AI.
Descriptive statistics
of explanatory
variables
Appendix
Variable name
Mean Description
Main secondary
schooling
Intermediate secondary
schooling
Higher secondary
schooling
Female
Birth years 1951 or older
Birth years 1952-1961
Birth years 1962-71
Birth years 1972 and
younger
Tenure o2 years
Tenure 2-5 years
Tenure 6-15 years
Tenure more than 15
years
Good health
High probability to quit
0.22
Eastern Germany
100-199 employees
200-499 employees
500-1,999 employees
Services sector
0.39
0.14
0.24
0.61
0.49
0.38
0.14
0.37
0.33
0.16
0.12
0.10
0.26
0.42
Tenure
Tenure
Tenure
Tenure
0.78
0.03
0.43
0.34
o2 years
between 2 and 5 years
between 6 and 15 years
more than 15 years
Corresponding author
Professor Thomas Zwick can be contacted at: thomas.zwick@uni-wuerzburg.de
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