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Background

Slow Sand Filtration

SlowSand
Filtration

Water Distribution

RelatedTopics

Water Use
Wastewater
Collection

Compiled by:

Wastewater
Treatment

Marco A. Bruni (seecon international gmbh),

Dorothee Spuhler (seecon international
gmbh)

Reuse and Recharge

ExecutiveSummary
Slowsandfiltrationisatypeofcentralisedorsemicentralisedwater
purificationsystem.Awelldesignedandproperlymaintainedslowsand
filter(SSF)effectivelyremovesturbidityandpathogenicorganismsthrough
variousbiological,physicalandchemicalprocessesinasingletreatment
step.Onlyundertheprevalenceofasignificantlyhighdegreeofturbidityor
algaecontamination,pretreatmentmeasures(e.g.sedimentation)become
necessary.Slowsandfiltrationsystemsarecharacterisedbyahighreliability
andratherlowlifecyclecosts.Moreover,neitherconstructionnoroperation
andmaintenancerequiremorethanbasicskills.Hence,slowsandfiltration
isapromisingfiltrationmethodforsmalltomediumsized,rural
communitieswithafairlygoodqualityoftheinitialsurfacewatersource.As
statedbytheWHO,slowsandfiltrationprovidesasimplebuthighly
effectiveandconsiderablycheaptoolthatcancontributetoasustainable
watermanagementsystem.
In

Out

Freshwater

Drinking Water

Introduction
Slow sand filtration has been
an effective water treatment
process for preventing the
spread of gastrointestinal
diseases for over 150 years,
having been used first in
Great Britain and later in
other European countries
(LOGSDON 2002). SFFs are
still used in London and were
relatively common in
Western Europe until recently
and are still common
Largescale slow sand filtering operation. Portsmouth 1927. Source:
elsewhere in the world. The
PORTSMOUTH WATER (n.y.)
move away from slow sand
filtration in industrialised
countries has largely been a function of rising land prices and labour costs, which increased the
cost of SSF produced water. Where this is not the case, SSFs still represent a costeffective
method for water treatment (WHO n.y.). Since these conditions prevail in many developing
countries, it is a very promising technique for water purification and, therefore, the
development of a sustainable water system.

Basic Design Principles

Process
The basic principle of the process is very simple. Contaminated freshwater flows through a
layer of sand, where it not only gets physically filtered but biologically treated. Hereby, both
sediments and pathogens are removed. This process is based on the ability of organisms to
remove pathogens. In this context, it is important to distinguish slow and rapid sand filtration.
The difference between the two is not simply a matter of the filtration speed, but of the
underlying concept of the treatment process. Slow sand filtration is essentially a biological
process whereas rapid sand filtration is a physical treatment process (WHO n.y.). To learn more
about rapid sand filtration have a look at the factsheet: rapid sand filtration.
Although the physical
removal of sediments is an

Health and Hygene

Background information on
health and hygiene issues of
water management and
sanitation:
Health and Hygiene Issues
The Water Cycle
Understand how water
naturally travels the earth:
The Water Cycle

Awareness Raising
Understand how crucial
awareness raising is to
accompany any change process
and where decentralisation is
an appropriate approach.
Awareness Raising
Decentralisation (WP)
Creating an Enabling
Environment
Learn how the government
can create an enabling
environment for water and
sanitation implementation
measures.
Creating an Enabling
Environment
Operation and Maintenance
Correct operation and
maintenance guarantees
proper functioning and a long
lifespan. Learn more on how
to organise operation and
maintenance:
Operation and Maintenance
Similar Tools
Find out more about similar
drinking water treatments:
Biosand Filtration
Bank Filtration
Sedimentation
Water Sources
Water sources are the
beginning of the water and
sanitation management cycle.
Water distribution is a basic
precondition for access to
water. Find out more about
water catchment and
distribution
Water Sources
Water Distribution
Water Testing
How can you make sure that
treated water is safe? Learn
more here:
Water Quality Testing

important part of the

purification process, the
relevant aspect is the
biological filtration. The top
layers of the sand become
biologically active by the
establishment of a microbial
community on the top layer
of the sand substrate, also
referred to as
schmutzdecke. These
microbes usually come from
the source water and
establish a community within
a matter of a few days. The
fine sand and slow filtration
Principle of a slow sand filter. Source: WHO (n.y.)
rate facilitate the
establishment of this
microbial community. The majority of the community are predatory bacteria that feed on
waterborne microbes passing through the filter (WHO n.y.). Hence, the underlying principle of
the SSF is equivalent to the biosand filtration. While the former is applied to semicentralised
water treatment, the latter mainly serves household purposes.

Structure
As the process itself, the basic structure is very elementary. Essentially, only the filter
chamber, a type of reservoir and pipes are required. The filter chamber can either be
constructed as an open or as a closed box. Depending on climatic and other factors, the one or
the other is more reasonable (e.g. cold climate requires a closed box since low temperatures
decrease the performance of the process).

Illustration of a slow sand filter with a regulating valve and a subsequent reservoir. Source: HUISMAN
(1974)

Once a SSF facility is built, only clean sand is required for occasional replacement. The sand
layers are put in gradually according to their grain sizes: rather coarse grains at the bottom
and fine grains at the top. The sandbed is usually covered with one meter of supernatant
water (LOGSDON 2003). As the process of biological filtration requires a fair amount of time in
order to purify the water sufficiently, SSFs usually operate at slow flow rates between 0.1 0.3
m3/h per square metre of surface (WHO n.y.). The water thus remains in the space above the
medium for several hours and larger particles are allowed to separate and settle (see also
sedimentation). It then passes through the sandbed where it goes through a number of
purification processes (HUISMAN 1974).
The water requires some kind of physical pressure in order to pass the drag created by the sand
layers. In terms of construction, two different types are feasible. The pressure can be built up
either by pumps or gravity. While pump systems need some type of engine and a more
elaborate construction, gravity systems work without any highly technological means (HUISMAN
1974).

Health Aspects
Slow sand filtration is an extremely efficient method for removing microbial contamination
and will usually have no indicator bacteria present at the outlet. SSFs are also effective in
removing protozoa and viruses (WHO n.y.). If the effluent turbidity is below 1.0 nephelometric
turbidity units (NTU), a 90 to 99% reduction in bacteria and viruses is achieved (NDWC 2000).
Yet, slow sand filtration is generally not effective for the majority of chemicals (WHO n.y.).
However, it can be argued that chemical standards for drinking water are of secondary concern
in water supply subject to severe bacterial contamination (WHO 1996).
Highly effective for

Somewhat effective
for

Bacteria
Protozoa

Odour, Taste

Viruses

Iron, Manganese

Turbidity

Organic Matter

Heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Cd,

Pb)

Arsenic

Not effective for

Salts
Fluoride
Trihalomethane (THM)
Precursors
Majority of chemicals

Typical treatment performance of slow sand filters. Adapted from: BRIKKE & BREDERO (2003),
LOGSDON (2002) and WHO (n.y.)

Although SSFs are very effective for the removal of microbiological pathogens, disinfectants
(e.g. chlorination) are often used in treatment facilities as a step subsequent to the SSF unit.
Firstly for the purpose of inactivating any remaining bacteria as the final unit of treatment,

and secondly, for the provision of a residual disinfectant that will remove any bacteria
introduced during storage and/or distribution (WHO n.y.). Chlorine is generally added after the
filter unit in order to not affect the biological process. If the water contains high amounts of
natural organic matter (NOMs), e.g. surface waters in tropical regions, chlorination should be
avoided due to the risk of the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). When attacked by
chlorine radicals, NOMs form trihalomethane (THM) and other organic DBPs, which are known
to be carcinogenic.

Construction, Operation & Maintenance

Construction

A SSF consists of a box, often

made of concrete in which a
bed of sand is placed over a
layer of gravel and
perforated pipes. These pipes
collect the treated water
(VEENSTRA & VISSCHER
1985).For community use,
filter chambers can also be
made out of brick or ferro
cement (BRIKKE & BREDERO
2003). Recently, also plastic
boxes have been used as
filter chambers.

Simple smallscale slow sand filter made out of plastic. Source:

GLOBAL GIVING (2011)

More elaborate slow sand filter constructed with a massive concrete filter chamber.Covered
community scale SSFs at Nyabwishongwezi Water Treatment Plant, Umatara, Rwanda. Source: THAMES
WATER & UNIVERSITY OF SURREY (2005)

The simple design of SSFs makes it easy to use local materials and skills in their construction
(HUISMAN 1974). Due to the simplicity of construction, SSFs can be built by experienced
contractors, or by communities with external technical assistance (BRIKKE & BREDERO 2003).
Basic hydrological equipment like valves and measurement devices become necessary only if
the facility is rather large.

Foundation of a slow sand filter. Source: EWB (2010)

Operation & Maintenance

For a SSF to be effective, it must be operated and maintained properly. If topographic
circumstances allow the water to flow through gravity during the whole process, no pumps and
thus no electricity is required. However, the flow of water must be maintained at a rate
between 0.10.3 metres per hour. This provides a stable flow of nutrients and oxygen to the
microorganisms in the filter and gives them time to treat the water. After several weeks to a
few months, the population of microorganisms may get too dense and start to clog the filter. If
flow rates are too low, the filter must be drained and the top layer of the sand scraped off,
washed, dried in the sun, and stored. After several scrapings, the cleaned and dried sand is
added back to the filter, together with new sand, to make up for losses during washing. Every
two months, all the valves must be opened and closed to keep them from becoming stuck, and
any leaks in the system must be repaired immediately (BRIKKE & BREDERO 2003).

SSFs can be operated and

even monitored by
communities, provided the
caretakers are trained well.
It takes a caretaker less than
one hour a day to check
whether the filter is
functioning properly and to
adjust flow rates. Several
people can clean a filter unit
in only one day, but it is
important that hygienic
measures are observed
constantly. If the filter is
welldesigned and
constructed, hardly any
Tayakomes village water committee cleaning their slow sand
repairs of the filter tanks and
filters. Source: GLOBAL GIVING (2011)
drainage system will be
necessary, although the
valves and metal tubing may need occasional attention. If water test kits are available, water
quality can be easily monitored without special training. Nevertheless, a SSF for community use
requires considerable organisation for scraping and resanding the filter units. A local
caretaker will have to be trained. Apart from extra sand, some chlorine and test materials,
very few external inputs are needed. With proper external assistance, water organisations can
manage their water treatment independently (BRIKKE & BREDERO 2003).

Costs
Construction Costs
Construction costs strongly depend on local conditions. Since SSFs demand rather large land
areas but low input of construction materials, the capital costs primarily consist of wages and
costs for land acquisition. The cost of imported materials and equipment may be kept to
almost negligible proportions (VEENSTRA & VISSCHER 1985). Therefore, water purification
through a SSF is very economical in areas where labour costs are low and land is not a limiting
factor.

Operation & Maintenance Costs

Operational costs are incurred almost solely from the cleaning of the filter beds. No chemicals
or other materials are needed for the process. No compressed air, mechanical stirring, or high
pressure water is needed for backwashing. There is thus a saving not only in the provision of
plant but also in the cost of fuel or electricity (HUISMAN 1974).
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At a Glance
Working Principle

Freshwater flows through a sandbed with a thin layer populated by

microorganisms. Hereby, the water gets purified through various
biological, physical and chemical processes.

TRAIN THE TRAINERS

Capacity/Adequacy

Primarily small, rural communities due to large land requirements

(WATER FOR THE WORLD n.y.)

Performance

Removes turbidity, protozoa, pathogens, viruses and heavy metals. 100

300 litres per hour per square metre of surface (HUISMAN 1974)

Costs

100300 USD per square metre (BRIKKE & BREDERO 2003)

Selfhelp
Compatibility

Very high

O&M

Simple, low costs

Reliability

Very high if properly operated and maintained

Main strength

Simplicity; can be constructed, operated and maintained by the

community; often no need for pumps/electricity

Main weakness

Large land requirements; excessive turbidity (>30 NTU) in the fresh

water can cause the filter to clog rapidly (BRIKKE & BREDERO 2003)

Applicability
SSFs require an influent turbidity below 30 NTU and preferably below 10 NTU. Else, pre
treatment measures (e.g. sedimentation) become necessary to ensure that the filters do not
become overloaded (WHO n.y.). Moreover, climatic conditions have to be in a moderate range:
SSFs are less effective in removing microorganisms from cold water because the biological
activity within the filter bed and the schmutzdecke declines as temperatures decrease (NDWC
2000). Hence, the adequacy of application is mainly given for the treatment of surface water
in small, rural communities where available land is no limiting factor. Alternatively, SSFs may
be applicable as a polishing step in wastewater treatment.
Since construction, operation and maintenance are straightforward and do not need more than
basic skills, slow sand filtration is a treatment method that is highly selfhelp compatible and
therefore can help to improve water management systems in many regions in developing
countries. Although SSFs automatically accommodate minor fluctuations in fresh water quality,
temperature, and climatic conditions and are able to cope with short periods of excessive
turbidity without breaking down, proper and regular maintenance must be ensured (HUISMAN
1974).

Advantages
Very effective removal of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, turbidity and heavy metals in
contaminated fresh water
Simplicity of design and high selfhelp compatibility: construction, operation and
maintenance only require basic skills and knowledge and minimal effort
If constructed with gravity flow only, no (electrical) pumps required
Local materials can be used for construction
High reliability and ability to withstand fluctuations in water quality
No necessity for the application of chemicals
Easy to install in rural, semiurban and remote areas, Simplicity of design and
operation
Long lifespan (estimated >10 years)

Disadvantages
Minimal quality and constant flow of fresh water required: turbidity (<1020 NTU)
and low algae contamination. Otherwise, pretreatment may be necessary
Cold temperatures lower the efficiency of the process due to a decrease in
biological activity
Loss of productivity during the relatively long filter skimming and ripening periods
Very regular maintenance essential; some basic equipment or readymade test kits
required to monitor some physical and chemical parameters
Possible need for changes in attitude (belief that water that flows through a green
and slimy filter is safe to drink without the application of chemicals), Chemical
compounds (e.g. fluorine) are not removed
Natural organic matter and other DBPs precursors not removed (may be formed if
chlorine is applied for final disinfection)
May require electricity
Requirement of a large land area, large quantities of filter media and manual
labour for cleaning, Low filtration rate

References
BRIKKE, F.; BREDERO, M. (2003): Linking Technology Choice with Operation and Maintenance
in the context of community water supply and sanitation. A reference Document for Planners
and Project Staff. Geneva: World Health Organization and IRC Water and Sanitation Centre.
URL [Accessed: 30.03.2010]. PDF
EWB (Editor) (2010): Construction of a Slow Sand Filter. Easton: Engineers without Borders
(EWB), Lafayette Chapter, Lafayette College. URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012].
GLOBAL GIVING (Editor) (2011): Clean Water and Sanitation Rainforest in Peru. Washington,

D.C.: Global Giving. URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012].

HUISMAN, L.; WOOD, W.E. (1974): Slow Sand Filtration. Geneva: World Health Organisation
(WHO). URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012]. PDF
LOGSDON, G. (2002): Slow Sand Filtration for small Water Systems. In: Journal of
Environmental Engineering and Science (2002) 1, 339348.
NDWC (Editor) (2000): Slow Sand Filtration. Tech Brief. (= A National Drinking Water
Clearinghouse Fact Sheet). Morgantown: National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC). URL
[Accessed: 06.02.2012]. PDF
PORTSMOUTH WATER (Editor) (n.y.): The Slow Sand Filters in Operation (1927). Hampshire:
Portsmouth Water Ltd.. URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012].
THAMES WATER (Editor); UNIVERSITY OF SURREY (Editor) (2005): Slow Sand Filters. URL
[Accessed: 06.02.3012]. PDF
VEENSTRA, S.; VISSCHER, J.T. (Editor) (1985): Slow Sand Filtration: Manual for Caretakers. (=
IRC Training series, 1). The Hague: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. URL
[Accessed: 06.02.3012]. PDF
WATER FOR THE WORLD (Editor) (n.y.): Constructing a Slow Sand Filter. (= Technical Note,
No. RWS. 3.C.3). Vienna: Water for the World. URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012]. PDF
WHO (Editor) (n.y.): Chapter 12: Water Treatment. In: WHO (Editor) (2009): WHO Seminar
Pack for Drinking Water Quality. . URL [Accessed: 07.02.2012]. PDF
WHO (Editor) (1996): Guidelines for DrinkingWater Quality, Second Edition. (= Health Criteria
and Other Supporting Information Second Edition, 2). Geneva: World Health Organization
(WHO). URL [Accessed: 31.03.2010]. PDF

FurtherReadings
BRIKKE, F.; BREDERO, M. (2003): Linking Technology Choice with
Operation and Maintenance in the context of community water
supply and sanitation. A reference Document for Planners and
Project Staff. Geneva: World Health Organization and IRC Water
and Sanitation Centre. URL [Accessed: 30.03.2010]. PDF
This document is addressed to planners and staff of water supply
and sanitation projects on household and community level. The
reader is guided through the main steps of informed choices
regarding the main proven technologies for water supply,
purification and water treatment at household and community
level. Each technology is described in a small factsheet, regarding
its functioning, actors and their roles, the main operation and
maintenance (O&M) requirements and problems, which can occur.
HUISMAN, L.; WOOD, W.E. (1974): Slow Sand Filtration. Geneva:
World Health Organisation (WHO). URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012].
PDF
The object of this volume is to discuss the various aspects of one
particular form of water treatment the "biological filtration" or
"slow sand filtration" process. This system of water purification has
been in continuous use since the beginning of the nineteenth
century, and has proved effective under widely differing
circumstances.
NDWC (Editor) (2000): Slow Sand Filtration. Tech Brief. (= A
National Drinking Water Clearinghouse Fact Sheet). Morgantown:
National Drinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC). URL [Accessed:
06.02.2012]. PDF
A short factsheet on slow sand filtration provides information on
more technical aspects of slow sand filtration.

THAMES WATER (Editor); UNIVERSITY OF SURREY (Editor) (2005):

Slow Sand Filters. URL [Accessed: 06.02.3012]. PDF
A very comprehensive description on how slow sand filters work and
how they can be designed. Many examples, and a good reference
list at the end of the article.

DIJK, J.C. van; OOMEN, J.H.C. (1978): Slow Sand Filtration for
Community Water Supply in Developing Countries. A Design and
Construction Manual. (= IRC Technical Paper Series, 11). The
Hague: International Reference Centre for Community Water
Supply. URL [Accessed: 06.02.3012]. PDF
This very comprehensive technical paper includes important
background information, a detailed description of the principle of
slow sand filtration and much information on the construction,
design and implementation of slow sand filtration plants.
WHO (Editor) (n.y.): Chapter 12: Water Treatment. In: WHO

(Editor) (2009): WHO Seminar Pack for Drinking Water Quality. .

URL [Accessed: 07.02.2012]. PDF
This document provides an easy to read and yet comprehensive
introduction to the water treatment process with slow and rapid
sand filters while particularly addressing the multibarrier principle.

CaseStudies
JOSEPHINNE, M.; NOTODARMOJO, S.; IRSYAD, M. (n.y.): Evaluation
of single stage dry slow sand filter in removing some physical
pollutants from surface water. Case Study of the Cikapundung
River. Bandung: Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering ITB.
URL [Accessed: 21.02.2012]. PDF
This case study was conducted in Bandung, India. It was
investigated to what extent conventional slow sand filters could be
improved through backwashing measures and improved aeration
processes.

TrainingMaterial
VEENSTRA, S.; VISSCHER, J.T. (Editor) (1985): Slow Sand Filtration:
Manual for Caretakers. (= IRC Training series, 1). The Hague: IRC
International Water and Sanitation Centre. URL [Accessed:
06.02.3012]. PDF
How can you take care of a slow sand filter on your own? Although
slightly outofdate, this document provides a detailed and well
illustrated description on how to operate and maintain a simple
slow sand filter.

WATER FOR THE WORLD (Editor) (n.y.): Constructing a Slow Sand

Filter. (= Technical Note, No. RWS. 3.C.3). Vienna: Water for the
World. URL [Accessed: 06.02.2012]. PDF
Technical solutions for the construction of your own slow sand
filters are presented.

ImportantWeblinks
http://www3.surrey.ac.uk/ [Accessed: 01.12.2011]
This website was the result of cooperation between Thames Water and the University of Surrey.
A lot of information on slow sand filtration is provided in form of an online application.