Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition-Acquisition of Syntactic Structures by Students Bilingual in Persian

International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies
ISSN: 2308-5460
International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies
IJ-ELTS
e-ISSN: 2308-5460
Volume:1, Issue: 3
[October-December, 2013]
Editor-in-Chief
Mustafa Mubarak Pathan
Department of English Language & Translation Studies
The Faculty of Arts, the University of Sebha
Sebha, Libya
editor@eltsjournal.org
Senior Associate Editors

Dr Nicos C. Sifakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece
Dr. Anastasia Novoselova, Birmingham Metropolitan College, UK
Dr. Muhammad Abdel-Wahed Ali Darwish, Assiut University, Egypt
Dr. Abdurahman Ahmad Hamza, The University of Sebha, Libya
Dr. Firdevs KARAHAN, Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Sabria Salama Jawhar, King Saud bin Abdul Aziz University for Health Science, KSA
Dr. Claudia Porter, Oregon Health and Sciences University, Oregon, USA
Dr. Kuniyoshi Kataoka, Aichi University, Japan
Dr. Choudhary Zahid Javid, Taif University, KSA
Sayed Khaja Ahmad Moinuddin, MANUU, Hyderabad, India
Dr. M. Maniruzzaman, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh
Dr. Nagamurali Eragamreddi, Faculty of Education, Traghen, Libya
Dr. Zaheer Khan, University of Benghazi, Libya
Dr. Mzenga A. Wanyama, Augsburg College, Minneapolis, USA
Mirza Sultan Beig, S. R. T. M. University, India
B. Somnath, VNGIASS, Nagpur, India
Dr. Hassen ZRIBA, University of Gafsa, Tunisia
Dr. Sana Akram Saqqa, Al-Jouf University, KSA
Mariam Mansoor, The University of Sebha, Libya
Safia Ahmed Mujtaba, The University of Sebha, Libya
Assistant Editors
Omran Ali Abdalla Akasha, The University of Sebha, Libya
Dr. Prashant Subhashrao Mothe, Adarsh College, Omerga, India
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Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition: Acquisition of

syntactic structures by students Bilingual in Persian-Azerbaijani, PersianArmenia, and Persian-Gilaki
[PP: 129-156]
Farzaneh Khodabandeh
Mobarakeh Payame Noor Universit y
Iran
Abstract
The present study builds on recent claims that investigating the L3 init ial state provides
another test case for UG's invo lvement in adult language acquisit io n (Leung, 2005, 2006,
2007; Rothman & Cabrelli, 2007). It focuses on two compet ing approaches to adult
language acquisit io n, so-called Failed Funct ional Features approaches (FFFAs) (Beck,
1998; Franceschina, 2001) and Full Access approaches (FAAs) (Duffield & White, 1999;
Schwartz & Sprouse, 1996). Crucially, each approach makes different predict ions for L2
ult imate attainment and thus indirect ly makes different predict ions for possible transfer at
the L3 init ial state. FFFAs claim that adult L2 learners are unable to acquire new
funct ional features. In contrast, FAAs claim that adult L2 learners have cont inued full
access to UG. Assuming transfer, both FFFAs and FAAs make contrasting predictions for
the init ial state of L3 acquisit io n. FFFAs predict that learners at the L3 init ial state are
restricted to transfer o f features available fro m the L1. Conversely, because FAAs claim
that it is possible for L2 learners to acquire new features, they predict that L3 learners can
start with an init ial state that demonstrates either L1 or L2 funct ional feature transfer. The
present study tests the predict ions made by these two compet ing approaches by examining
the L3 init ial state of three types o f groups of L3 learners o f English such as Azerbaijani
Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian bilinguals via knowledge of adjective
order. The instrument of this study was a grammatical test which consisted of three parts.
The findings o f this research were in accordance with the predict ions o f (FFFH)
hypothesis where L1 transfer being hypothesized. L3 learners performed significant ly
higher than L2 learners as their interlanguage grammar seemed to reflect more of the
parameter values of their L1s.
Keywords: UG, FFFA, FAFTA, L2A, L3A, Persian-mo no lingual, Azerbaijani-Persian,
Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian bilinguals
Suggested Citation:
Khodabandeh, F. (2013). Cross-Linguist ic Influence in Third Language Acquisit io n:
Acquis it ion o f syntact ic structures by students Bilingual in Persian-Azerbaijani, PersianArmenia, and Persian-Gilaki . International Journal of English Language & Translational
Studies Vol-1, Issue-3 , 129-156. Retrived from http://www.eltsjournal.org
Vol-1, Issue-3 October-December, 2013
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1. Introduction
The ro le of language transfer in second language acquisit io n has lo ng been the focus
in the study of cross-linguist ic influence. Much has been written about how the learners
exist ing linguist ic knowledge influences the course of second language development. In
the last decade, however, there have been a considerable number of books and journal
articles dealing with a relat ively under-explored field: the ro le o f language transfer during
third language acquisit io n. The quest ion arises as to how the learners three languages
interact with each other during the language learning process.
The present study attempts to describe the influence of Azerbaijani, Armenia and Gilaki as
L1 in third-language acquisit io n o f English and it s pedagogical implicat ions by reporting
and discussing the results of research carried out on how bilingual and mo no lingua l
students acquire the English adject ive patterns.
A brief overview of the study o f language transfer and the possible affect ing factors are
provided.
1.1 Transfer
The cross-linguist ic influence between a persons nat ive language and their target
language is co mmo nly referred to as transfer. Transfer can be defined as, the carryo ver of
previous performance or knowledge to previous or subsequent learning (Brown, 1994, p:
391). This process takes place through the use of sounds, expressio ns, or structures fro m
the nat ive language when performing in the target language (Yule, 2006, p: 167).
Transfer can be negat ive or posit ive, depending on the similarit y o f language features.
Negative transfer, or interference, occurs when previous learned informat ion hinders the
understanding of new informat ion features of the nat ive language are inaccurately applied
to the target language. In contrast, posit ive transfer occurs when knowledge o f a nat ive
language facilitates the learning o f a target language: past knowledge is accurately applied
to present subject matter (Brown, 1994, p: 102). During any t ype o f second language
acquisit ion, positive and negat ive transfer are likely to occur.
Discussio n of language transfer most often begin wit h the work of American linguists
in the 1940s and 1950s. The thinking of Fries (1945), Lado (1957), and others was
clearly a major catalyst o f the subsequent research. During the last decade, scho larship on
L2-L3 transfer in general has increased considerably. Wit h the increase there has been
many more recent accounts of language transfer. Language transfer is best thought of as a
cover term for a who le class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each o f which has do
with CLI (cross-linguist ic influence), i.e. the influence and use o f prior linguist ic
knowledge, usually but not exclusively nat ive language (NL) knowledge (Selinker, 1992,
p: 208). According to Gass (1996, p: 321), transfer is the use of the nat ive language (or
other language) informat ion in the acquisit io n of an L2 (or addit ional language).
Another recent development is the study of mult ilingual transfer. That is, language transfer
occurs not only in the process o f acquiring the second language but also when three or
more languages are in contact. As Murphy (2003) points out, rather than viewing the study
of third language acquisit io n simply as an extension of SLA research, the current trend is
to consider the L3 learner as a learner with a unique and specific linguist ic configuration.
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Evidently, cross-linguist ic influence is an important factor in the field of second language

acquisit ion and cannot be regarded as a minor pheno menon wit h slight side-effects on the
acquisit ion process. It is important not only to concentrate on the learners nat ive language
as any addit io nal languages the learner might have previously acquired are likely to play a
role in the acquisit io n process as well.
The notion of cross-linguist ic influence was first proposed during the post-war years
and has ever since been o f interest to second language researchers. It is clear that research
in this area is on-going and the influence of the nat ive language as well as any possible
addit ional languages continues to attract attentio n in the fie ld of second language
acquisit ion.
1.2 Third Language Acquisition
L3A is a field which has gained great importance in recent years (Cenoz, Hufeisen &
Jessner, 2001). Jorda (2005) explains that L3A means widening ones linguist ic system
quant itatively and qualitat ively even more. Although L3A and L2A have co mmo n
properties, L3A is more diverse and co mplex than L2A as it has its unique characteristics
which are: (1) non-linearit y, (2) language maintenance, (3) individual variat ion, (4)
interdependence and qualit y change (Jorda , 2005).
Non-linearit y is considered to be one o f the main characterist ics dist inguishing L3A
fro m L2A (Herdina & Jessner 2000, cited in Jorda, 2005). In the L2A field, language
competence and development is seen as a gradual and linear process in which learners get
more proficient by time.
On the other hand, nonlinearit y here is defined as a language development which does
not fo llow gradually and linearly. As Jorda states, non-linearit y is argued for mult ilingual
processes by Herdina and Jessner. They say according to bio logical principles language
development is seen as a dynamic process with phases of accelerated growth and
retardation (Herdina & Jessner, 2000, p: 87, cited in Jorda, 2005). If the non-nat ive
language is not used, it will be quite normal for the learners to lose the previously acquired
knowledge in t ime. Therefore, language growth is not always linear in L3A as the part of
the L3 knowledge which is not actively used is easier to lose in L3 than in L2.
Non-linearit y leads us to the second feature of L3A, which is language maintenance.
Learners have to make effort to keep their proficiency levels in their non-nat ive languages.
The more languages known by the learner, the more effort is needed to be able to maintain
the proficiency levels and previously acquired knowledge in the target languages.
The third defining feature of L3A is individual variat ion. While learning the L3,
learners can be affected by many internal and external factors. The relation between these
factors and their interactions are more complex in L3A, by virtue of the existence of more
languages, than in L2A. As Jorda states, L3A can be regarded as a dynamic process as
well with the variat ion and interaction of its defining characterist ics.
The last defining feature of L3A is interdependence and qualit y change.
Interdependence in L3A means that learners first, second and third languages are
considered as a who le linguist ic system which operate at the same t ime meaning that all
the languages a person has acquired are regarded as a who le unit, rather than being 3
separate units. That is to say, an addit ional language changes the who le system by
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restructuring it with new links, skills, relat ionships and learning experiences, and a qualit y
change occurs. The system beco mes more co mplex with the L3. Thus, L3A is not a
straight forward pheno menon, but rather complicated.
1.3 From L2 initial state to L3/Ln initial state
The growing interest in the init ial state in generat ive L2A research is quite recent
(Schwartz & Eubank, 1996), and is often t ied to the invest igat ion o f the functional do main
of interlanguage grammar (i.e. the emergence o f funct ional categories, the operation of
features and feature strength). The term init ial state loosely refers to the grammar at the
outset of language acquisit io n. Under the generative paradigm, the L1 init ial state is
Universal Grammar (UG), which is the blueprint or set of principles/constraints that
guide the process of language acquisit io n universally (Cho msky, 1981, 1986, 1995).
In L2A, however, owing to the existence of an addit io nal variable, i.e. the L1 (endstate) grammar, the issue of the init ial state becomes more complicated. Generat ive L2A
researchers are divided as to whether UG st ill const itutes the L2 init ial state, or whether
the L1 grammar instead (and if so, to what extent) forms the L2 init ial state.
Generat ive theorists have proposed a number of hypotheses wit h respect to the
acquisit ion of non-primary languages. These generally make claims about two aspects of
the learners interlanguage grammars (ILGs); one, the nature of the init ial state of these
grammars and two, what, if any, t ype o f access the learner has to the properties of UG in
subsequent development.
The current study will discuss the role of the language background possessed by the
bilingual learners of English through a comparative study in light of the most recent
syntactically- based generat ive models of L2A, namely, Full Access Full Transfer (FAFT)
and the Failed Functional Feature Hypothesis (FFFH). We review these in the fo llowing
sect ions.
1.3.1 Failed Functional Features Hypothesis (FFFH)
The Failed Funct ional Features Hypothesis (FFFH) can be seen as a modern versio n
of no parameter resetting, or full transfer partial access (White, 2000). In more recent
termino logy, it can also be grouped under the so called impairment camp (White, 2003).
The Full Transfer/Partial Access (FT/PA) Hypothesis, proposes full transfer of the L1 endstate grammar for L2 learners, but further claims that they will fail to acquire specific
syntactic features of the L2 if these same features are not present in the L1 (Hawkins &
Franceschina, 2004).
Formerly known as the Failed Funct ional Features Hypothesis (Hawkins & Chan,
1997) and motivated by the results of a study by Smit h and Tsimpli (1995), this hypothesis
proposes a crit ical period for SLA in that if a subset of features (specifically
uninterpretable syntact ic features) is not activated during primary language acquisit io n and
thereby instant iated in the L1, L2 learners will never fully acquire them. In other words,
L2 learners are stuck with their L1 grammar (at least as far as formal features are
concerned), and they will not be able to acquire those formal features that have not been
exemplified in their L1.
With respect to L3 acquisit io n, the assumpt ion is that the FT/PA would predict full
transfer of the L1; that is, even if the L3 features are additionally present in the L2, the
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init ial state will be L1 (end-state) grammar and hence the features will remain unacquirable (Leung, 2002).
1.3.2. Full Transfer/Full Access (FT/FA)
Init ially proposed by Schwartz and Sprouse (1996), this again proposes an init ial
state grammar of the entire L1 end-state grammar, but differs fro m the above proposal in
that it assumes full access to UG properties, including those which are not instant iated in
the L1 grammar. The predict ion here is that the end-state L2 grammar may not necessarily
be target-like but it will be UG-constrained.
In relat ion to L3 acquisit io n, this proposal would predict full transfer o f eit her L1 or
L2 grammars, proposing that the init ial state L3 grammar is not necessarily constrained
solely by the L1 (Flynn, Fo ley, & Vinnit skaya, 2004).
The approach taken this research is a generative one within the framework of UG.
Much of the earlier research referred to within this study assumes a Principles and
Parameters UG framework, as proposed by Cho msky (1981; 1986) and such an approach
will be assumed in the current study. However, the assumpt ions made in this research may
be considered to be wit hin the minimalist spirit, as proposed in the Minima list Program by
Cho msky (1995). The current study examines the UG properties of ordering of nouns and
adject ives.
1.4 Bilingual Studies
1.4.1 Background
Alt hough the study of adult addit ive mult ilingualism or L3/Ln acquisit io n has been
the subject of a considerable amount of research fro m several cognit ive/psycho linguist ic
perspectives for well over two decades (Cenoz, 2001), prior to the turn of the millenniu m
there was a noticeable paucit y o f generat ive based L3/Ln research (Klein, 1995). While
this has changed in recent years (Leung 2005; 2006; 2007a; 2007b; Bardel & Falk, 2007;
Jaensch, 2008), such studies comprise an infinitesimal part of all generative studies
investigat ing adult non-primary acquisit io n.
Despite the fact that generative L3 acquisit io n as a subfield proper is still in its infancy,
much o f the work that has been done to this po int has significant implicat ions for future
research, especially those programs working to ultimately determine the role o f previous
linguist ic knowledge in the acquisit io n of non-primary languages in adult hood and how
this informs acquis it ion hypotheses and theories of the mental constitution of language and
human cognit ion. We investigate this question determining the source and role of
transfer when there is more than one linguist ic system available for transfer in the
present study. In light of this, this sect ion reviews the generat ive L3 studies which have
relevance to the current study.
1.5. Previous L3 research
As the current research will test UG properties in the L3 acquisit io n of English, the
findings fro m so me previous L3 or mult ilingual studies observing the acquisit io n of
specific properties will be discussed in this sect ion.
An important contribut ion to target language aquisit ion studies was made by Kleins
(1995) study of mo no- and mult ilingual participants. She looked at the acquisit io n o f
specific properties in both lexical learning and syntact ic learning. Grammat icalit y
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judgment and correction tasks were administered orally and in written form to a group of
17 L2 learners and a group of 15 mult ilingual high school learners of English. The
previous languages o f the mult ilinguals varied but all of the prior languages were similar
to English in the manner in which wh-quest ions are formed and furthermore none o f the
previous languages allowed preposit ion stranding. The participants had to make judgments
about a series of sentences fro m which the preposit ion had been o mitted. If deemed
ungrammat ical they had to correct the sentences but were not told how. Both groups of
learners made the same t ypes o f errors, which Klein interpreted as both taking the same
route leading to the acquisit io n of this parameter; however, the rate at which each group
progressed was significant ly different. The mult ilinguals significant ly outperformed the
mo no linguals both in correct sub-categorizations and in preposit ion stranding, from which
the author concluded that the attitude to learning, heightened metalinguist ic skills,
enhanced lexical knowledge and cognit ive skills of mult ilinguals are all advantageous in
triggering the setting of UG parameters.
Flynn, Fo ley and Vinnit skaya (2004) looked at the acquisit ion o f relat ive clauses in
L3 English by adults and children, with L1 Kazakh and L2 Russian of low, mid and high
proficiencies in English. The researchers compared the results obtained in this study wit h
those of an earlier study, which looked at the acquisit io n of L2 English by Japanese and
Spanish speakers. It was surmised that if the L1 holds a privileged role in the acquisit io n
of subsequent languages and only t ypo logical differences determine the pattern of
development, then the L3 learners should pattern with the Japanese o f the previous study
(since the head direction is the same). However, if the L1 does not hold a privileged ro le,
the predict ion for the L3 learners learning an L3 with a Co mplement izer Phrase (CP)
different to the L1, but consistent with the L2, is a pattern of acquisit io n matching that of
the Spanish L2 learners. Result s showed the nat ive Kazakh speakers contrasting strongly
with the Japanese speakers, patterning instead with the Spanish speakers. The authors
concluded that the L1 does not appear to hold a privileged role in the acquis it ion o f
subsequent languages, as the L3 learners demo nstrated that prior CP development was a
posit ive influence in the acquisit io n of the CP structure in English.
Moreover, Leung(2003) invest igates the acquisit io n o f the formal features associated
with the funct ional category o f T(tense), namely, Finiteness, agreement and [+-past] in
French as L3 vs. L2 by Cantonese- English bilinguals and Vietnamese mo no linguals.
Extending the predict ions of the two current L2A competing models namely, the Failed
Feature Hypothesis (FFH) and the Full Transfer Full Access (FTFA) to L3A. In general,
the results on the L3 experimental group have supported the presence of the L2 English
steady state in the L3 French init ial state. The data are inconsistent with FFH which
predicted the L3 French init ial state to be L1 Chinese. Actually, the findings supported
FTFA hypothesis instead, which has predicted the possibilit y o f L2 effect: verbal features,
though absent in L1 Chinese, were acquired in the L2 English acquis it ion process and
these successfully facilitate acquisit io n in the L3 French init ial state. To sum up, L2
groups performance was significant ly poorer than that of the L3 group especially wit h
respect to agreement features. It is argued that this is because the L3 group has acquired
the relevant properties in English (their L2) which aids the subsequent acquisit ion of
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French (the L3) right at the onset; the L2 subjects, on the other hand , do not benefit fro m
this advantage because they have not acquired English as an L2 previously. This borne out
the authors claim that L3 is different fro m L2A at least as far as the init ial state is
concerned.
Shooshtari (2009) invest igated the acquisit ion of two syntactic properties of head and
operator movements in English by L2 and L3 learners within UG framework. The
participants consisted o f 144 Persian mo no lingual and Arabic-Persian bilingual learners of
English who were assigned to three proficiency bands after taking the general proficiency
test (ECPE). The results showed no significant difference between the performance of
mo no linguals and bilinguals at each level o f proficiency. Nonetheless, significant
differences were found across the levels o f proficiency. The overall result s of the study led
to the conclusio n that bilingualis m presents no significant advantage in third language
acquisit ion. Of course, in so me cases the bilingual learners performed higher than the
mo no lingual ones but not significant ly. This means that the bilingual learners did not take
full advantage of their dist inct language background as their performance did not outweigh
that of the mono lingual learners.
As stated by Leung (2003), there are few comparat ive studies that have investigated
different combinat ions o f source/target languages wit h respect to some grammat ical
property to find out about the route of L3 development within a generat ive framework.
Accordingly, it seems worthwhile to pursue generative L3A further by looking at other
syntactic properties across different L3 populations.
1.6 Linguistic Assumptions: Comparison of English, Azerbaijani, Armenian,
Gilaki and Persian adjective order
1.6.1 English
In English, a noun phrase (abbreviated NP) is a phrase whose head is a noun or a
pronoun, optionally acco mpanied by a set of modifiers. Possible modifiers include:
determiners, adject ives, and modifiers which are placed before the noun.
Examples:
The red ball
Two beautiful ladies
1.6.2. Persian
In Persian language the head Noun is fo llowed by the modifiers, which usually consist
of an Adjectival Phrase (AP) construction. There can be several modifiers in a Noun
Phrase. The elements preceding the head noun are the determiner, the numeral
constructions and the quant ifiers. Alt hough adject ives always fo llow the noun, the
superlat ive adject ive can only appear before the head.
Examples:
Ketab-e kohneh
Old book
Ketabhayeh kohneh
Old books
1.6.3. Armenian
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The Armenian language is an Indo-European language spoken by t he Armenian

people. It is the official language of the Republic of Armenian. The language is widely
spoken by Armenian co mmunit y living in Julfa, the Armenian quarter of Isfahan, Iran.
In Armenian language, adject ive precedes noun:
Examples:
Hin girke ( )
Old book
Yerko hin girker
Two old books
Ice yerko hin girker
These two old books
1.6.4. Azerbaijani
Azerbaijani or Torki is a language belo nging to the Turkic language family, spoken in
southwestern Asia, primarily in Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. Azerbaijani is member
of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages and is closely related to Azerbaijani, Qashqa i
and Turkmen. Azerbaijani is a very adject ival language. At a low level the adject ive
always preceded its noun, as in English.
Example: Turkish: bijah Ghara sichan
English: a black mouse
Persian: yek mooshe siyah (a mouse black)
1.6.5. Gilaki
The Gilaki language is an ancient and living Caspian language, and a member of the
northwestern Iranian language branch, spoken in Iran's Mazanderan and Gilan Provinces.
There are some grammat ical differences between Gilaki and standard Persian, especially
in possessive and adject ives. Unlike Persian, most possessives and adjectives precede the
head noun, similar to English. In Gilaki, the modifier precedes the noun and the Ezafe
vowel is not used. The examples are as fo llows:
bi-xodkr (Gilaki) vs. xodkr-e bi (Standard Persian)
blue-pen pen-Ez blue
blue pen blue pen
More examples:
Kehneh ketab
An Old book
Kehneh ketabha
Old books
As can be seen in the above examples, English, Gilaki, Armenian, and Azerbaijani have
the same adjective structure, in all o f them adjectives precede nouns, on the contrary in
Persian, nouns come before the adject ives.
1.7 The Present Study
Based on the theoretical framework presented in the previous sect ions and the
parametric similarit ies and differences amo ng the 5 languages of Persian, Turkish, Gilaki,
Armenian and English as the target language, the present study addresses the fo llowing
questions:
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Do Persian mo no lingual and Azerbaijani-Persian bilinguals perform similarly

according to FAFT or different ly as predicted by FFFH in the formation o f
adject ive order due to the effect of their L1?
Do Persian mono lingual and Gilaki-Persian bilinguals perform similarly according
to FAFT or different ly as predicted by FFFH in the format ion o f adject ive order
due to the effect of their L1?
Do Persian mo nolingual and Armenian-Persian bilinguals perform similarly
according to FAFT or different ly as predicted by FFFH in the formation o f
adject ive order due to the effect of their L1?
To give logical answers to these quest ions, it is hypothesized:
FFFH hypothesizes that Azerbaijani, as L1, is a significant (or even more influent ial)
source language of transfer in t he acquis it ion of adject ive. As Turkish and English are
similar, posit ive transfer is expected to lead to the production of the correct English form.
FFFH hypothesizes that Gilaki, as L1, is a significant (or even more influent ial) source
language o f transfer in the acquis it ion o f adjective. As Gilaki and English are similar,
posit ive transfer is expected to lead to the production of the correct English form.
FFFH hypothesizes that Armenia, as L1, is a significant (or even more influent ial) source
language of transfer in the acquisit io n o f adjective. As Armenia and English are similar,
posit ive transfer is expected to lead to the production of the correct English form.
2. Data Collection and Analysis
2.1 Subjects and Tasks
The participants of this study were the Persian mo nolinguals and three groups of L3
learners of English namely Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian
bilinguals. Two guidance schools were chosen rando mly for each group. The Azerbaijani
Persian bilingual subjects were chosen fro m amo ng guidance schools in Ardebil (an
Azerbaijani speaking cit y in Iran), the Armenian Persian subjects were selected fro m the
Armenian guidance school in Julfa, Isfahan (an Armenian speaking quarter in Iran), and
the Gilaki-Persian bilingual subjects were chosen fro m amo ng guidance schools in Rasht
(a Gilaki speaking cit y in Iran). As regards, the second group consisted of mono lingua l
Persian speakers residing in Isfahan (a Persian-speaking cit y in Iran), with no Azerbaijani,
Armenian and Gilaki knowledge.
The subjects of all groups were low-intermediate students who were beginning
learners o f English. The subjects were chosen from amo ng female guidance schools to
control sex as a variable. The participants in all groups were ho mogeneous in terms of the
socio-educational context, type o f schools attended by each group, methodology used at
school, number of hours devoted to the teaching of English, and the age of the
participants. It needs to be added that the educational system in Iran is centralized;
therefore the textbooks and methodology for teaching English as a foreign language are
the same nat ionwide.
After select ing the schools, a general English test was administered among both
Persian mo no linguals and Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian
bilingual students in order to get a homogeneous group. The mean and the standard
deviat ion o f the subjects test scores were used as the criterion for their select ion. Students
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who had scored mean- -one standard deviat ion () were chosen. A total of 64
Persian mo no linguals, 44 Azerbaijani-Persian, 41 Gilaki-Persian, and 41 ArmenianPersian bilinguals were selected.
It should be noted that a brief oral interview was conducted to check on the language
background o f Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian bilinguals.
This interview helped the selection o f those bilingual learners who were raised in a
linguist ic co mmunit y where both parents were Azerbaijani for Azeri students, Armenian
for Armani students and Gilaki for Gilaki subjects and they used their mother tongue
among family and local linguist ic co mmunit y members.
At the end, to all groups, an English test was administered. Their performances in the task
and the mean score were compared. A T-test was conducted to test whether there was the
significant difference between the mean scores.
2.2. Procedure
Experimental tasks
A test which was consisted of 45quest ions was provided. The quest ions o f the test
that were used in the experiment are as follows: a sentence co mplet ion task with 10 items,
a true/false test with 10 items as well as a translation task with 15 items. Hence the
maximum total possible score was 35.
The quest ions just tested the students' knowledge of the order of adjectives, its
posit ion before the noun (like Azerbaijani, Armenian, Gilaki and English) or after the
noun (like Persian). My intent ion was to ascertain whether the role of Azerbaijani,
Armenian, and Gilaki as L1was prominent in learning English L3 in terms o f place o f
adject ives. Details o f each quest ion are as fo llows:
2.2.1 Sentence completion on use of adjectives
The first elicited written production task was a sentence complet ion task. The test items
were written in such a way that it would test students' knowledge o f adjective order. There
were a total of 10 test items. An example task is shown in (1) below:
He is a..
2.2.2 True/false test
The second type of test to be reported in this paper is a grammat icalit y preference task.
The task invo lves pairs o f sentences; subjects were to decide whether the structure is
correct or not. There were 10 items on this kind of test. An example is given below:
She has a bag white. True/false
2.2.3 Translation test
The last kind o f quest ions were translat ion ones. 15 sentences in students' L1 were given
to them and they were asked to translate them in English. Here are the examples:
( Azerbaijani sentence)
(Mina has a red car.)
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.( Persian sentence,)
.( Gilaki sentence)
(Armenian sentence) (Mina has a red car.)

The quest ionnaire is reproduced in the Appendix.
3. Results
This study aimed at comparing the performance of Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian
Persian and Gilaki- Persian bilingual groups of low-intermediate students with that of a
Persian mo nolingual group on a grammat ical test.
In order to see whether there was a difference between the groups a test which had 35
questions was given to the both groups. The test consisted of three parts, the first part,
sentence co mplet ion, the second part, true/false and the third part was translation test. The
results of the question test are as fo llows:
3.1. The comparison of Azerbaijani and Persian students at the first level of the exam
'sentence completion'
An independent samples t-test was performed to compare the mean scores of the two
groups.
Table : 3.1.1 Group Statistics
Std.
nat ionalit y
N
Mean
Deviat ion
Std. Error Mean
complete
Persian
64
3. 6563
2. 96658
. 37082
Azerbaijani
44
7. 1818
2. 92760
. 44135
Fro m the descript ive statist ics of the two groups, it can be seen that the mean o f the
''Azerbaijani" group (7.19) is higher than that of the "Persian" group (3.65) in the sentence
complet ion part. That is, Bilingual students performed better than the mono lingual group.
Table : 3.1.2 Independent Sample Test
Levene's
test
for
Equality of
Variances
F
Comp
lete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
099
Sig.
. 753
t-test for Equality of Means
df
Sig.(
2tailed
)
Mean
differen
ce
Std.
Error
Differen
ce
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
6. 101
106
. 000
-3.52557
. 57788
4.67128
2.37986
6. 116
93. 37
8
. 000
-3.52557
. 57646
4.67023
2.38090
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The independent samples t-test in Table 3.1.2 reveals that the crit ical value for t at
0.05 significance or 95% significant is t (106) = -6.101 and p<0.00. Since 6.101 is less
than 0.00, the result shows that the bilingual group has performed higher co mpared to the
mo no lingual group, in other words in the sentence complet ion part, the scores of the
bilingual group are more than the mono lingual group.
3.2. The comparison of Azerbaijani and Persian students at the second level of the
exam 'true/false'
Table: 3.2.1 Group Statistics
true
nationality
Persian
Azerbaijani
N
64
41
Std.
Deviation
1.71102
1.05171
Mean
8. 3438
9. 5122
Std. Error Mean

. 21388
. 16425
As the Table 3.2.1 shows, the mean o f the ''Azerbaijani" group (9.52) is higher than
that of the "Persian" group (8.34) in the true/false part. That is, Bilingual students
performed better than the mono lingual group.
Table: 3.2.2 Independent Sample Test
Levene's test
for Equality of
Variances
Complete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
17. 538
. 000
3. 920
103
. 000
-1.16845
. 29806
1.75958
. 57731
4. 333
102.869
. 000
-1.16845
. 26967
1.70328
. 63361
As the Table 3.2.2 shows the p value o f the test is .000 which is less than the level o f
significance 0.05. It indicates that in the true/false part, the scores of the bilingual group is
above than the mo no lingual group, in other words the students who were familiar with
Azerbaijani language performed better.
3.3. The comparison of Azerbaijani and Persian students at the third level of the
exam 'translation'
translat ion
nationality
Persian
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
64
9. 8594
5.67609
. 70951
Azerbaijani
44
12.7045
4.19068
. 63177
From the Table 3.3.1, it can be seen that the mean o f the ''Azerbaijani" group (12.70)
is higher than that of the "Persian" group (9.8594) in the translat ion part. That is, Bilingua l
students performed better than the mono lingual group.
Table: 3.3.2
Levene's test
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for Equality of
Variances
translation
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
18. 281
. 000
2. 834
106
. 005
-2.84517
1.00380
4.83530
. 85504
2. 995
105.415
. 003
-2.84517
. 95002
4.72880
. 96154
The results indicate that there was a significant difference in performance between
bilingual and mo nolingual groups, t (106) = -2.834, p = .005. Because the p-value is less
than the test score, so in the translat ion part, the scores of the bilingual group is more than
the mono lingual group, that is, the average performance score of bilinguals (M = 12.70,
SD = 4.19 was significant ly different from that of mono lingual group (M = 9.86, SD =
5. 68) .
3.4. The comparison of Azerbaijani and Persian students at the whole test
Test
nationality
Persian
Azerbaijani
N
64
44
Mean
21.8594
27.6591
Std. Deviation
8.56139
8.92590
Std. Error Mean

1.07017
1.34563

Levene's test
for Equality t-test for Equality of Means
of Variances
translation
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
.302
. 584
3. 400
106
. 001
-5.79972
1.70598
9.18194
2.41749
3. 373
90. 017
. 001
-5.79972
1.71930
9.21540
2.38403
A t-test was used to compare the differences in the performance o f bilingual and
mo no lingual groups on the English adject ive order test. On average, Azerbaijani students
(M = 27.65, SD = 8.92) got better results than Persian students (M = 21.85, SD = 8.57).
This difference was statistically significant, t(106) = -3.400, p < .001), indicat ing that the
bilingual students outperformed mono lingual students.
As the results show, L1 Azerbaijani speakers applied the Azerbaijani rule to Englis h
sentences, leading to the production of the correct English form. The analysis revealed that
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Azerbaijani, the participants L1, is by far the main source of influence on the English
(L3) for the experimental group. So, this finding seems to be in accordance wit h the
predict ions o f (FFFH) hypothesis where L1 transfer being hypothesized. L3 learners
performed significant ly higher than L2 learners as their interlanguage grammar seemed to
reflect more of the parameter values of their L1, Azerbaijani.
3.5. The comparison of Armenian and Persian students at the first level of the exam
groups.
complete
nationality
Persian
Armenian
N
64
41
Mean
3. 6563
8. 4390
Std. Deviation
2.96658
2.31353
Std. Error
Mean
. 37082
. 36131
''Armenian" group (8.44) is higher than that of the "Persian" group (3.65) in the sentence
Levene's test
for Equality
of Variances
Complete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
3. 629
. 000
8. 753
103
. 000
-4.78277
. 54642
5.86647
3.69908
9. 238
98. 945 . 000
-4.78277
. 51774
5.81009
3.75546
3.6. The comparison of Armenian and Persian students at the second level of the
exam 'true/false'
true
nationality
Persian
Armenian
N
64
41
Mean
8. 3438
9. 5122
Std. Deviation
1.71102
1.05171
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. 21388
. 16425
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As the Table 3.6.1 shows, the mean of the ''Armenian" group (9.52) is higher than that
of the "Persian" group (8.34) in the true/false part. That is, Bilingual students performed
better than the mono lingual group.
Levene's test
for Equality of
Variances
Complete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
17. 538
. 000
3. 920
103
. 000
-1.16845
. 29806
1.75958
. 57731
4. 333
102.869
. 000
-1.16845
. 26967
1.70328
. 63361
Armenian language performed better.
3.7. The comparison of Armenian and Persian students at the third level of the exam
'translation'
translation
nationality
Persian
Armenian
N
64
41
Mean
9. 8594
13.8780
Std. Deviation
5.67609
2.28249
Std. Error
Mean
. 70951
. 35646
From the Table 3.7.1, it can be seen that the mean o f the ''Armenian" group (13.88) is
higher than that of the "Persian" group (9.8594) in the translat ion part. That is, Bilingua l
Table: 3.7.2
Levene's test
for Equality
of Variances
translation
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95%
Confidence
Interval
of
th e
difference
Lower
Upper
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
71. 735
. 000
4. 310
103
. 000
-4.01867
. 93247
5.86801
. 2. 16933
5. 061
89. 806 . 000
-4.01867
. 79402
5.59619
2. 44116
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bilingual and mo no lingual groups, t (103) = -4.75, p = .000. Because the p-value is less
5. 68) .
3.8. The comparison of Armenian and Persian students at the whole test
Table:3.8.1 Group Statistics
nationality
Persian
Armenian
Test
N
64
41
Mean
21.8594
31.0244
Std. Deviation
8.56139
4.12000
Std. Error
Mean
1.07017
. 64344

Levene's test
for Equality t-test for Equality of Means
of Variances
translation
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
27. 113
. 000
6. 834
103
. 000
-9.98989
1.45877
12.8630
.7.07677
7. 716
100.659
. 000
-9.98989
1.29211
12.5331
7.40659
mo no lingual groups on the English adject ive order test. On average, Armenian students
(M = 31.03, SD = 4.12) got better results than Persian students (M = 21.85, SD = 8.57).
This difference was statist ically significant, t(103) = -6.389, p < .05), indicat ing that the
As the results show, L1 Armenian speakers applied the Armenian rule to Englis h
sentences, leading to the production of the correct English form. The analysis revealed that
Armenian, the participants L1, is by far the main source of influence on the English (L3)
for the experimental group. So, this finding seems to be in accordance with the predict ions
of (FFFH) hypothesis where L1 transfer being hypothesized. L3 learners performed
significant ly higher than L2 learners as their int erlanguage grammar seemed to reflect
more of the parameter values of their L1, Armenian.
3.9. The comparison of Gilaki and Persian students at the first level of the exam
groups.
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Table:: 3.9.1 Group Statistics

nationality
Persian
Gilaki
Complete the sentences
N
64
41
Mean
3. 6563
7. 8537
Std. Deviation
2.96658
2.49561
Std. Error
Mean
. 37082
. 38975
''Gilaki" group (7.85) is higher than that of the "Persian" group (3.65) in the sentence
Table : 3.9.2 Independent Sample Test
Levene's test
for Equality
of Variances
Complete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
1. 577
. 212
7. 512
103
. 000
-4.19741
. 55873
5.30552
3.08930
7. 802
95. 506 . 000
-4.19741
. 53797
5.26534
3.12947
3.10. The comparison of Gilaki and Persian students at the second level of the exam
'true/false'
t r ue
nationality
Persian
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
64
8. 3438
1.71102
. 21388
Gilaki
41
9. 0000
1.53297
. 23941
As the Table 3.10.1 shows, the mean of the ''Gilaki" group (9) is higher than that of the
"Persian" group (8.34) in the true/false part. That is, Bilingual students performed better
than the mono lingual group.
Levene's test
for Equality of
Variances
F
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
Mean
Std. Error
difference Difference
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95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
145

Complete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
3. 142
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1. 995
103
. 049
-.65825
. 32890
1.30854
. 00398
2. 044
92. 084
. 044
-.65625
. 32103
1.29384
. 01866
Gilaki language performed better.
3.11. The comparison of Gilaki and Persian students at the third level of the exam
'translation'
translation
nationality
Persian
Gilaki
N
64
41
Mean
9. 8594
14.1707
Std. Deviation
5.67609
1.44745
Std. Error
Mean
. 70951
. 22605
Fro m the Table 3.11.1, it can be seen that the mean o f the ''Gilaki" group (14.1705) is
higher than that of the "Persian" group (9.8594) in the translat ion part. That is, Bilingua l
Table 3.11.2 Independent Sample Test
Levene's test
for Equality of
Variances
Complete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances
not
assumed
Mean
difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
difference
Lower
Upper
Sig.
df
Sig.(2tailed)
106.360
. 000
4. 758
103
. 000
-4.31138
. 90615
6.10849
.2.51423
5. 790
75. 219
. 000
-4.31138
. 74465
5.79471
2.82800
bilingual and mo no lingual groups, t (103) = -4.75, p = .000. Because the p-value is less
5. 68) .
3.12. The comparison of Gilaki and Persian students at the whole test
Test
nationality
Persian
N
64
Mean
21.8594
Std. Deviation
8.56139
Std. Error
Mean
1.07017
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Gilaki
41
31.0244
4.12000
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. 64344
Table 3.12.2 Independent Sample Test
Com
plete
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances not
assumed
Levene's test for

Equality
of
Varia nces
Sig.
df
Sig.(2 tailed)
Mea n
differ ence
Std.
Err or
Differ ence
95% Confidence Inter val of the

differ ence
Lower
Upper
28.838
.000
-6.389
103
.000
-9.16502
1.43449
-12.0099
-6.32004
-7.340
98.84
8
.000
-9.16502
1.24871
-11.6434
-6.68662
mo no lingual groups on the English adject ive order test. On average, Gilaki students (M =
31.03, SD = 4.12) got better results than Persian students (M = 21.85, SD = 8.57). This
difference was statist ically significant, t(103) = -6.389, p < .05), indicat ing that the
As the results show, L1 Gilaki speakers applied the Gilaki rule to English sentences,
leading to the production o f the correct English form. The analysis revealed that Gilaki,
the participants L1, is by far the main source of influence on the English (L3) for the
experimental group. So, this finding seems to be in accordance wit h the predict ions o f
(FFFH) hypothesis where L1 transfer being hypothesized. L3 learners performed
significant ly higher than L2 learners as their int erlanguage grammar seemed to reflect
more of the parameter values of their L1, Gilaki.
4. Discussion
Ellis (1994) ment ions that in so me cases, the learners L1 can facilitate L2 acquisit io n.
This t ype o f effect is known as posit ive transfer. Selinker (1972) also reconceptualized
transfer within a cognit ive framework. He claims that learners do not construct rules in a
vacuum; rather they work with whatever information is at their disposal. This includes
knowledge of their L1. The L1 can be viewed as a kind o f input fro m the inside.
Learners draw on their L1 in forming interlanguage hypothesis. According to this view,
transfer is not interference, but a cognitive process.
One relevant factor which should be ment ioned is Kellermans (1983)
psychotypology, which considers language transfer as a conscious process based on the
learners perception o f language typo logy between the source language and the target
language and his/her linguist ic awareness of particular features. That is, if the two
languages are perceived as similar, transfer will more likely occur, whereas a perceived
dissimilarit y will tend to lead to avoidance.
In our case of acquisit io n of the adject ive order, the results showed a significant
difference between the bilingual groups (Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian Persian and
Gilaki- Persian bilinguals learning English) and the mono lingual group (Persian L1
speakers learning English). As the background questionnaire result s showed, over 90% of
the students transferred from their L1 Azerbaijani, Armenian and Gilaki due to the
similarit y in these languages and English.
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To be more concrete, in the first place, the overall results of tasks revealed that at each
level o f the test, the bilingual and mo no lingual learners performed significant ly different
fro m each other. That is to say, at the first level of the test "sentence co mplet ion" the L3
and L2 learners performed differently fro m each other. This finding supports the
predict ion of FFFH model which claims that L2 learners have access only to those
funct ional features instant iated in their L1. The extension of this claim to L3/Ln situat ion
implies that the L1 steady state partially affects the L3/Ln interlanguage patterns in case
the L1 and subsequent languages share the same parameters. It shows that L1 had an
exclusive role in the acquis it ion o f language(s) other than the first, the Azerbaijani
Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian bilinguals outperformed their mo no lingua l
counterparts as the formers enjo y a first language background which is part ly similar to
English in the formation of adject ive order.
The same results also showed that at the second and third levels, the bilingual and
mo no lingual learners performed different ly. These findings highlight that the
interlanguage patterns o f the L3 learners beyo nd the init ial state are significantly different
fro m the L2 learners grammar with respect to the adject ive order.
As the results o f the study show the mono lingual groups performance (Persian nat ive
speakers learning English as L2) was significant ly poorer than that of the L3 group
(Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian bilinguals, learning Englis h
as L3). We argue that this is because the L3 groups have acquired the relevant properties
in their L1s which aid the subsequent acquisit ion of English (the L3) right at the outset;
the L2 subjects, on the other hand, do not have this advantage.
What we have found was that the results obtained using the written translation tests
with mo no lingual and bilingual learners o f Englis h are co mpat ible wit h FFFH theory but
failed to support the FAFT stand point. The main justificat ion for this claim turns to be the
overall finding that Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian
bilinguals outperformed significant ly their mo no lingual counterparts.
5. Conclusion
In this paper it is argued that bilingualism can have certain advantages for the individual.
Bilingual students would achieve better results in their foreign language studies compared
to mono lingual students.
Judging by the overall results, the bilingual group did perform better in the exercises than
the monolingual group. With the test the bilinguals scores were higher in all parts of the
test, and thus also in the total. As we see, the bilingual group outperformed better than the
mo no lingual group. In other words, those who were familiar wit h the second language
performed better.
It can be concluded that posit ive transfer can simplify the process o f acquisit io n of
English for Azerbaijani Persian, Armenian Persian and Gilaki- Persian speakers.
Regardless o f the prevalence of similarit ies or differences between the languages, a
persons knowledge of his nat ive language directly impacts his acquisit io n o f a second
language. Knowledge o f the similarit ies and differences between Azerbaijani, Armenian,
Gilaki and English is crucial in regards to establishing connections between the languages
and in facilitat ing posit ive transfer from Azerbaijani, Armenian, and Gilaki to English.
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Wit h regard to the role o f language background in L3A, the overall results o f the study led
to the conclusio n that bilingualism presents a significant advantage in third language
acquisit ion. In other words the bilingual learners performed higher than the mo no lingual
ones significant ly. This means that the bilingual learners took full advantage of their
dist inct language background as their performances outweighed that of the mono lingual
learners. The L3 learners benefited fro m their unique language experience at init ial state in
two ways: the privilege o f having knowledge of two separate grammar systems and the
availabilit y o f the parametric similarit y between the target language, English, and their
first language.
The L3 learners outperformed their mo no lingual counterparts due to the very fact that
they already had access to the knowledge of more than one language system which
possibly results in mult i co mpetence defined by Cook as the co mpound state of a mind
with two grammars. (1992: 12). Cooks notio n of mult i co mpetence refers to
mult ilingual linguist ic co mpetence characterized by the increased metalinguist ic
awareness, greater creativit y and cognit ive flexibilit y and more diversified mental
abilit ies. The findings identified a facilitat ive role for this unique knowledge in the
enhancement of the L3 learners performance and acquisit ion processes with regard to the
above-ment ioned features.
The resent research also proves the claim that transfer is more likely fro m the first
language than those learned later on (Ringbo m, 2001). Furthermore, it confirms the
predict ion o f FFFH which argues for the resetting of only those parameters instant iated in
the L2/Ln learners L1. To sum up, the findings of the study wit h respect to language
transfer in L3A give rise to the conclusio n that the source of cross-linguist ic influence in
L3A is probably more o f the learners L1. The other logical conclusio n is that the
bilinguals unique language experience plays a facilitat ive role in the enhancement of the
L3 interlanguage grammar. Taken together, these results suggest that experience in any
prior language can be drawn upon in subsequent acquisit ion
6. Pedagogical Implications
Similarit ies, or perceived similarit ies, between languages can exist to varying degrees
in languages, in grammat ical structures of sentences, in word order, tense usage, verb
inflect ions, in their pragmatics and st yle, and in the way they deal wit h quest ions and
negat ives, to name just a few, as well as in the spelling and morpho logy o f individual
words. It is important to be aware of these similarities when we are learning a language as
it is to learn the differences and in so me cases these similarit ies can be capitalized upon to
good effect. An important implicat ion that is nonetheless borne out in our findings wit h
respect to foreign (mult iple) language learning is that, the more languages one has
acquired, the more benefic ial it would be for the acquisit io n o f addit ional no n-nat ive
languages, so far as the rate of (successful) acquisition is concerned.
7. Further Study
This study is a limited survey conducted with a small number of samples. A larger
sample in a lo ngitudinal study could provide more informat ion on the influence o f L1 and
L2 (Persian) on the acquis it ion o f English at different developmental stages. Further
investigat ion on subjects with different L1s and ident ical L2 (Persian) learning English as
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L3 could give us a better understanding o f the mult ilingual mind, which will benefit
mult ilingual educat ion.
About the Author:
Farzaneh Khodabandeh is affiliated with Mobarakeh Payame Noor Universit y in Iran.
Her major areas of research interest include: ELT, TEFL and Linguist ics.
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Appendix
A: Complete the following sentences.
She is an ..
He is an
He is a
It is a
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He is a..
He is a ..
It is a .
He is a.
It is a .
It is a..
B: Which one of the following sentences is in the correct order?
correct
Incorrect
This is a red hat.
This is table square.
She is a woman beaut iful.
She has a chair blue.
This is a small glass.
He has a dirt y tie.
He is a man thin.
He has a fat sister.
His father is an old man.
Sarah has eyes blue.
C: Translate the following sentences into English. (For Azeri students)
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........................................................................................................................................
.
...................................................................................................................................
.
...................................................................................................................................
.
........................................................................................................................................
.
..........................................................................................................................................
.
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.
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.
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.
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.
..........................................................................................................................................
.
.......................................................................................................................................
.
....................................................................................................................................
.
.......................................................................................................................................
.
......................................................................................................................................
.
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Translate the following Gilaki sentences into English (For Gilaki students).
.
......................................................................................................................................................
...............
.
......................................................................................................................................................
.................
.
......................................................................................................................................................
...............
.
154
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......................................................................................................................................................
.................
.
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.
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.
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.
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Translate the following sentences into English (for Armenian students).
:
.
:
. .
:
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:
.
:
. .
:
.
:
. .
:
. .
:
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:
. .
:
. .
:
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:
:
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:
.
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Table of Contents
Sr.
No
Paper Title / Author(s) / Country
Pages
1
2
Editorial
A Crit ical Study of Iranian EFL Environment
-Arezoo Molavi Vardanjani, Iran
Adaptable Analyt ical Vistas Illumine a Touchstone: Langston Hughes
as Minor Author/Poet
-Mzenga A. Wanyama, USA
An Explorat ion of English Language Teaching Pedagogy in
Secondary Yemeni Educat ion: A Case Study
-Yehia Ahmed Y. Al-Sohbani, Yemen
Applied ELT: A Paradigm Just ifying Co mplex Adaptive System of
Language Teaching?
-Masoud Mahmoodzadeh, Iran
Brit ishness and Co mmunit y Cohesio n in Muslim News Online
-Hassen ZRIBA, Tunisia
Building an EFL Curriculum for Young Learners: A Brazilian
experience
-Telma Gimenez & Juliana Reichert Assuno Tonelli, Brazil
Communicat ion Strategies between Chinese Employers and their
Basotho Emplo yees
-Ko lobe Mabo leba, Lesotho
Cross-cultural Co mparison of Non-native Speakers' Refusal Strategies
in English
-Mehmet ASMALI, Turkey
Cross-Linguist ic Influence in Third Language Acquisit io n:
Acquis it ion of syntactic structures by students Bilingual in PersianAzerbaijani, Persian-Armenia, and Persian-Gilaki
-Farzaneh Khodabandeh, Iran
Invest igat ing the Difficult ies and Problems Faced by the English
Language Students of Al Quds Open Universit y in Legal Translation
Process
-Ahmed Maher Mahmoud Al-Nakhalah, Palestine
Teaching English Accept ing Mult iple Intelligence Types through Arts
Ivana CIMERMANOV, Slovakia
The Poet as Translator: The Poetic Vision of John Betjeman
-Wisam Khalid Abdul Jabbar, Canada
The Socio linguist ic Status of Islamic English: A Register Approach
-Zaidan Ali Jassem, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Tragic Richness in the Major Novels of Tho mas Hardy
-V. Sudhakar Naidu, Libya
03
04- 19
6
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
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20- 39
40- 55
56- 71
72- 87
88- 97
98- 105
106- 128
129- 156
157- 175
176- 183
184- 194
195- 205
206- 216

Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition-Acquisition of Syntactic Structures by Students Bilingual in Persian

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Cross-Linguistic Influence in Third Language Acquisition-Acquisition of Syntactic Structures by Students Bilingual in Persian

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International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies

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International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies