Chapter 4: MODEL AND TECHNIQUES FOR

GEOMETRIC MODELLING
EMD4M7A
EMD4M2B

Requirements Of Geometric Modeling

Functions Of Geometric Modeling

Design analysis:

Evaluation of areas and volumes.

Evaluation of mass and inertia properties.
Interference checking in assemblies.
Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies.
Analysis of kinematics mechanics, robotics.
Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis.

Drafting:

Automatic planar cross sectioning.

Automatic hidden line and surface removal.
Automatic production of shaded images.
Automatic dimensioning.
Automatic creation of exploded views for technical illustrations.
Fig: Exploded views of Gear Pump

 Manufacturing:

Parts classification.
Process planning.
Numerical control data generation and verification.
Robot program generation.

Production Engineering:

Bill of materials.
Material requirement.
Manufacturing resource requirement.
Scheduling.

Inspection and Quality Control:

Program generation for inspection machines.
Comparison of produced part with design.
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Geometric Models
Two-dimensional (2D)
Three-dimensional (3D)
Three (3) principal classifications of geometric models:
1.
2.
3.

Line model
Surface model
Solid or Volume model

4.1 Wireframe Modeling System

A wireframe model is a visual presentation of a 3D or physical object used in 3D

computer graphics.

A 3D wireframe modeling system differs from a 2D draughting system where the

locations in space are defined by X,Y and Z co-ordinates.

The term wireframe comes from designers using metal wire to represent the 3D
shape of solid objects.

The shape of the object is defined by a collection of points (vertices) and a set of
edges. The object is projected onto the computer screen by drawing lines at the
location of each edge.

The system uses the same geometric entities i.e. lines, circles, arcs and curves as
does a 2D system.

The computer has no knowledge of the surface shape between the edges or of
what is solid and what is not.

Always visually ambiguous.

Fig: A geometric model presented in wireframe model

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Disadvantages Of Wireframe
Modeling System
Tend to be not realistic.
Ambiguity
complex model difficult to interpret

No ability to determine computationally information on mass properties (e.g

volume, mass, moment etc) and line of intersect between two faces of
intersecting models.

No guarantee that the model definition is correct, complete or manufacture

able.

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Advantages Of Wire-frame
Easy to construct.
Most economical in term of time and memory requirement.
Often used for previewing objects in an interactive scenario and low-end
designing and manufacturing system.
Possible to draw some impossible solid objects.

Fig: Impossible objects that can be modeled using wireframe model

4.2 Surface Modeling System

The surface model is constructed essentially from surfaces such as planes, rotated
curved surfaces (ruled surfaces) and very complex surfaces.

The aim with a surface modeling system is to completely define the surface form
of an object in such a way that the computer can calculate accurately the XYZ coordinates of any point on the surface.

Some surfaces cannot be defined by analytical techniques car bodies, ship hulls,
die cavity surfaces and decorative surfaces styled for aesthetic.

How? modeled through a series of control points and other boundary

conditions which specify the nature and surface desired.

Common type of surfaces used in CAD systems ruled surfaces, Bezier surfaces,
B-spline surfaces and NURBS.
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Fig: Various types of surfaces used in geometric modeling

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Creating Surfaces
CAD surface design packages provide commands to create
surfaces by various methods.
However, a CAD package may not support all types of surfaces
depends on niche market for the package.
Resultant surfaces can be classified into three types:
1.
2.
3.

Generic surfaces
Free form surfaces
Derived surfaces

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Generic Surfaces
Created by sweeping a generator curve along a vector or about an axis.
Only the generator curve influences the form of a surface.
Two (2) types of generic surface:
1. Tabulated cylinder

2.

Sweeping a generator curve along a vector produces a surface tabulated

cylinder.
The magnitude of a vector controls the size of the surface.

Surface of revolution

Revolving a generator curve about an axis produces a surface of

revolution.
The angle of revolution controls the size of a surface angle of 360
degrees is the default.
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Surface of revolution
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Free Form Surfaces

Uses more than one curve to create a free form surface.
The surface is modeled through a series of control points and
boundary conditions.
Five (5) types of free form surface:
1.

Ruled surface

Created from two or more curves that form opposite boundaries of the
surface.
The selection of the starting point on the curve for the surface
determines the actual surface obtained.

Fig: Ruled surface

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2.

Surface patch

Created from four curves that enclose an area and share coincident
ends.

Fig: Surface patch

3.

Net surface

Created from a network of curves.

A cloud of data points mat be used to create a net surface.

Fig: Net surface

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4.

Swept surface

A cross-section profile curve is swept along a guide curve to create a swept

surface.

Fig: Swept surface

5.

Lofted surface (cross section)

Uses one or more different cross-section profiles, a spine curves and guide
curves.
The cross-section profiles are always normal to the spine curve.
Guide curve limit the surface boundaries.

Fig: Lofted surface

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Derived Surfaces
Created from one or more existing surfaces.
Most common derived surfaces:
1. Offset surface

Derived from a given surface by using the offset distance (i.e. thickness).
An offset surface is like a parallel surface.
Used to develop additional surfaces and forms at a given offset distance.

Fig: Offset surface

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Derived Surfaces
2.

Filleted surface

Most common type of derived surface.

A fillet surface is a surface swept by a ball moves in continuous contact
with two surfaces.
Filleting often involves trimming original surfaces to the fillet surface
boundaries and done automatically.
Design original form surface blend with filleting operation.

Fig: Filleted surface

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BEZIER CURVES

To obtain a more free form design for aesthetic surfaces that satisfy some
requirements, the modeling techniques need to provide more flexibility for
changing the shape.

This can be achieved by the use of Bezier curves named after P. Bezier, the
designer of the French car company Renault, who invented the procedure in the
1960's.

Uses the vertices as control points for approximating the generated curve.

The curve will pass through the first and last point with all other points acting as
control points.

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Bzier curve and the associated control polygon

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 Changing the position of the individual control points in

space, will alter the control polygon.
Very flexible process and is widely used for the design of
aesthetic surfaces.
More control points higher flexibility of the curve.

Modification of Bezier curve by tweaking the control points

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B-SPLINE CURVES

The Bezier curve is considered as a single curve controlled by all the control points.

As a result, increase in the number of control points, the order of the polynomial
representing the curve increases.

To reduce this complexity, the curve is broken down into more segments with
better control exercised with individual segments, while maintaining a simple
continuity between the segments.

Alternative use a B-spline.

Whenever a single vertex is moved, only those vertices around that will be
affected while the rest remains the same.

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B-spline curve
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Applications Of Surfaces
To create photo realistic images by applying foreground and
background colors; different light sources; assigning
translucency and opacity and texture attributes.

The above characteristics make surfaces a powerful industrial

design tool.

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4.3 SOLID MODELING

A solid model is a computer description of a closed, solid, 3D shape represented by

a data structure within which the 3D material can be completely and
unambiguously defined.

Composed of combinations of primitive objects complete, unambiguous (clearcut), physically realizable and modifiable.

A solid model is always open to further modification by Boolean combination with

other shapes.

Solid modeling technology is particularly suited to the automation of many

manufacturing and analysis tasks.

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Types Of Solid Modeling Representation

Two (2) general types of models:
1.

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) Model

2.

Boundary Representation Model

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Constructive Solid Geometry (Csg) Model

The CSG model representation uses a tree structure (often called a CSG tree) to
define a solid model part.

Comprises of Boolean combinations of solid primitives block, cylinder, cone,

sphere, torus and other simple solid shapes.

Boolean operators union (add), difference (subtract) and intersection, are used
to combine primitives step by step to describe a solid model part.

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Solid Modeling Primitives

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Boolean Operations

P
Q

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Boolean operators and their effect on model construction

39

In ray casting:

Operation
Surface Limit
Union
A, D
Intersection
C, B
Difference (2-1)
B, D

Boolean operators and their effect on model construction

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CSG tree illustrating part modeling steps using primitives

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 A binary tree consisting of geometrical primitives, transformations and

symbols representing Boolean operators represent the CSG object.

The database of a CSG solid model stores primitives and Boolean

operations only.
The CSG method enables one to build the complex shapes quickly but only
within limitations of the set of primitives available.

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Boundary Representation
(B-rep) Model

A type of solid modeling in which faces are combined to create a solid model of a
part.

Represents a solid model (an enclosing surface) by describing its boundaries by

faces.

Faces are represented by their bounding edges and vertices.

The geometry of the object can be described by its boundaries, namely vertices,
edges and surfaces.

Each face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices. Faces can be
formed by either straight-line object or curve segments.

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Basic elements of a B-rep model

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Commercial Solid Modelers

Due to the need of engineering and manufacturing support functions such as

drafting, analysis and manufacturing, a more detailed data structure is highly
desirable than just the primitive and Boolean operator based CSG data structure.

However, the primitive and Boolean operation functionality of CSG representation

is included in most B-rep modelers.

Most commercial solid modelers are B-rep types.

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Applications Of Solid Models

Visualization
Mass property calculations
Product Assembly modeling and interference detection
Drafting and product documentation
Rapid prototyping
Structural analysis
Mechanism analysis
Tool Design & Analysis
CNC & CMM Part Programming & Simulation
Robotics & Simulation
Virtual Prototyping and Manufacture
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4.4 Surface Connectivity Information

47

Typical Surface Display With The

Parametric Variables u and v

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 A surface can be considered as a continuous set of points

approximating a small elemental surface (like a plane) among
each point.
The mathematics involved is much more complex compared
to the curves representation.
From the curve representation, we extend it to write the
surface representation as:

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4.5 Hybrid Modeling

Hybrid modeling combines digital shape sampling and processing with the power
of computer-aided design to provide an innovative solution for parametric reverse
engineering of complex parts.

Digital shape sampling and processing (DSSP) converts 3D scan data into digital
models for design, visualization, analysis, and manufacturing.

Combining the advantages of DSSP with feature based modeling provides a hybrid
method of modeling.

Traditional CAD works well when modeling from scratch, limitations arise when its
used to reconstruct complex surfaces Hybrid modeling fixes these limitations.

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 Reconstructing complex objects in CAD takes a lot of time and

there is no guarantee that the finished model will be accurate.
Some cases, it is almost impossible to use a feature-based
approach to reconstruct surfaces so difficult to identify and
quantify parameters that control the objects shape.
The hybrid modeling method provides full parametric control
over the shape.

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Hybrid Modeling Applications

These hybrid models accurately capture and reconstruct the shape of a
physical part, and are ideal for applications to:
Capture physical designs and prototypes
Reproduce legacy parts and tooling
Replicate complex and organic shapes
Prepare as-built models for CAE applications

Enable mass-customization of unique components (dental

applications, hearing aids, etc.)
Preserve historical and cultural artifacts.
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Example of Modeling an Impeller

using Hybrid Modeling
1.

Scanning the Impeller

2.

Cleanup and Repair

3.

Extract Curves and Datum's

4.

Combining Free-Form Surfacing

5.

Trimming and Blending

6.

Generating final Result

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Hybrid Modeling Advantages

Uses 3D investments
Hybrid modeling takes advantage of existing modeling systems and the skills of
CAD users and experts, and enhance it with 3D measurement and rapid surfacing.

Helps quickly create new designs

Hybrid measurement and modeling approach greatly reduces the amount of time
needed to copy an existing design. In some cases, hybrid modeling takes only
hours as opposed to days or weeks using conventional techniques.

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 Produces native parametric CAD geometry

Using the CAD system, various aspects of the design can be parametrically driven
by numerical values or constraints such as assembly-mating conditions.

Generates accurate results

Free-form surfaces can be generated from point clouds containing millions of
sample points. This technique reproduces fine point in surface structures that
would otherwise be lost. The process is repeatable because scanned data is less
operator dependent than typical hand measurements.

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