Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Table of Contents
FOREWORD .................................................................................................................. 6
1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 7
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
2.
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
4.
4.1.
Scope ............................................................................................................ 15
4.2.
Exclusions ...................................................................................................... 16
4.3.
4.4.
5.
5.1.
Design ........................................................................................................... 19
5.2.
Erection ......................................................................................................... 20
5.3.
Commissioning ............................................................................................... 21
5.4.
5.5.
Decommissioning ............................................................................................ 23
6.
6.1.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.
7.
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
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7.5.
7.6.
7.7.
Protective equipment....................................................................................... 35
7.8.
7.9.
7.10.
Selectivity ................................................................................................... 37
7.11.
7.12.
7.13.
7.14.
7.15.
7.17.
8.
9.
9.1.
General ......................................................................................................... 44
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
9.7.
10.
10.1.
10.2.
Erection ...................................................................................................... 49
10.3.
10.4.
Installation conditions................................................................................... 50
10.5.
11.
11.1.
11.2.
Periodic verifications..................................................................................... 54
11.3.
11.4.
12.
Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 57
13.
Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 58
13.1.
Literature .................................................................................................... 58
13.2.
Standards ................................................................................................... 58
Foreword ................................................................................................................. 59
1. Power supply characteristics .................................................................................. 59
2. Power supply systems ........................................................................................... 60
2.1. TN-S system................................................................................................... 62
2.2. TN-C system .................................................................................................. 62
2.3. TN-C-S system ............................................................................................... 62
2.4. TT system ...................................................................................................... 62
2.5. IT system ....................................................................................................... 62
2.6. Power systems around the world ....................................................................... 62
3. Standards and codes ............................................................................................. 64
3.1 International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) ................................................. 66
3.2 NFPA-70: USA and Canada ................................................................................ 68
4. IEC 60364 and NFPA-70 ........................................................................................ 69
4.1 Comparative analysis ........................................................................................ 69
4.2 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 70
5. Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 71
Annex 2: Fundamental Principles for Electrical Safety ...................................................... 72
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 72
2. Types of contact ................................................................................................... 73
3. Step potential ...................................................................................................... 73
4. Effects of electric current ....................................................................................... 74
5. Safety curve ........................................................................................................ 77
6. Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 78
Annex 3: Priority of Loads and Power Supply Sources ...................................................... 80
1. Load priority ........................................................................................................ 80
2. Considerations on autonomy .................................................................................. 81
3. Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 82
Annex 4: Diesel Generators Power Rating .................................................................... 84
1. Definitions and ratings .......................................................................................... 84
2. Environmental conditions: effect on power rating...................................................... 84
3. Derating Generators.............................................................................................. 85
4. Load Considerations and conclusions ....................................................................... 85
5. References ........................................................................................................... 86
Annex 5: Most Common Protective Devices .................................................................... 87
1. Devices for protection from overcurrents ................................................................. 87
2. Devices for protection from earth leakage ................................................................ 87
3. Devices for protection from voltage faults ................................................................ 88
Annex 6: Selection of Designers and Installers ................................................................ 89
Foreword ................................................................................................................. 89
1. Qualification requirements for electrical designers ..................................................... 89
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FOREWORD
As of 2015, the World Food Programme manages and operates approximately 1,100 facilities
in 100 countries worldwide, across all 5 continents. Electric power is vital to support our
humanitarian operations, and to ensure the safety, productivity and wellbeing of our staff,
providing the spark of life to our machinery, camps, warehouses, offices, guesthouses, etc.
Since there is not a unique international standard for power supply, WFP has to deal with a
variety of local standards and norms. Moreover, in emergencies as well as in remote areas of
developing countries, our facilities often have to be completely independent from local grids,
relying on on-site power generation.
The staff that are in charge of managing and operating equipment and facilities do not
necessarily have a specialist knowledge of electrical standards and norms. Therefore, this
study is intended to provide a general overview on the status of electrical standards worldwide
and on the technical aspects of the matter, guiding the reader toward a basic understanding of
safety and functionality issues in the different phases of the service life of electrical
installations, from the early design stage until when the installation is decommissioned.
As the title suggests this study aims to provide a regulatory framework, and therefore does
not intend to provide technical knowledge nor to replace existing standards and technical
norms. As such, it is addressed to all those staff that, as part of their duties in WFP, are
involved in management, design, operation and maintenance of electrical installations, directly
or by supervising technicians.
In this sense, it must be noted that design, construction and maintenance of electrical
installations require the appropriate technical knowledge of standards and norms, in order to
ensure: safety of the operators and users, and of property; reliability of the installation; and
efficiency.
This study focuses on the basic requirements for safety, reliability and efficiency, considering
that although these characteristics need to be ensured by the technicians, the responsibility
also lies with project managers for design, erection, operation and maintenance, as they are in
charge of identifying and hiring the appropriate technical staff.
And finally, a certain amount of responsibility also lies with the users, who should make
responsible and informed use of the facilities, reporting anomalies and avoiding improper
manoeuvres in order to protect their safety as much as that of their colleagues.
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1.
Introduction
The standardization of electrical systems and equipment throughout the world is an ongoing
process, still far from completion. Countries developed different electrical infrastructures for
power generation and distribution and, as a consequence, have adopted different regulations
for wiring users equipment. Regulations have been formalised in codes which may be simply
recommended, or enforced by law. The result is that a wide variety of standards and norms
coexist in the world today, both on the technical and regulatory side.
The World Food Programme aims to ensure a consistent level of safety, reliability and
efficiency of electrical systems throughout all its premises worldwide, notwithstanding the
variety of different contexts in which those premises are located.
The Electrical Standards Project was therefore initiated in order to identify the most
appropriate standards that WFP electrical installations should comply with, in order to achieve
the performance objectives described above.
Firstly, it is important to define the terms standard and code as they will be used in this
document:
A technical standard is an established norm or requirement in regard to technical systems. It
is usually a formal document that establishes uniform engineering or technical criteria,
methods, processes and practices. In contrast, a custom, convention, company product,
corporate standard, etc. that becomes generally accepted and dominant is often called a de
facto standard.
An electrical code is a set of regulations for electrical wiring. The intention of an electrical code
is to provide standards to ensure electrical wiring systems that are safe and unlikely to
produce either electric shock or fires.
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groups, with some local variations. Regulatory frameworks can be largely classified in the
same two groups. Most of the countries following the American standard adopt codes deriving
from the US National Electric Code (NEC, published by the National Fire Protection Association
under the name of NFPA-70); countries following the European standard usually have national
codes or adopt a code from a European country (mostly U.K. or France). It must be noted that
European countries initiated in the early 1900 a process of international harmonization of
standards and norms, establishing an International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), based
in Geneva. Today, IEC documents are the most widely recognized international standards.
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2.
Design, erection, operation and maintenance of electrical installations in WFP should pursue
the following objectives, hereby listed by priority level:
1. SAFETY: protection of persons, livestock and property in accordance with requirements
and principles of IEC 60364-1;
2. RELIABILITY: functionality, dependability and effectiveness of the electrical
installation for the intended use, in accordance with basic requirements and principles
of IEC 60364-1;
3. EFFICIENCY: the electrical installation should achieve the objectives of safety and
reliability optimizing energy consumption, containing overall footprint and expenses,
taking into account the whole lifecycle of the installation from design to
decommissioning.
It must be noted that the main focus of IEC 60364-1 is on design, erection and verification of
electrical installations, with some considerations on maintainability. As a result, it analyses
safety, reliability, and efficient design of electrical installations.
In addition, efficiency should be a day-by-day consideration for the operation and
maintenance of the electrical installations and of all the equipment/machines that are part of
the installations, both as power sources or loads. Staff involved in management of electrical
installations should refer to guidance on implementing energy efficiency in offices available
from WFP Go including details of the WFP Energy Efficiency Programme. Contact
wfp.energyefficiency@wfp.org for further details. Guidance for facility managers is available
through the UN website Greening the Blue including:
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3.
Practice code
(wiring regulation)
The guidelines presented in this document and in the technical standard IEC 60364-1 will
ensure consistency in terms of general objectives and functional requirements.
At the technical level, the objectives and requirements should be met through the application
of the most appropriate electrical code (or wiring regulation), chosen among those which are
compliant with the guidelines (IEC 60364-1).
The possibility of using a local code, or another code that matches local requirements, will
ensure the necessary flexibility.
The factors that should be taken into account for selecting the appropriate code for an
electrical installation in a determined context are:
1. Local regulations
In some countries, the use of a specific code and relevant technical standards for
materials and equipment is enforced by legislation. In these countries, it is
recommended to adopt and follow the national code, upgrading the installation with
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those additional provisions that may be required to ensure the same level of safety as
per IEC standards.
2. Electrical infrastructure
The code must be compatible with the characteristics of local existing infrastructure for
power distribution and supply (e.g. voltage and frequency of power supply)1. Some
codes provide for multiple standards, however compatibility must be checked prior to
code selection.
3. Market conditions
Electrical codes usually refer to specific technical standards as a framework to define
performance requirements for equipment and components. It is important to assess the
availability on the market of products that are compatible with the code that is being
used, and with the coordinated technical standards. This condition will impact the
availability of products throughout the whole lifecycle of the installation (e.g. if an
installation is equipped with a certain type of socket and compatible plugs are not
easily available in the country).
4. Past experience
Designer consultants and contractors for erection and maintenance should be familiar
with the code and coordinated standards. Electrical codes and standards are usually
made of complex and long documents, and require the appropriate time to be learned
and understood.
If a certain electrical code and relevant technical standards are not well known in a
country, it might be difficult to identify contractors that are able to design, erect,
maintain or operate the systems. In such instances, a local code might be preferable.
Of course, this consideration cannot be prioritized over the achievement of the
necessary performance in terms of safety, reliability and efficiency.
5. Language
A foreign language might constitute a problem for local consultants/contractors for
design, construction, maintenance and/or operation. In such instances, a code that is
written in a more familiar language should be preferred.
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In contexts where a National/local code exists, although its use is not mandatory:
If the code complies with IEC 60364-1 fundamental principles and basic requirements,
it can be used as the reference code for WFP electrical installations; or,
If the code is not compliant with IEC standards it is recommended to refer to one of the
codes listed in 3.3. Or, as an alternative, to the IEC International Standard series
60364. The selection of the code should take into account the factors discussed in
paragraph 3.1 (factors 2 5).
If the code complies with IEC 60364 fundamental principles and basic requirements, it
can be used as the reference code for WFP electrical installations;
If the code is not compliant with IEC standards, it is recommended to use additional
precautions in order to upgrade the installations to the same level of safety that is
required by these guidelines, by adopting IEC 60364 series technical prescriptions.
N.B: once an electrical installation has been designed and erected in accordance with a specific
code, all the following works concerning electrical systems should be designed and executed in
accordance with the same code in order to ensure consistency. Information about the code to
which an installation is built should be properly archived for future reference, among the
mandatory documentation.
Locally purchased equipment could not be used, and all equipment should be imported
from countries with compatible standards;
Local designers and installers might not be qualified to operate under the applied codes
and standards;
All operators and guests should be informed about the standards, so to prevent
accidental connection of incompatible equipment.
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Country
Reference Code
Language
Australia/New Zealand
AS/NZS 3000.2007
English
France
NFC 15-100:2002
French
Spain
REBT-2002
Spanish
UK
BS 7671:2008
English
USA
NFPA-70(NEC2011)
English/Spanish
The list above is not exhaustive, as there are several other codes which, being compliant with
IEC standards, can be used to design, erect, operate and maintain WFP electrical installations.
Such is the case for most European codes. For other countries, it is advisable to inquire
directly with the code-publisher authority. Furthermore, IEC website (www.iec.ch) can be
consulted to gather information regarding member countries and regulations.
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4.
IEC International Standard 60364-1 fifth edition 2005-11 Low Voltage Electrical Installations
defines the fundamental principles and provides general requirements, characteristics and
definitions for the design, erection, and verification of electrical installations. These principles,
characteristics and definitions are intended to provide for the safety of persons, livestock and
property against dangers and damage, and for the proper functioning of the electrical
installations.
The principles and requirements of part 1 are subsequently addressed in full technical detail in
the other documents of the IEC 60364 series. The series is composed of different sections,
currently numbered from 1 to 7, each published in a separate booklet. A summary of the
contents of 60364 series is provided in Annex 7.
4.1. Scope
IEC 60364 series provisions apply to the design, erection and verification of electrical
installations, such as:
Marinas;
j)
Photovoltaic systems;
Under IEC, the definition of premises includes the land, the building/s and all the facilities
that belong to the premises.
Therefore, IEC 60364 provisions apply to the full range of WFP facilities, both permanent and
temporary, including camps for emergency operations.
The IEC 60364 series is specifically dedicated to the installations that are commercially known
as Low Voltage (LV), including voltages up to 1,000 V A.C. (alternating current) or 1,500 V
D.C. (direct current). In A.C., the standard takes into account 50 Hz, 60 Hz and 400 Hz
which covers the full range of commercial power distribution.
The use of other frequencies for special purposes is not excluded by the Standard. However,
the use of different frequencies is not allowed under these guidelines unless for specific
requirements and upon design by a qualified electrical engineer.
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In particular environments, the requirements and rules provided by IEC 60364 series may not
be sufficient to ensure safety and reliability, as there may be need for additional requirements
or recommendations of other Standards, published from either IEC or other technical
authorities. For example, for installations that may be exposed to an explosive gas
atmosphere, like in the case of gas boilers rooms, IEC provides additional requirements in a
dedicated standard series, and fire protection regulations should be consulted as well.
High Voltage installations, i.e. with voltage above 1,000 V A.C. or 1,500 V D.C. are subject to
the standard IEC 61936 (and by NFPA 70 in countries adopting American standards). In WFP,
HV installations can only be found in power centres serving large premises, where power
supply is done in HV and transformers are needed to reduce voltage to LV for normal use.
These installations are extremely sensitive and dangerous, and therefore they should always
be managed by an experienced technician.
Whenever designing, erecting, verifying, operating and maintaining electrical systems, all
applicable requirements and standards need to be consulted and applied. In several countries,
a declaration of conformity is mandatory to certify the compliance of the installation to the
applicable regulations. This declaration is usually produced by the company that has been
contracted to erect the installation (see paragraph 5.2.4).
4.2. Exclusions
The following installations are not addressed by IEC 60364 Standards:
g) Radio interference suppression equipment, except where it affects the safety of the
installation;
h) Electric fences;
i)
External lightning protection systems for buildings (LPS); atmospheric phenomena are
covered in IEC 60364-1 but only with regards to effects on the electrical installations
(for example, with respect to selection of surge protective devices).
j)
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IEC 60364-4-41, Electrical installations of buildings Part 4-41: Protection for safety
Protection against electric shock;
IEC 60364-4-42, Electrical installations of buildings Part 4-42: Protection for safety
Protection against thermal effects;
IEC 60364-4-43, Electrical installations of buildings Part 4-43: Protection for safety
Protection against overcurrent;
IEC 60364-4-44, Electrical installations of buildings Part 4-44: Protection for safety
Protection against voltage disturbances and electromagnetic disturbances;
IEC 60445, Basic and safety principles for man-machine interface, marking and
identification - Identification of equipment terminals and of terminations of certain
designated conductors, including general rules for an alphanumeric system;
IEC 60446, Basic and safety principles for man-machine interface, marking and
identification Identification of conductors by colours or numerals;
Moreover, IEC cooperates with ISO (International Organization for Standardization) since
1987, and IEC technical standards are coordinated with ISO standards.
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5.
The lifecycle of electrical installations (or systems) can be broken down into 5 phases:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Design
Erection (construction)
Commissioning (including initial verification)
Operation & Maintenance (including periodic verifications)
Decommissioning
This structure does not take into account technical and administrative procedures such as
project and construction management, procurement, and permits acquisition. For these
important aspects of the process the reader is invited to consult the WFP Construction Manual.
For each phase, the following chapters will define general objectives, deliverables, procedures,
technical requirements (as additional to IEC 60364-1).
5.1. Design
1. Objectives
The objective of the design phase is to obtain a design package which completely
defines the electrical installation, and ensure that the requirements in terms of safety,
reliability and efficiency are fully addressed and satisfied. The designer shall take full
responsibility for the quality of the design, and for compliance with applicable codes
and norms as per chapter 7.
Under these guidelines, a complete design package is a fundamental pre-requisite for
the erection of an electrical installation over 10 kW of power demand. Under that
threshold, design can be contextually performed by the technician who erects the
system, provided that he/she has the adequate experience. However, the technician
should produce a full set of drawings as per point 3 below deliverables.
2. Selection of the designer
Currently there is no international standard for the qualifications that are required by
an electrical designer. Local regulations should be followed, where available. Under
these guidelines, it is recommended that the designer possess an electro-technical
diploma or a degree and has sufficient experience in the design of installations that
have similar function, power demand and type of equipment (see Annex 6).
3. Pre-requisites
Electrical design should be developed together with or immediately after the
architectural layout as wiring details can be determined by the position of furniture and
electrical equipment.
Complete information should be provided to the designer on the purpose and functional
requirements of the installation(s), nature of power demand, characteristics of available
power supply, environmental conditions, etc. (see chapter 7).
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4. Deliverables
The design package should include:
one or more block diagrams showing the main power supply, alternative power
sources, power centres, electrical panels, equipment and power outlets;
One-line diagrams for each electrical panel, showing details of breakers, circuits
(and other equipment);
List of, and technical specifications for, the execution of tests during the initial
and periodic verifications;
5.2. Erection
1. Objectives
The objective of the erection (or construction) phase is to obtain an electrical
installation which fully respects the initial design. When a modification to initial design
appears necessary during erection, this should be discussed and agreed with the
designer, to preserve consistency and compliance with regulations. The contractor for
erection shall take full responsibility for the quality of the installation, and for
compliance with the design and applicable codes and norms (see chapters 7 and 9).
2. Selection of the contractor
Currently there is no international standard for the qualifications that are required by
an electrical contractor. Local regulations should be followed, where available. Under
these guidelines, it is recommended that the contractor possess sufficient experience in
the erection of similar installations as to power demand and type of equipment (see
Annex 6).
3. Pre-requisites
The pre-requisite for the erection of electrical installations is a complete design
package, as mentioned in the previous paragraph. Moreover, the erection should be
coordinated with all other construction activities, as per building programs (see the
WFP Construction Manual).
If the design was based on some assumptions, as is the case when some information is
still not confirmed (or available) during the design phase, such information should be
confirmed or completed prior to erection. The contractor needs to have complete
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one or more block diagrams showing main power supply, alternative power
sources, power centres, electrical panels, equipment and power outlets;
One-line diagrams for each electrical panel, showing details of breakers, circuits
(and other equipment);
Lay-out plans providing information on the location of distribution panels,
conduits and wiring, and electrical equipment such as luminaries, switches,
outlets, etc.
Where applicable, a declaration from the utility provider (Electricity Company)
about the electrical characteristics of the power supply as per paragraph 7.1.
Technical sheets, instruction manual, declaration of conformity (where
applicable), and manufacturer warranty for each piece of equipment to be
installed;
Declaration of conformity of the installation to the design and applicable code
and norms, signed by the contractor.
5.3. Commissioning
1. Objectives
Commissioning includes the initial verification of the electrical installation, in order to
hand it over to operation and maintenance. The verification should assess conformity to
design specifications and to applicable norms, and include both technical tests and
document checks.
2. Selection of the commissioner
Due to the technical relevance of the verification, the person(s) in charge of
commissioning an electrical installation should have adequate experience. Local
regulations should be followed, where available. Under these guidelines, it is
recommended that the commissioner possess sufficient experience in the design or
erection of installations with comparable function, power demand and type of
equipment (see Annex 6). The designer may be appointed responsible for
commissioning the installation, after the erection phase.
3. Pre-requisites
The design package should provide complete information and details as to the modality
of tests and verifications, and the acceptable range of test results. Verification activities
should take place when the erection phase is over or, for stage erection, when the
relevant stage has been completed. The contractor should erect/install the systems and
equipment in such a way as to facilitate the execution of verification activities (both
initial and periodic).
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4. Deliverables
The initial verification should:
Assess compliance of the installation with the initial design and subsequent
modifications (if any);
Assess the as-built documentation as to completeness and level of detail;
Execute all the tests as per design specifications (a list of test is included in
paragraph 10.5).
A commissioning report should be produced, including a record of all activities performed, and
test results. The report should be signed off by the Engineer and the contractor (see also the
WFP Construction Manual).
O&M requirements should be analysed as part of the design phase, and in particular
the installation design and erection must ensure easy and comfortable access for
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technicians to all areas that need to be inspected and checked during maintenance
(see chapter 11).
4. Deliverables
The person(s) in charge of O&M shall maintain safety, reliability and efficiency of the
installation, through:
The maintenance contractor(s) shall ensure that the required levels of safety, reliability and
efficiency remain unchanged at all times, taking full responsibility for any situation which, due
to poor or untimely maintenance, may affect the performance of the installation or creates
hazard.
5.5. Decommissioning
1. Objectives
Decommissioning includes all the activities that are necessary to deactivate, dismiss
and dispose of electrical installations at the end of their life cycle.
In order to ensure safety, once an electrical installation is no longer used by WFP it
should be left in such a condition that does not constitute a hazard for whoever
accesses the area. All the systems and equipment should be switched off and deenergized.
Polluting elements should be disposed of in accordance with best practice and
applicable laws and norms.
2. Selection of contractors
Decommissioning works should be performed by a contractor with the same
qualification and experience that are necessary for erection and maintenance of
electrical installations. When possible, these works may be included in the maintenance
contract in the form of final service for contract closure, when possible.
The contractor shall take full responsibility for dismantling the parts of the installation
that need to be dismantled, leaving the rest in a safe condition, and disposing of the
dismantled parts/elements in accordance to best practice and applicable laws and
norms.
The contractor shall produce a final report, recording all performed activities and
including all the necessary documents (e.g. waste disposal documents where
applicable).
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3. Prerequisites
Decommissioning activities should be considered as part of the design phase, making
adequate provisions.
4. Deliverables
As a result of decommissioning:
Power supply from the city grid should be deactivated and dismissed, in
compliance with local regulations; the power meter should be sealed by the
utility provider;
Alternative power sources should be switched off, deactivated and left in a safe
condition (and dismantled when necessary);
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6.
As discussed above, IEC 60364-1 provides fundamental principles and requirements that
should be considered when designing an electrical installation, and through all the phases of
its lifecycle. The intention of the writers was to define the core principles and requirements
that should drive the design of a system, independently from the specific local context,
infrastructure, and regulations. The validity of the document is confirmed by the fact that the
latest NEC (2011), although offering a different technical approach, expressly references those
principles.
IEC 60364-1 considers all the hazards that may arise during reasonable use of the electrical
installations; reasonable is intended as the use that the installation was originally designed
for. For each type of hazard, the document provides basic requirements for protection.
All these aspects are further studied and addressed in full technical detail in the rest of IEC
60364 series, and of course in all the national codes that comply with IEC, including NEC.
In general, the following hazards may arise and need to be considered and prevented during
design, erection, operation and maintenance, according to IEC:
Electric shock;
Overheating (excessive temperature likely to cause burns, fires and other injurious
effects);
Direct contact: refers to electric contact of persons or animals with live parts (e.g. a
person touching a live conductor, or a power outlets contact). IEC defines the
protection from direct contact as basic protection.
Indirect contact: refers to electric contact of persons or animals with exposedconductive-parts which are not normally live, but have become live under fault
conditions (e.g. a person touching the metal enclosure of faulty equipment, such as a
washing machine, when the enclosure is live because of the fault). IEC defines the
protection from indirect contact as fault protection.
Protection against electric shock is addressed in full technical detail in IEC 60364-4-41:
Protection for safety Protection against electric shock.
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Considering the definition of direct contact, basic protection is intended to provide protection
under normal operating conditions of the installation, and may be achieved as required by the
selected code in coordination with other protective measures. In general, live parts need to be
adequately isolated in order to not be accessible by the common user, unless destroying the
insulation or removing it with tools. Painting over is not considered an effective insulation
layer. Whenever wires and/or connections and/or parts that might be live are exposed and
within arms reach of common user, corrective measures need to be taken. Under IEC and
compliant codes, under certain circumstances a single layer of insulation is not considered
sufficient, and a double insulation is required.
IEC describes provisions for basic protection in 60364-4-41 clause 411.2 and Annexes A and
B.
preventing a current resulting from a fault from passing through the body of any
person;
limiting the duration of a current resulting from a fault to a non-hazardous time period.
When a fault results in energization of an exposed-conductive-part, the fault raises the part to
a voltage liable to be hazardous, because it is capable of originating a current through the
person coming into contact with the part.
The protection against indirect contact, according to IEC, is obtained through protective
earthing, equipotential bonding, and automatic disconnection through the use of appropriate
breakers. The intervention time needs to be accurately evaluated for the specific system, in
compliance with the time limits provided in IEC 60364-4-41.
An enhanced protective provision which provides both basic protection and fault
protection.
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Under IEC 60364-4-41 the use of RCDs (Residual Current Devices, also known as ELCBs or
Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers) with a rated residual operating current not exceeding 30 mA
is a mandatory additional protection for socket outlets with a rated current not exceeding 20 A
that are intended for general use by ordinary persons, and for mobile equipment with a
current rating not exceeding 32 A for use outdoors. It must be noted that the definition
encompasses all socket outlets normally found in office buildings, which should therefore be
protected with RCDs (aka ELCBs).
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2. Over-voltages such as those originating from atmospheric events or from switching (for
protection against direct lightning strikes, see IEC 62305 series);
3. Under-voltage and any subsequent voltage recovery;
4. Electromagnetic disturbances; the installation should be able to function correctly in the
specified environment. The design should take into consideration electromagnetic
emissions (from internal and external sources).
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7.
The earth fault loop impedance of that part of the system external to the installation;
The suitability for the requirements of the installation, including the maximum demand;
and
The type and rating of the overcurrent protective device acting at the origin of the
installation.
The information above is necessary to design the protection methods for the installation, in
accordance with Chapter 6, and is equally applicable for mains supplies, for supplies of safety
services, and for stand-by supplies.
When power is generated within the electrical installation, with one or more diesel generators
or other systems (e.g. a renewable source, like solar or wind power generators), the
information listed above has to be part of the design package, being assessed or calculated by
the designer.
When the necessary power is not generated locally, and is supplied by a third party, the
information should be requested in writing to the network operator (electric company) or to
the authority that manages the power source (e.g. in a common premises or a refugee camp,
available power supply characteristics should be investigated with those who manage the
premises/camp). The information should be included in the design package or as-built
documentation as an attachment, as a precondition for conformity with IEC 60364.
The point of connection to the city grid is defined as the Point Of Delivery, and usually
constitutes the boundary of ownership with the utility provider company.
If the network operator at any time changes the characteristics of the power supply, this may
affect the safety and reliability of the installation, and therefore the electrical design should be
adjusted accordingly (as well as the installation, if already erected).
IEC 60364-1 defines the information on power supply, that is necessary for the design of an
electrical installation, as:
1. Nature of the current: alternate current (A.C.) and/or direct current (D.C.);
2. Number and function of conductors:
a. for A.C. : live conductor(s); neutral conductor; protective conductor;
b. for D.C. : live conductor(s); midpoint conductor, protective conductor.
3. Values and tolerances:
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31
renewable sources need to always be backed up by generators (and grids where available)
when a constantly reliable power source is needed.
Battery banks
Battery banks can be used to store excess energy for use at a later stage; they may serve as
a back-up reserve during power outages or to support the primary power source during
periods of peak demand (this practice, with batteries or other sources, is called peak shaving).
The use of battery banks in connection with renewable energy sources is a common practice,
however the cost associated with purchase, maintenance and disposal of batteries in a specific
location needs adequate consideration. The life span of batteries depends on the number of
cycles and depth of discharge that are foreseeable during their service life.
The combination of different supplies may be used to satisfy the requirements of different
loads according to their priority level (see Annex 3).
Battery powered devices
(Emergency lighting and fire escape signs) the use of battery powered emergency lights or
signs is quite common, as they effectively ensure power availability during black-outs or
emergencies, even in case of damage to wires. However, the likelihood of battery failure is
higher in de-centralized equipment, and therefore all such devices should be tested and
maintained frequently (at least once a month). Environmental conditions and external
influences
As mentioned above, environmental conditions can profoundly affect the performance and
expected service life of electrical equipment, with direct consequences on safety. The design of
the electrical installation should therefore analyse and consider the environmental conditions,
in order to ensure and preserve the necessary performance in terms of safety and reliability of
the systems.
Environmental conditions in terms of insulation, wind, temperature, exposition to dust, etc.
should also be considered while doing cost-benefit analysis for renewable energy production.
Detailed information on environmental conditions can be found in IEC 60364-5-51
(classification of environmental conditions) and IEC 60721 (required characteristics for
equipment in different conditions, relating to temperature, humidity, sand, dust, etc.).
Here below is a list of the major aspects to consider:
Environmental conditions:
Ambient temperature
Humidity
Presence of water
Vibrations
Presence of fauna
Wind
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Harmonics, inter-harmonics
Signalling voltages
Voltage unbalance
Solar radiation
Seismic effects
Lightning
Utilization factors:
Capability of persons
Explosions risks
Contamination risks
Construction of buildings:
Construction materials
Building design
Among the characteristics that define compatibility of an electrical installation (or part thereof)
with a specific environment, there is the capacity of enclosures to protect against access to
electrical parts by people, tools, moisture, dust or dirt.
The three most common standards for enclosures worldwide are:
IEC 60529 which rates the resistance of enclosures through a simple code made of
two numbers, which is commonly known as IP rating.
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IEC standards are obviously coordinated with IP rating (IEC 60529) while NEC refers to
NEMA/UL standards.
For a quick guidance on enclosure standards, the reader is invited to consult the following link:
http://www.newark.com/pdfs/techarticles/hoffman/EnclosureStandards.pdf, which provides a
clear and concise guidance on standards (last access 11 June 2015).
The intensity of the current that will flow through the wire;
The possibility of the wire to disperse the heat that will be caused by the current (that
depends on environmental and installation conditions);
The length of the circuit, taking into account voltage loss through the wire;
It is interesting to note that if we supply power to the same electric machine at different
voltages, the intensity of the current will decrease with voltage. To give an example, the same
air conditioner with a power consumption of 1 kW would require about 5 Amp at 220 V
(European standard voltage) and 10 Amp at 110 V (American standard voltage). This means
that in general, electrical installations following the American standard require bigger wires,
with consequent cost increase.
As voltage loss in a circuit increases with the length of the wire and decreases if the crosssectional area increases, the same electrical load will require a bigger wire if the length of the
circuit increases.
Under IEC, the cross-sectional area of conductors should be determined for both normal
operating and fault conditions according to:
Electromechanical stresses likely to occur under fault conditions (earth fault and shortcircuit)
Method of installation
NOTE: the items listed above concern primarily the safety of electrical installations. Crosssectional areas greater than those required for safety may be desirable for economic operation
(reducing energy losses).
In general, wires (and breakers) are selected in order to ensure the two following conditions:
The nominal current of the circuit breaker has to be greater than the current
that is expected to flow through the wire under normal operating conditions.
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This condition is necessary to ensure that the breaker will not trip during normal use of
the circuit.
IEC Standards and derived codes (including all European national codes) identify wires size
through their cross-sectional area in squared millimeters: for commercial purposes, wires
production has been standardized on a number of normalized cross-sectional areas. NFPA70
and all similar codes instead, use the AWG system (American Wire Gauge) which refers to the
diameter of the conductors.
A table showing conversion between normalized cross-sectional area and AWG size is provided
in Annex 9.
As a rule of thumb, in European standard voltage (220 V) power outlets shall be supplied with
2.5 sqmm wires (at least), and light appliances with 1.5 sqmm wires (at least), considering
the length of circuits for a normal single office room. It is generally forbidden to use wires of
different size in the same circuit, because of their different current-carrying capacity smaller
wires can be used for branches of the main circuit, only if calculations are made to verify that
the circuit breaker protects all branches from overcurrent and fault currents.
The nature of the locations (e.g. indoor/outdoor; technical room or open-to-thepublic location; presence of water, gas; etc.)
The nature of the walls or other parts of the building supporting the wiring
(e.g. stone wall or wood frame (risk of fire); hard or soft support/enclosure (need of
mechanical protection for the wires); etc.)
The purpose is to ensure the correct level of protection for both the wires from mechanical and
electromagnetic effects, and for the users (persons or livestock) from potential danger caused
by the wiring during normal or fault conditions.
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Over-voltage
Located in a position where it is easily recognizable and can be safely and rapidly
operated at all times;
An emergency power interrupting device must always be installed at a safe distance for
outdoor equipment, or outside the room for indoor equipment, in the cases described below:
NOTE: in some countries, safety legislation prescribes the installation of devices for
emergency disconnection of power supply under certain circumstances (e.g. in case of fire, to
allow safe intervention of the fire brigade into a premises/building).
Take account of danger that may arise from the failure of a single circuit such as a
lighting circuit;
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It is common practice to divide circuits for lights and for sockets, and install specific circuits for
single pieces of equipment with power demand over 1 kW.
7.10. Selectivity
In the context of IEC, selectivity defines the capability of protection devices to intervene by
disconnecting the smallest possible section of the electrical installation in case of fault, thus
minimizing the service disruption.
Horizontal selectivity is achieved by separating distribution circuits for those parts of the
installation which need to be separately controlled. In this way, separate circuits are not
affected by the failure of other circuits.
Vertical selectivity is achieved by coordinating characteristics of disconnecting devices
(breakers) installed in series in such a way that, in case of a fault on a circuit, only the closest
disconnecting device upstream of the fault will intervene. For example, in a distribution board
the main breaker should be coordinated with circuit breakers in such a way that a fault on a
circuit is preferably protected by the relevant circuit breaker, while the main one acts as backup protection. In this perspective, the nominal current of the main breaker should never be
lower than those of downstream ones. See also following paragraph on disconnecting devices.
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Sufficient space for installation and replacement of parts or the whole equipment;
Accessibility for operation, inspection and fault detection, testing, maintenance, repair.
Usually, 60 cm is the minimum space that allows a person to access and inspect equipment,
on all sides of the equipment (or at least on the sides that need to be inspected). Other
considerations may increase the required space, such as:
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Power Demand:
Demand and coincidence factors need to be carefully considered on the basis of the users
specific requirements. Considerations should include: expected frequency and intensity of use
of each item of equipment; for lights and power outlets location, expected occupancy of offices
and other facilities, for HVAC expected power demand in relation to average weather
conditions; special requirements (e.g. security requirements); historical data for similar
facilities, if available.
As a rule of thumb, for simple installations:
for outlet sockets for generic use, Kd = 0.5 and Kc = 0.7 can be applied on the nominal
capacity of the circuit;
for outlet sockets for desks (offices), calculations should be based on equipment and
occupancy;
for other circuits, while Kd needs to be determined on a case by case basis, Kc can be
usually assumed between 0.7 and 0.85;
for the power demand of a distribution board, K d = 1 and Kc = 0.7 0.85 (to be applied
to the sum of power demands of single circuits of the board).
N.B. reduction factors should only be applied to assess the power demand of the main
distribution board and/or of local distribution boards. Single circuits should be able to supply
the nominal power installed. E.g. socket circuits should be able to supply the current that each
of served sockets is rated to (socket current rating).
Of course, in large and complex installations careful consideration must be given to the use of
reduction factors, as their application in cascade on a series of distribution boards and circuits
may lead to seriously underestimate power demand.
Once the power demand PD has been determined, the overall power supply requirement
should be estimated considering the possibility of future expansion or need to supply
additional loads. To this purpose, the total estimated power demand should be multiplied by a
contingency factor Ks that is usually assumed as 1.2 1.3. All the calculations should be made
in kW, so to obtain the power demand in kW.
When the power demand needs to be defined in terms of apparent power (sum of active and
reactive power, expressed in kVA, the result should be further divided by the power factor2
(usually between 0.8 and 0.9).
The design of an electrical installations should clearly state what considerations have been
done to determine power demand, indicating what values have been used in calculations for
factors Kd, Kc, and Ks.
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power
flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of -1 to
1, meaning that the voltage & current waveforms are not in phase, reducing the instantaneous product of the two
waveforms (V x I). Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is
the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or
due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will
be greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load)
generates power, which then flows back towards the source, which is normally considered the generator (source
Wikipedia, last access 11 June 2015)
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e.g. in an installation where power supply is 220/127 Volts (V = 220 V and E = 127 V),
equipment requiring 220/230 Volts should be supplied by two live conductors, as the phaseto-phase voltage (V) is 220 Volts.
In an installation where power supply is 400/230 Volts (V = 400 V and E = 230 V), the same
piece of equipment would require one live wire and the neutral conductor, to provide a 220
volt supply, as the phase-to-neutral voltage (E) is 230 Volts.
2. Three-phase loads:
a) Three-phase equipment which requires neutral should be supplied by four conductors, and
the typical arrangement would be: L1 L2 L3 N;
b) Some three-phase equipment (usually motors) may not require neutral connection, and
therefore the typical arrangement would be: L1 L2 L3.
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I = all live parts isolated from earth, or one point connected to earth through a high
impedance.
The complete description of possible schemes is available in IEC 60364-1. For the purpose of
these guidelines, the description will be limited to TT and TN-S systems, which are the most
common. In WFP installations preference should be given to these two systems. Any other
arrangement of conductors can only be allowed under specific requirements (e.g. local
regulations or requirements for connection to the local power distribution) and should be
designed by a qualified engineer.
According to IEC 60364-1, for single-source systems:
TT power systems have a separate earthing system for the source, and the exposedconductive-parts of the installation are connected to earth electrodes that are electrically
independent of the earth electrode of the supply system. These systems are commonly used
for Low Voltage power supply from the utility provider.
TN power systems have one point directly earthed at the source. The exposed-conductiveparts of the installation being connected to that point by protective conductors. In particular,
TN-S systems have a dedicated protective conductor, which function cannot be combined with
others (e.g. in TN-S systems neutral conductor and protective conductor cannot be combined).
These systems are commonly used for electrical installations where power transformers and/or
diesel generators are present.
In general, and unless specific requirements advise otherwise, automatic supply is preferable
and recommended under these guidelines.
As discussed in paragraph 7.3, the provision of safety services may be required for fire
protection systems and/or emergency lights for the evacuation of the premises. In addition,
the provision of stand-by supplies may be required when the primary power source is not
reliable or just as a preventive measure (see also paragraph 7.18 for continuity of service and
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Annex 3 for priority of loads). Whatever the reason, the characteristics of the sources of
supply for safety services and/or stand-by should have adequate capacity, reliability, rating
and appropriate change-over time to suite the specific requirements.
The need for safety services and their nature are frequently regulated by statutory authorities
whose requirements may or may not be enforced by legislation. Examples of safety services
are: emergency lighting, fire escape lighting, alarm systems, installations for fire pumps, fire
brigade lifts, smoke and heat extraction equipment.
The following sources for safety services are recognized by IEC 6036-1:
Storage batteries
Primary cells
A separate feeder of the supply network effectively independent of the normal feeder
(see IEC 60364-5-55 clause 556.4.4)
No-break: an automatic supply which can ensure a continuous supply within specified
conditions during the period of transition, for example as regards variations in voltage
and frequency;
Number of circuits
See also Annex 3 for the priority of loads and circuits, and WFP IT requirements.
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8.
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9.
9.1. General
All electrical equipment to be used in electrical installations should comply with the applicable
technical standards and norms. Moreover, as extensively discussed in this document, there
has to be compatibility among the code that has been used to design an electrical installation
and the standard(s) that are used for the selection of equipment. This is extremely important
when operating in a multi-national environment, as the need for unification/centralization may
conflict with contextualization. In fact, when non-local standards are used, the availability of
compatible equipment (and of specialized services such as maintenance) on the local market
may be limited. Therefore, the choice of the electric code (or wiring regulation) and of the
technical standards must be carefully considered.
The characteristics and specifications of equipment are described in the manufacturers
technical sheets. These documents should be kept for the records together with the rest of the
design and as-built documentation. It is responsibility of the technicians erecting the
installation to check the technical sheet of each piece of equipment and verify compatibility
with designs requirements.
On the other hand, this practice should be continued beyond construction works, to include all
equipment that might be connected through, for example, power outlets. All the potential
users should be made aware of the fundamental characteristics of power supply, and of
compatibility requirements for personal equipment.
Current
The current is defined as the flow of electrical charge through a conductor. It is measured in
Ampere. Electrical equipment should be capable of carrying the current that it is expected to
occur under normal operating conditions. The possibility of fault currents must be considered,
and protections need to be coordinated so that no harmful current is allowed through the
equipment.
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Frequency
In Alternating Current (AC) installations, the flow of electric charge periodically reverses
direction: the frequency is defined as the number of cycles per second and is measured in Hz.
Equipment should be rated for the same frequency that is expected in the installation during
normal operating conditions. The frequency of the installation is either established by the
national or local grid for grid-connected systems, or by setting power generators (diesel, PV,
or any other) to the desired value for stand-alone systems. In the latter case, the frequency
should however be the same that is used in the country where the installation is located,
because the equipment available on site might be exclusively rated for that frequency.
Otherwise, equipment with compatible specifications should be imported.
Basically, two values for frequency can be commonly found throughout the world: 50 or 60 Hz.
Not all electrical equipment is affected by a change in frequency, however to give an example
electrical engines rotating speed is directly related to the frequency, and therefore equipment
containing engines might malfunction and break down if supplied with the wrong frequency
(e.g. A/C units and electrical clocks are usually affected by a different frequency).
Load factor
All electrical equipment should be capable of maintaining design service conditions and
parameters during operation, in terms of power demand and load factor.
According to IEV 691-10-02 the load factor is the ratio, expressed as a numerical value or as a
percentage, of the consumption within a specified period (year, month, day, etc.), to the
consumption that would result from continuous use of the maximum or other specified
demand occurring within the same period.
Practically, considering an AC unit that has a maximum power consumption of 1 kW, and is
operated at 50% of maximum capacity for 1 hour per day, energy consumption over one
month would be 50% * 1 kW * 1 h * 30 days = 15 kWh. If the unit was to be operated at full
capacity for the whole month its consumption would instead be 100% * 1 kW * 24 h * 30
days = 720 kWh. Therefore, the units load factor is 0.02 (2%).
It must be noted, with reference to paragraph 6.15, that the load factor is the result of the
subsequent application of the demand and coincidence factors. In fact, in the example above,
the AC unit has a demand factor of 0.5 and a coincidence factor of 1/24 = 0.04. 0.5 * 0.04 =
0.02.
Note 1 This term should not be used without specifying the demand and the period to which
it relates.
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generate a fire. Each socket is designed for a specific plug, and the use of different plugs must
be carefully avoided.
The International Electro-Technical commission has developed a classification of the most
frequently used plugs and sockets. The classification includes 14 types of devices from all over
the world, and provides current rating (up to 20 Amp) and technical specifications for each
type. The current rating is an important characteristic because it sets the maximum current
that the power outlet is capable of safely supplying. Therefore, each type can only be used
within the range of its power rating.
The classification is available on-line on the organizations website www.iec.ch in the section
world plugs (last accessed 11 June 2015). The same link also provides information on the
geographical distribution of each type and can be consulted either as a list of countries or as a
map. Moreover, the website provides standard single-phase voltage and frequency per each
country.
In general, it is recommended to adopt one or two types of power outlet for each country,
which are compatible with the selected code and with the plugs most commonly used on
equipment available in the country.
When plugging in a piece of equipment, it is important to check that power supply
specifications match local power supply characteristics, in terms of voltage and frequency. As
mentioned above, the nominal current of the equipment should be compatible with the current
rating of the socket. For sake of simplification it is recommended to limit the number of socket
types that are used in a certain location (facility), in order to standardize plugs as much as
possible. Of course, the selection of one or more types for a determined location has to take
into account the local context, and the availability of equipment with compatible plugs.
All users should be made fully aware of the characteristics of power supply in a certain location
(facility), in order to prevent them from plugging in equipment that could damage the
installation and/or create a hazard. Where possible, equipment should be checked by qualified
personnel to ensure compatibility and safety, before usage in a WFP facility. When a
recognized quality certification is not available for a piece of equipment, the check should
include instrumental tests to exclude the possibility of electric leakages.
With regard to protection from overload, power outlets should be supplied by one or more
circuits, where in each of them the current is limited to the maximum capacity of a single
socket. To give an example, the circuit supplying a series of power outlets with a power rating
of 16 Amp each should be protected by a device set to block any current over 16 Amp
(thermal-magnetic breaker).
See also Chapter 11 on Operation and Maintenance.
Transient over-voltages;
Under-voltage;
Unbalanced loads;
Starting currents;
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Harmonic currents;
D.C. feedback;
Electric motors
Fluorescent lighting
Welding machines
Computers
Rectifiers
Choppers
Frequency converters/regulators
Lifts
Transformers
Switchgear
For full detail on the measures that can be taken to reduce the effect of induced voltage
disturbances and electromagnetic interferences (EMI), the reader is invited to check IEC
60364-4-44.
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The purposes for which the installation is intended to be used, its general structure and
its supplies;
Equipment compatibility;
Maintainability requirements;
Those characteristics should be taken into account in the choice of methods of protection for
safety (see IEC 60364-4-41 to IEC 60364-4-44) and the selection and erection of equipment
(see IEC 60364-5-51 to IEC 60364-5-55).
10.2. Erection
Good workmanship by competent persons and proper material should be used in the erection
of the electrical installation. Electrical equipment should always be installed in accordance with
the instructions provided by:
WFP electrical installations should be erected (and maintained) by qualified electricians, with
the necessary experience in the erection of similar installations. In countries where an official
charter or qualification system exist for electrical works, possession of the necessary
qualification shall be a mandatory requirement for workers (see Annex 6 for guidelines on the
selection of contractors).
The work shall be performed in full compliance with regulations and best practice for safety of
workers. The contracted company shall take full responsibility for the training of their staff on
the correct and safe execution of the works, and for the possession and usage of the
appropriate tools and personal protective devices.
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Conductors and terminals should be identified in accordance with international standards or,
when the installation is designed and erected applying a local or national code, in accordance
with these, in order to promote consistency with local regulations and standards.
In each installation a notice should be put on the electrical panels, informing about the colour
standard they have been cabled to, or warning the operator when the standard is not defined
(as might be the case for existing installations where there is no consistency with a single
standard).
A table showing most typical colour standards in different regions is attached in Annex 9.
Preferably, the conductors sheathing colour choice should always fall into the following
Wire
Allowed Colours
Live phase
Neuter
Earth
Green, Green/Yellow
50
All electrical equipment likely to cause high temperatures or electric arcs should be placed or
guarded so as to minimize the risk of ignition of flammable materials. Where the temperature
of any exposed parts of electrical equipment is likely to cause injury to persons, those parts
should be so located or guarded as to prevent accidental contact therewith.
Where necessary for safety purposes, suitable warning signs and/or notices should be
provided.
Under these guidelines, the following signs are recommended:
1. Notice with system and power supply characteristics, to be put on the main electrical
panel or in its room indicating: Voltage; Frequency; Conductor arrangement; System
earthing; Normal and back-up power sources.
2. Notice with power supply characteristics, to be put on all electrical panels, indicating
the source of power supply, Voltage and Frequency.
3. Notice with colour standard, to be put on the main electrical panel as per paragraph
10.3.
In the case of an addition or alteration to an existing installation, it should be determined that
the rating and condition of existing equipment, which will have to carry any additional load, is
adequate for the altered circumstances. Furthermore, it is necessary to ensure that the
earthing and bonding arrangements (if necessary) can support the addition or alteration.
For example, it must be considered that the simple addition of a load on the terminal part of
an electrical installation increases the current flowing through all the wires back up to the
power source. Therefore, it might bring along the need to replace all the wires with bigger
ones.
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Any periodic inspection and testing, maintenance and repairs to be necessary during
the intended life can be readily and safely carried out;
The effectiveness of the protective measures for safety during the intended life should
remain; and
As discussed in paragraph 5.4, the person that is responsible for the operation and
maintenance phase of an electrical installation should maintain or improve design conditions
and performance, in terms of safety, reliability and efficiency. The tools to achieve this result
are:
Standard operating procedures
SOPs should include roles and responsibilities, administrative and technical procedures for
maintenance service (including lock-out/tag-out, see paragraph 11.3), service level
agreements, service specifications, with reference to the maintenance plan.
Maintenance plan
The maintenance plan should include an exhaustive list of preventative maintenance actions
with the necessary frequency (or calendar), results expected and monitoring procedures.
Emergency procedures
Emergency procedures should be developed on the basis of realistic scenarios, simulating
faults and identifying countermeasures and temporary back-up solutions. All automatic standby systems should be tested regularly, to identify and promptly solve any faults. These tests
are also useful as training sessions for maintenance personnel, so that they can understand
and practice their role in a real emergency.
Maintenance contract
The maintenance of electrical systems and equipment require specialised personnel with
relevant education and experience. An appropriate service contract should be established with
a qualified and experienced company (see Annex 6). In large premises with sensitive
equipment/infrastructure, it might be necessary to provide for a resident crew of technicians
and/or for availability 24/7. The contractor, under WFP supervision, should take full
responsibility for maintaining the design condition of safety, reliability and efficiency.
In addition, the efficiency of the installation and of the equipment should be constantly
monitored and controlled. It is recommended to do periodic readings of energy consumption,
which should be recorded and analysed to understand trends and detect anomalies (see
paragraph 11.1)
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excessive consumption. Reactive energy can be reduced by installing equipment for power
factor compensation, under recommendation and design by a qualified electrical designer.
On-Site Electrical Generation
Even though energy is not purchased from a commercial company, and it is produced on site
through diesel generators or renewable energy sources, it is always good practice to monitor
consumption and analyse trends, in order to ensure and preserve efficiency of the installation
(and efficient use of equipment). This information is also necessary for the assessment of CO2
emissions and carbon footprint. Power and energy metering devices are easily available, and
often provide optional computer connectivity, thus facilitating data logging, monitoring and
analysis of trends over time.
In addition to the range of tools that are normally used to inspect electrical systems, the use
of thermal cameras, where possible, can help detect overheating components.
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other technical standards and documents, lock-out/tag-out procedures are described in the
NFPA 70E, Standard for electrical safety in the workplace.
Here below a simple procedure is suggested, to provide the reader with a sense of its purpose.
It can and should be applied, with the necessary adjustments, to all maintenance works (from
minor actions to major refurbishments):
1. The operator notifies all affected personnel that a maintenance action is ready to begin;
2. The circuit or equipment is de-energized, through one or more disconnecting devices;
3. The operator releases or discharges all stored energy;
4. The operator puts all the necessary locks and/or tags in place on the disconnecting
devices;
5. The operator holds the keys of the lock(s) through the duration of the service or
maintenance;
6. The operator checks again that the circuit or equipment is de-energized;
7. The circuit or equipment is serviced or maintained;
8. Once the work is completed, the operator verifies that no tools have been left behind,
and the circuit or equipment is ready to be re-energized;
9. All affected people are notified that the circuit or equipment is about to be energized;
10. The operator performs a final check to make sure that no one is exposed to danger;
11. The operator removes the locks and/or tags and restores energy to the circuit or
equipment.
It is extremely important for all staff members, external staff, contractors and guests of WFP
facilities to be aware of this hazard. For sake of safety, any electrical system, component,
appliance, should be considered potentially dangerous if it appears in poor maintenance
condition and/or with exposed conductive parts.
In particular, the following basic rules should be always followed in all WFP facilities:
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Equipment which does not appear in good condition, or shows burn signs should be
checked by a technician before being used.
Before connecting any new equipment / machine to a power outlet, the user must seek
expert advice on the compatibility of the device with local power supply characteristics,
in terms of power demand, frequency and voltage. Plug adaptors may be used under
the same condition, however it must be noted that most common adaptors - while
solving physical and voltage compatibility issues - cannot change the frequency of
electricity.
Only personnel with appropriate training in electrical work can access technical rooms
and/or perform any kind of work (installation, testing, and maintenance) on electrical
systems within WFP facilities.
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12. Conclusions
This document has provided a general overview through the world of electrical standards and
codes: readers willing to gain further information may wish to consult the bibliography, and in
particular the volume Electrical codes, standards, recommended practices and regulations by
Robert J. Alonzo, P.E. which provides a more extensive study on these issues.
Following the analysis of standards, regulations, and codes, it is important to note how the
main responsibility for safety and reliability of electrical installations lies with the designers
and the installers. This is a consequence of the complexity of the matter, as there is a huge
quantity of equally valid technical solutions to comply with the fundamental principles and
fulfill the basic requirements as stated by IEC. That is exactly why IEC standard-makers
purposely maintained a general introductory document, in order to allow the maximum
possible flexibility for technical solutions.
Consequently, the final decision on technical details must be based on sound and informed
engineering judgment. The above-mentioned volume expresses this concept well in the
following definition:
Engineering judgment is the scientific process by which a design, installation,
operation/maintenance or safety problem is systematically evaluated. It utilizes knowledge
and experience gained on the subject and applies the scientific method of analysis. It includes
gathering all necessary information about the project or problem and systematically sorting
the information, to make an informed decision or take action. Part of the evaluation process
would include some sort of hazard risk analysis, if applicable, and a review of applicable codes,
standards, and recommended practices. A thorough knowledge of the process, equipment, or
situation is essential in making an engineering judgment. Alternative solutions must be
analyzed as well as a critical analysis of any final conclusions or recommendations (R.J.
Alonzo).
It seems finally appropriate to conclude these guidelines and the discussion on engineering
judgment with the words of the inventor of the voltaic pile, Mr. Alessandro Volta, whose name
was given to the measure unit of Tension, the Volt: The language of experiment is more
authoritative than any reasoning: facts can destroy our ratiocinationnot vice versa.
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13. Bibliography
13.1. Literature
ISO/IEC Using and referencing standards for technical regulations - September 2007;
WFP Climate Neutral Emission Reduction Strategy 2012-2013 - WFP Climate Neutral
Team;
Maintaining mission critical systems in a 24/7 environment Ed. John Wiley & Sons,
Peter M. Curtis, 2011;
13.2. Standards
IEC publications, and in particular:
NFPA 70E 2012 Edition: Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace;
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Foreword
This document provides some background on the current situation regarding international and
national standards and regulations for the electrical sector. It is based on the preliminary
study that was done as part of the WFP Electrical Standards Project.
59
standards can be recognised for single phase voltage and frequency in the world. One is the
North American standard of 100-127 Volts (three-phase 170-210 V) at a frequency of 60 Hz,
and the other is the European standard of 220240 volts (three-phase 380-415 V) at 50 Hz.
Together, Voltage and Frequency constitute the fundamental characteristics of power supply,
which all equipment that should be installed in a determined location need to be compatible
with.
The picture below shows areas with similar characteristics for electrical power supply (values
shown in single phase Voltage).
In addition to the characteristics of power supply as described above, another important factor
to consider in studying electrical standards is the system used to distribute electric power to
final users, with regard to the arrangement of live conductors, neutral conductor (where
present at all), and earth connection. Differences in these aspects should be carefully analysed
as they drive different requirements for protection of equipment, life safety, and fire safety.
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As mentioned above, in power systems, either at large distribution or final user level, some
points of the network (neutral conductors and/or exposed-conductive-parts) are connected to
earth (i.e. earthed or grounded) in order to zero potential. This also facilitates coordination
of protection measures for the safety of people, livestock, and properties. In accordance with
IEC, the specific objectives include:
1. Limit the potential (in Volt) of live conductors with regard to the earth
2. Prevent enclosures and other conductive parts, which are normally not live, from
becoming dangerous in case of insulation fault
3. Facilitate intervention of protection devices (breakers) to eliminate faults
4. Contain the potential damage to LV equipment in case of faults on the HV side of
systems
5. Contain the potential damage due to lightning discharge onto the systems
Therefore a power system is defined both by the arrangement of current-carrying conductors
(number of phases and presence of neutral conductor), and by the type of system earthing.
Usually, in addition to the live and neutral conductors (generally identified by L1, L2, L3, N)
there may be an additional conductor (protective conductor, identified as PE).
As discussed in the guidelines, paragraph 7.15.2, the International Standard IEC 60364-1
introduces a 2 to 4 letters code to classify the different power systems, according to the
earthing method, which is repeated below for easy reference.
N.B. the term exposed-conductive-part is used here in accordance with IEC and following the
definition in IEV as: conductive part of equipment which can be touched and which is not
normally live, but which can become live when basic insulation fails.
First Letter = Relationship of the power system to earth:
T = direct connection of one point to earth
I = all live parts isolated from earth, or one point connected to earth through a high
impedance.
Second Letter = Relationship of the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation to
earth:
T = Direct electrical connection of exposed-conductive-parts to earth, independently of the
earthing of any point of the power system;
N = Direct electrical connection of the exposed-conductive-parts to the earthed point of the
power system (in A.C. systems, the earthed point of the power system is normally the neutral
point).
Subsequent Letter(s) (if any) = Arrangement of neutral and protective conductors:
S = protective function and neutral function effected by separate conductors.
C = neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor (PEN conductor).
The basic types of power supply systems according to the IEC classification are described in
the following paragraphs.
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2.4. TT system
In TT systems the neutral conductor (N) of power supply neutral conductor is earthed, and the
exposed-conductive-parts of the installation are connected to earth electrodes which are
electrically independent of the earth electrode of the supply system. In case of insulation fault,
the consequent fault current would circulate through the earth.
2.5. IT system
In an IT system the power supply has all its live parts isolated from earth or one point
connected to earth through a high impedance. The exposed-conductive-parts of the electrical
installation are earthed independently or collectively. This type of system is generally used to
ensure safe power supply even in case of a insulation fault (single), usually in medical facilities
or other environments where the disruption of service due to a fault might have serious
consequences. IEC recommends that, when this power system is used, the isolator or
impedance device be constantly monitored.
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Country
LV user system
Belgium
TT
TT
Australia
TN-C
TN-C
China
TT
TT
France
TT
TT
Germany
TN-C
TN-C / TT
Ireland
TN
TT
Italy
TT
TT
Japan
TT
TT
Norway
IT
IT
Portugal
TT
TT
Spain
TT
TT
Switzerland
TN
TN-C / TN-S
United Kingdom
TN-C
TN-C / TN-S
United States
TN-C
TN-C / TN-S
The diversity of practices that can be observed in the table originates from the different
evolution of electrical systems in different countries (and often in different times), which was
influenced by technical choices made when electricity started to be broadly distributed for
commercial purposes. It must be also considered that an international trade of electricity
developed only recently, bringing along the need for a stronger harmonization of systems.
At the same time, the methodologies for the prevention of electrical accidents evolved in close
relationship with the development of studies on electricity and effects of current on the human
body.
At the beginning of commercial distribution the main precaution was insulation toward earth;
then, the practice of connecting all metallic (conductive) parts to earth was gradually
introduced. The principle at the basis of this practice was and still is ensuring equipotentiality of conductive parts (according to IEV, the state when conductive parts are at a
substantially equal electric potential), in order to avoid currents that may originate from a
difference in potential (voltage) of two conductive parts. As a further development, the
earthing practice was integrated with active protection measures (i.e. the use of RCD
breakers).
Until the 50s, TT was the most common system, and connection to earth was either realized
through specific devices or through water pipelines (this practice is now generally forbidden).
Afterwards, technical authorities and electrical distributors of different nations decided to
adopt different systems, in relation to the situation and development of existing
infrastructures, existing technical context and electrical market conditions for example, TT
systems may provide better segregation (in terms of responsibility also) among sections of the
systems managed and owned by different entities (distributor and user).
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Different Voltage
Different frequency
Moreover, production in these two regions complies with different technical standards, for
which compatibility has to be specifically checked (e.g. the reference standard on enclosure
protection from dust and water is different, and therefore a conversion table is needed).
To start the study of standards and codes, it is necessary to distinguish the meaning, for
electrical matters, of the two terms.
A standard, according to the Merriam-Webster On-line Dictionary, is something set up and
established by authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value, or
quality. Substantially, standards set performance parameters and criteria for evaluation, as
well as test methods and procedures for materials and entire systems, throughout the whole
supply chain from manufacture of equipment to design, erection and operation & maintenance
practices for installations.
On the other hand a code is defined, in the same dictionary as above, a systematic statement
of the body of law; especially: one given statutory force; a system of principles or rules. This
definition provides a measure of the similarities and differences between the concepts of
standard and code. Practically, in technical and particularly in electrical matters, the term
standard has come to indicate those documents whose adoption and use remains fully
voluntary. On the contrary, the term code indicates those documents whose adoption and
use may be voluntary or mandated by law. Moreover, standards usually do not prescribe only
one way to engineer a product or procedure, whereas that is not necessarily the case with
codes.
It is evident that the border between the two definitions is subtle; for example, the U.S.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) document named NFPA-70 is known by most
experts as the National Electric Code, but it is developed as a consensus standard until its use
is mandated by individual legislative bodies. Similarly, the standards published by the IEC, are
consensus-based standards. In particular, the Technical Standard series 60364 for Low
Voltage electrical installations, whose main purpose is to form the basis for the development
of national codes, was indeed used as a basis for the preparation of most European national
codes, but it can be adopted as a code as is by legislative bodies, should need be.
The study and publication of electrical standards and codes arose in the 1880s with the
commercial introduction of electrical power. Many conflicting standards existed for the
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selection of wire sizes and other design rules for electrical installations, so the first codes were
an attempt to both establish some sort of consistency as to the level of safety provided, and
facilitate trade. Electrical codes, often referred to as wiring regulations, are intended to
protect people and property from electrical shock and fire hazards, setting best practice
reference and ensuring reliability of systems. They are usually more prescriptive than
standards, and their target audience is mainly composed by designer or installer technicians.
Finally, electric codes usually refer to existing standards for materials and equipment, so that
their characteristics and performance can be practically identified and their selection and use
in electrical installations is consistent with the codes prescriptions. As a consequence, in a
specific context and/or geographical area there has to be consistency throughout electrical
infrastructures, power supply characteristics and system, standards, codes, and legislation.
This concept is well explained in the following quote from a study published by U.S. National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA):
To be effective, an electrical installation code must be suitable for the existing electrical
infrastructure, be suitable for the electrical safety system employed in a country, and be
capable of being uniformly interpreted, applied, and enforced. It must also have compatibility
with standards applicable to products whose installation, use, and maintenance is intended to
be governed by the code. (N.E.M.A. - Underwriters laboratories inc., Electrical Installation
Requirements: a global perspective, April 1999).
The quoted document provides an interesting comparison of the two main families in which
wiring codes and regulations may be classified: the codes which are derived from the IEC
standards, and the North-American National Electric Code. This division is, obviously, coherent
with the distribution of power supply characteristics as can be seen in the relevant picture
ahead.
The difference between IEC derived codes and NEC, and coordinated standards, has indeed its
roots in a difference between power supply characteristics (Voltage and Frequency), and is as
well a consequence of the fact that the United States developed a capillary electrical
infrastructure earlier than Europe did. For example, in the 60s when Europe evolved from 110
to 240 V due to the increase in power demand by final users, the U.S. chose to not upgrade
the existing infrastructures.
A significant difference between the two standards can be found in their origin and purpose:
the NEC is a code developed in the United States and intended to be a manual for designers
and installers in that country, a manual that at a later stage was adopted by other countries,
for various reasons varying from geographical contiguity to cultural influence. At the same
time the IEC standards were, since the beginning, an attempt to coordinate national
regulations and electrical markets under an international standard. This observation marks an
important difference in the approach that the two documents (n.b. IEC is actually a set of
several different documents) adopt towards some technical solutions. The IEC standards have
all the characteristics of a classification and coordination document, which proposes basic
principles and suggests a set of possible technical solutions. The NEC code is a practical guide,
which was originally developed for a specific electrical infrastructure and market, with all their
peculiarities.
However, it must be noted that IEC standards and NEC share the same basic principles (as
expressly stated in the preface of NEC 2011 edition), and therefore the same level of intrinsic
safety and reliability, as far as they are applied consistently and in the appropriate context.
The picture below shows the geographical distribution of IEC and NEC, and it is possible to
observe how closely it relates to the distribution of power supply voltage and frequency, if
compared to the relevant picture in paragraph 1).
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The picture above is published on the internet document International electrical standards
and regulations, which can be consulted on-line at the following link:
www.legrand.com/files/fck/file/pdf/guide-international.pdf
It provides useful guidance and information on the differences among national electrical codes
around the world, especially for small installations.
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In Germany, DKE (the German Commission for Electrical, Electronic and Information
Technologies of DIN and VDE) is the organization responsible for the promulgation of
electrical standards and safety specifications. DIN VDE 0100 is the German wiring
regulations document harmonized with IEC 60364.
A similar situation can be found in France, Italy, Spain, etc. and for this reason all European
codes can be used to design, erect, operate and maintain electrical installations in full
compliance with IEC standards.
Beyond Europe, Australia and New Zealand have developed the standard AS/NZS 3000 for
electrical installations, published under the name of Australian/New Zealand wiring rules, in
which the preface states: During preparation of this Standard, reference was made to IEC
60364, Electrical installations of buildings (all parts) and acknowledgment is made of the
assistance received from this source.
The picture below shows the worldwide presence of IEC in terms of full/associate membership
and affiliate country programme.
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full members
associate members
Affiliates
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In 2006 edition, CEC references IEC 60364 (Electrical Installations for Buildings) and, in
analogy with NEC, states that the code addresses the fundamental principles of electrical
protection in IEC Standard Section 131.
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While IEC IS 60364 covers low voltage electrical installations, MV installations and explosive
atmospheres are discussed in other publications by IEC.
When it comes to practical differences, NEC refers to American Wire Gauge (AWG) system to
classify the size of wires, while IEC Standards use cross-sectional area expressed in square
millimetres. Enclosures performance under NEC is classified according to NEMA or UL
standards (Underwriters Laboratories inc.) according to hazard classification for locations
defined in the NEC, while IEC Standards reference to IP grade rating according to IEC 60529.
Levels of performance might be similar, but to have a perfect match it is necessary to have
consistency throughout the whole supply chain.
The following text is part of the comparative study prepared by Underwriters Labs. Inc. and
published by NEMA, and provide valuable additional information on the background and
applicability of both standards, with regard to existing infrastructures:
A significant difference in electrical system characteristics that has influenced electrical safety
rules is the difference in voltage for the majority of utilization circuits. In North America and a
number of other countries, typical household and other general purpose receptacle circuits
operate at 120 V, ac. In European countries and some other parts of the world, 240 V, ac,
(between conductors and to ground) is the norm. The higher voltage makes it easier to
disconnect earth faults in TN systems without use of residual current devices (RCDs).
However, the higher circuit voltage can create higher touch voltages. Together with the
permitted variations in supply system grounding (earthing) rules, a necessity is created to
devote more attention to prevention of shock hazards due to indirect contact (with accessible
parts that may become live due to a fault). One important consideration in development of
new national electrical installation requirements, is the type of existing infrastructure and
electrical supply systems. In areas where the general purpose utilization circuits operate at
120 V, ac, the NEC may be more appropriate. Even if these circuits operate at 240 V and the
supply systems are of TNS or TNCS type, the NEC could be applied with modifications to some
parts of the Code, mainly in Article 210 sections on branch circuit voltages. The Code also
accommodates IT and TNC systems. In the event the existing branch circuit conductors have
metric dimensions and the common conductor sizes and overcurrent device ratings of the IEC
standards are employed, some adjustments in the NEC would be necessary, mostly for unit
conversions. However, from the standpoint of uniform application and enforcement, the NEC,
with its comprehensive requirements, would be a more appropriate base document for
development of national wiring rules. Countries with IT, TNC, TNS, and TNCS systems could
adopt Chapter 13 on fundamental principles as the guiding principles and adopt the NEC as
the national installation and wiring rules, or they could use IEC 60364 as a basis for
development of their national rules.
In areas of the world where TT premises wiring systems exist, the IEC 60364 documents may
be more suitable for promulgating national wiring rules. The NEC specifically prohibits TT
supply systems. The IEC 60364 documents contain the requirements for the additional safety
features, which are necessary for TT supply systems.
4.2 Conclusions
As mentioned in the foreword, this study is derived from the preliminary research that was
done in the context of the WFP Electrical Standards Project, with the purpose of identifying
those standards and regulations that could ensure the objectives of consistent performance for
electrical installations in WFP premises, facilities and operations.
The guidelines provide greater detail on the objectives, considerations and recommendations
that have been developed in the project, however the reasons that drove the adoption of the
fundamental principles and requirements of the IEC 60364 series of Technical Standards, while
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leaving flexibility for the choice of national/local electrical codes, are grounded in this report
and should be clearer to the reader at this point.
For readers who may be interested in more detailed analysis and information on the subject, a
specific bibliography is included here below.
5. Bibliography
Electrical codes, standards, recommended practices and regulations, by Robert J. Alonzo, ed.
Elsevier, 2010;
International electrical standards and regulations: an overview of electrical installations,
Legrand (downloadable on Legrand website);
Electrical installation requirements: a global perspective - National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (USA) By Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Principal Investigator Paul Duks - April
1999 (downloadable on NEMA website).
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1. Introduction
The hazard presented by electricity for human beings and animals is mainly due to the current
that can flow through their body. An electric current is generated by a difference in potential
energy (voltage) between two parts, causing a flow of electrons between the two parts when
these are somehow connected with a conductive element. When a human or animal body
comes into contact with two parts that have a different potential, it becomes the conductor for
the electric current that is generated. To better understand this concept, it is useful to observe
birds that sit quietly on HV electric cables: although it may seem a dangerous location,
nothing happens so long as they are in contact with only one cable. On the other hand, should
any living body come into contact with two HV cables with different potentials, consequences
would certainly be lethal.
It is therefore evident that electrical safety lies primarily in equi-potentiality. If all the
conductive surfaces (or objects) that a person can reach at a given time are at the same
voltage, no harm is possible.
However, this does not mean that electric shock is only possible touching two different
energized objects. In fact, in electrical installations, live parts are maintained at a certain
voltage, or potential difference, with respect to earth voltage which is considered neutral. This
means that if any conductive part (including a person or an animal), comes into contact with a
live part and the earth at the same time - a current will flow through the part (or the body).
Considering this, one of the main methods for protection is insulation. For example, if a
person is equipped with special boots that provide insulation from the ground, that person will
be able to touch a live part without being exposed to a dangerous current. Of course, the
effectiveness of insulation depends on the voltage, and therefore insulation layers and
protective equipment need to be adequate to the voltage (both for thickness and inherent
insulation capacity). Moreover, air itself can conduct electricity when the voltage between two
parts is too high with respect to the distance between them; the sudden establishment of a
current in free air, with light and heat production, is known as arc flash phenomenon. Air
conductivity can be influenced by the humidity, as water is a good conductor. And water
conductivity is the reason for which the contact with electricity, in presence of water, is even
more dangerous.
The amount of current that can be caused by a voltage depends on the resistance of the
circuit. The resistance is the opposite of conductivity, as it measures the opposition that the
current will face while flowing through a specific circuit. The energy that is lost to overcome
this opposition is dissipated into heat.
When a person comes into contact with two live parts at a different voltage, or with a live part
and the earth, the body becomes the circuit through which the current flows. The mechanisms
by which the tissues are damaged will be analysed ahead, but it is important to understand
that the resistance of the whole circuit, including the body, affects the amount of current to
which the body is exposed. The energy of the current, that can be calculated multiplying the
current intensity by the applied voltage, will be dissipated into the body due to its intrinsic
resistance, mainly through heat.
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2. Types of contact
As mentioned in the guidelines, when a person comes into contact with electricity, this contact
is classifiable as indirect or direct. Indirect contact is the contact with a conductive part that is
not normally live, but has become live due to a fault in insulation of live parts (e.g. the
metallic enclosure of an electric device). In this case the voltage applied to the contacts
depends on the entity of the fault. On the other hand, direct contact is the contact with a
conductive part that is normally live, and therefore it happens at the full voltage of the
system: in case of contact with a live part and the ground, the voltage would be the single
phase voltage E (110 240 V). Instead, with two different live parts, the voltage is the threephase voltage V (240 400 V, roughly 1.7 times the voltage toward earth). Examples of
types of contact are shown in the picture below:
In general, considering all other factors unchanged, the most dangerous contact condition is
the one show in the picture on the right, as the only resistance offered to the current flow is
the resistance of the body, and the body itself therefore absorbs all the energy. In the first
two conditions, the intensity of the current, and consequently the amount of energy that the
body would absorb, depends on the overall resistance of the circuit through the ground (earth
resistance).
It must be noted that, if there is an alternative circuit with a minor resistance, the electric
current will be divided between the two circuits in reverse proportion to the resistance. This
means that, if a metallic enclosure is connected to the ground through a low resistance
conductor (ground or earth conductor), in case of a fault causing a voltage on the enclosure a
greater amount of current would preferentially pass through the conductor rather than through
a body. The intensity of the current that would flow through the body in case of indirect
contact is therefore greatly reduced if the electrical systems and metallic enclosures are
properly connected to earth (Earthing or Grounding).
3. Step potential
The ground (earth) under our feet is usually considered to be at 0 V. As already mentioned,
power lines, radio antennas and most electrical systems are usually earthed (grounded) by
connecting the neutral point and the metallic parts to metal rods driven into the ground. This
is necessary to ensure that the voltage of live parts (or potential difference with the ground) is
limited to the design voltage, and at the same time to ensure that all the conductive parts,
which are not live under normal conditions, are equipotential to the ground. In case of an
insulation fault, the voltage is dissipated to earth through the connection.
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If a person walks barefoot on the ground with his/her feet spread apart, there should be 0 V
between the two feet. This normal state can be temporarily modified if a loss of insulation
occurs in HV power lines or transforming stations, or if a HV conductor reaches the ground, or
if lightning strikes.
When an energized part contacts the ground directly or through another conductor, this
condition is referred to as a ground fault. The voltage on the ground creates a radial potential
field, with voltage decreasing with distance. The decrease rate is defined ground potential
gradient. Step voltage is the difference between ground potentials at a step distance.
When the step voltage is different from zero, it can cause electric shock, and therefore the
ground surrounding HV power lines or equipment can become potentially dangerous when a
fault occurs.
Other factors that may affect the severity of the shock are:
Voltage (the effect of voltage is also related to the current that it can generate)
Effects can range from a barely perceptible tingle to muscular contractions, severe burns and
immediate cardiac arrest. However, the more frequent and important effects that a current
can cause are mainly four:
Tetany
Persistent muscular contraction, known as tetany, happens when the intensity and duration of
the current is sufficient to override the voluntary impulses that control muscles. Usually this
happens for pulsating currents greater than 10 mA for women and 15 mA for men. Under
certain conditions the contraction lasts until the current stops, and this phenomenon is called
tetany. As a consequence, the victim may not be able to leave the electrified part. Depending
on the duration of the contact and on the path of current through the body, tetany can cause
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difficulty in breathing, convulsions, respiratory and cardiac arrest and loss of consciousness.
Tetany is involved in 10 % of deaths due to electrocution.
Respiratory arrest
Respiratory arrest can happen when tetany affects the muscles that take part in respiration,
usually with currents above 20-30 mA, determining suffocation and loss of consciousness.
Respiratory arrest contributes to approximately 6% of deaths due to electrocution.
Ventricular fibrillation
Electric nerve impulses, in normal condition, control the cardiac muscle. If an electrical current
overrides these impulses, it can disrupt the normal heart rhythm, and cause ventricular
fibrillation. This phenomenon is normally caused by currents greater than 70-100 mA, and is
found in 90% of electrocution deaths, concurring with other effects.
Burns
As mentioned above an electric current, flowing through the human body, dissipates its energy
in the form of heat (Joule effect). This effect is usually stronger on the skin where the surface
contact resistance is higher, so much that it is sometimes possible to clearly identify the so
called entry and exit wounds (burns). Even though the terms entry and exit can be
misleading if used for an electric current, which is usually bi-directional, by locating the
wounds it is possible to determine the path of the current through the body in order to assess
the possible damage to internal tissues. Burns can also be caused by arc flashes, and usually a
flash burn where no current entered the body tends to be diffuse and relatively uniform.
It is possible to represent the likelihood of the different effects of an electric current (AC
between 15 and 100 Hz) flowing through the human body, on the basis of its intensity and
duration of exposure (Left hand to feet current).
Picture 1
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Of course, due to the multiplicity of factors involved, the injuries that may result from any
given amperage can be predicted only on a statistical basis. The following table presents
another general relationship for 50-60 Hz AC, hand-to-foot shock of one second's duration:
Current level
(Milliamperes)
1 mA
5mA
Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average individual can let
go. However, strong involuntary reactions to shocks in this range may
lead to injuries.
6mA - 16mA
17mA - 99mA
100mA - 2000mA
> 2,000mA
To have an idea of the quantities involved, the reader can consider that a normal power outlet
for office/residence is capable of supplying up to 16 Amp of current, which corresponds to
16,000 mA, therefore 8 times the level that can cause cardiac arrest according to the study
above. That is why specific protection measures are necessary.
Different effects with AC/DC electricity
It must be noted that the consequences of DC on the human body are usually different from
those due to AC. Due to an intrinsic capacitor effect of cells, dry human skin tends to oppose
greater resistance to AC than to DC, and DC is usually less dangerous than AC of the same
intensity. This is especially true for low frequencies in the interval from 15 to 100 Hz, as in this
range the AC pulsation is most likely to cause tetany and its collateral effects like respiratory
problems, convulsions, suffocation. DCs most common damage, instead, is caused by tissues
overheating due to Joule effect.
Another important factor is the path that the electric current follows through the body, and the
organs or tissues that it finds on its way. For example, the most dangerous path, with regard
to the likelihood of ventricular fibrillation, is left hand to right hand.
When evaluating the resistance that the human body would oppose to an electric current, it is
important to consider all the following factors:
Voltage: there is experimental evidence that the skins resistance decreases when the applied
voltage increases, up to becoming negligible over 100 V.
Status of the skin: the presence of humidity (even sweat) or of abrasions/wounds in the
contact area determines a reduction of resistance. On the contrary, where the skin presents
callouses, the resistance increases.
Contact surface: increasing the surface that is interested by the contact, the resistance
decreases.
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Contact pressure: a higher contact pressure brings along a lower resistance (e.g.: when a
fault occurs in a tool that has to be firmly hold, like a drill, the likelihood of tetany in the
hands muscles is higher, and it can be
Contact duration: usually a prolonged contact reduces the resistance, unless other
phenomena happen, like when the skin is charred by excessive heat causing, on the opposite,
a significant increase in resistance.
Path of the current: while the picture no. 1 refers to a left-hand-to-feet path, in order to
compare a current of the same intensity with a different path, some coefficients (F) have been
introduced. Therefore, if I is the current intensity, the value Ieq or equivalent intensity is
defined as I / F, where F can be:
Left-hand-to-right-hand: F = 0.4
Right-hand-to-feet: F = 0.8
Back-to-right-hand: F = 0.3
Back-to-left-hand: F = 0.7
Chest-to-right-hand: F = 1.3
Chest-to-left-hand: F = 1.5
Obviously, these factors have been calculated considering ventricular fibrillation as the most
dangerous effect. It is evident therefore that the factor value is directly affected by the
likelihood that a certain path will cross the cardiac area.
5. Safety curve
In the international context and for electrical design purpose, the threshold usually assumed
as the safety curve, is shown in the picture below, representing the relationship between time
and current intensity on a statistical basis. The safety curve is intermediate between the b
curve defining the threshold for electric shock, and the c1 curve defining the threshold for
ventricular fibrillation):
Picture 2
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For practical reasons, and for design purpose, it is preferable to refer to the safety curve in
terms of time-voltage curve. The relation between the two curves is given by the Ohm law,
considering Rb as the resistance of the human body, and REB the resistance between the body
and earth. It is prudentially assumed a path hands-to-feet, with feet laying on the ground.
REB resistance is assumed equal to 1,000 Ohm in indoor environments and to 200 Ohm
outdoor.
Picture 3
Basically, the safety limit for AC voltage even in case of prolonged contact (5 seconds for
study purposes) is set at 50 V indoor and 25 V outdoor. In DC, the safety limit is 120 V indoor
and 60 V outdoor.
These limits, which are considerably lower than usual voltage in power supply throughout the
world (usually 120 / 240 V) require additional measures, on top of those required for the
systems to work, in order to ensure effective protection from indirect/direct contacts.
6. Conclusions
As discussed in the relevant paragraphs, voltages and currents capable of causing severe
burns and cardiac arrest, are normally present in all circuits of any electrical system. Standard
power supply voltage is always above 100 V, and in order to allow proper operation of the
electrical systems, terminal circuit breakers are usually set to 10 16 Amps (minimum), well
beyond the threshold that cause damage to the human body. This happens because circuit
breakers are intended to protect the electrical systems and, as a standard, cannot prevent
electric shock or electrocution. For this reason, protection from electric shock needs to be
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considered separately from other design issues, ensuring a proper combination of time and
current thresholds for the intervention of breakers, in close coordination with the earth
connection system, in order to guarantee safety.
A special type of circuit breakers has been designed to protect persons from electric shock.
These are known under different names such as Residual Current Devices (RCD), or Ground
Fault Breakers (GFB), or Electric Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB). These devices,
notwithstanding the different names, are all based on the same principle; i.e. they are
designed to stop any current that is not coming back into normal circuits (live phases or
neutral conductor) on the assumption that, as a consequence of a fault, the missing current is
flowing through the earth or through an accidental contact. The safety threshold for their
intervention has been established at 30 milli-Amps, a current limit that is related to the safety
limit for voltage, in coordination with a time of intervention that is limited to few milliseconds,
so that no permanent damage is possible, apart from a quick shock.
The use of these breakers is a good additional protection measure on top of insulation and
earth connection, to prevent electrocution. IEC prescribes mandatory use of these breakers
under certain conditions (see guidelines, protection from electric shock). In some cases, but
only in TN systems and on the basis of a proper design of the system, short circuit breakers
can provide the same level of safety of RCDs.
In conclusion, on the basis of what was discussed in this document, three levels can be
defined for electrical safety:
Level 1, consisting of the so-called passive protective measures, intended to ensure equipotentiality and/or prevent users from touching live parts (insulation, earth connection,
segregation of electric equipment);
Level 2, consisting of the so-called active protective measures, intended to intervene in
case of insulation faults or any other fault through disconnection of power supply (earth
connection in coordination with breakers);
Passive and Active protection measures need to be built-in into the electrical infrastructure,
and therefore pertain to the Design and Erection phases.
Level 3, not less important than the other two for electrical safety, is the establishment of
correct operation and maintenance procedures, and the provision of complete and correct
training to operators and information to users.
Operators (internal staff or maintenance contractors) need to be properly trained to work in a
safely manner and ensure safety for users through regular maintenance procedures.
Users need to be aware of the potential electrical risk in the areas they can access; and
capable of recognizing a potentially dangerous situation (e.g. an exposed conductor), to
promptly inform maintenance staff and request intervention. Finally, they should be not
allowed into technical rooms/areas, where access should be restricted to technicians (see also
guidelines paragraph 11.4, basic safety precautions for users).
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1. Load priority
As discussed in the guidelines, Chapter 7, requirements for power supply should be analysed
prior to commencing design of an electrical installation. In particular, requirements for safety,
security and business continuity should be considered carefully, providing for the most
appropriate back-up systems. (See for example WFP IT requirements, at the end of this
Annex). Power outages can happen as a consequence of a fault in the electrical installation or
in the external power distribution network, while some maintenance actions may require
planned service interruptions. Both types of event require specific provisions in terms of backup equipment, with automatic or manual change-over.
It is suggested to classify the different loads (circuits and/or equipment) in priority categories.
The factors to be considered in order to assign priorities and decide on back-up requirements
are:
1. Reliability of primary power supply (likelihood and expected duration of power outages,
based on historical data)
2. Type of service provided by the equipment or system (safety, security, mission critical,
or none of them)
3. Consequences and tolerable length of break in power supply (see guidelines paragraph
7.16 for the classification of automatic supplies according to change-over time)
4. Optimization of available resources
Consequences of a power outage can be of different types: damage to equipment, loss of
data, service disruption (office temporarily unable to deliver). Of course, provisions to
prevent/recover data loss should be made in coordination with the IT unit, and include the
design and installation of IT equipment and systems that go beyond the scope of this
document (e.g. data back-up, etc.).
Four categories can be identified for priority of loads, each of them with recommended
provisions for continuity; in a single installation, multiple priorities can co-exist, and therefore
the structure of circuits should be designed in accordance with priority requirements: in
general, loads in the same priority category should be grouped and served through dedicated
circuits.
The suggested four categories, from lower to higher priority, are:
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service disruption is limited to the duration of change-over time with the back-up source. Due
to the nature of its function, the standby source should be readily available and therefore the
use of diesel generators is preferable. Standby equipment should be properly maintained and
regularly tested to ensure availability. Change-over should be automatic. Elevators, HVAC
systems, ordinary lighting, security systems are typical loads requiring a stand-by power
source in case of temporary unavailability of the primary source, depending on the availability
of resources.
2. Considerations on autonomy
UPS systems can only provide a short-term autonomy, in the range of minutes or hours
(usually no more than one), in order to have a reasonable quantity of batteries and limit
maintenance cost and space requirements. On the other hand, diesel generators can provide
long-term autonomy, depending on fuel storage capacity or on regular fuel supplies. The
capacity of tanks should be designed according to the required stand-alone autonomy, in
agreement with the business owner, taking into consideration the following factors:
Looking at a worst case scenario, the overall autonomy of the back-up system (UPS device/s
and generator/s) should be designed on the basis of specific load requirements. To give an
example, for IT equipment the minimum autonomy requirement is the one that allows to shut
down equipment without damage or loss of data.
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3. Conclusions
The considerations discussed above pertain to the design and erection phases of an electrical
installation. Of course, some adjustments to the priority categorization and to the
arrangements for back-up could become necessary during operation and maintenance, and in
this case the same considerations apply. Moreover, maintenance is essential to preserve the
reliability of back-up systems. Standby systems, by nature, include sleeping equipment and
machines that are run just a few hours per year, but whose readiness is indispensable. As
mentioned in the guidelines tests, drills and simulations should be performed regularly, to
check all equipment (automatic change-over systems, automatic start of generators, UPS
electronics, batteries, etc.). Maintenance personnel needs to be properly trained so to be able
to take prompt and effective action in case of any emergency.
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and cause decreased output. Under extreme circumstances, generators can cease to function.
In general, the influence of environmental conditions becomes significant over 1500 m (5000
feet) above sea level, or with ambient temperatures over 38 C (100 F) for a significant
length of time.
The effects of different parameters are discussed here below:
Altitude: air pressure drops with altitude, reducing the air density. This can create problems
with generator start up if not accounted for since air is crucial for ignition in any type of
generator. Another effect is reduced heat dissipation. In fact, the heat that is created during
the combustion process needs to be dissipated into the environment to reduce engine
temperature. At high altitudes, due to the lower air density, heat dissipation occurs at a much
slower rate than it would at sea levels, resulting in high engine temperatures for a sustained
period of time. Overheating is a common problem in such cases.
Temperature: High temperatures are also associated with lower air density and can cause
similar ignition problems due to inadequate air supply. This can stress the engine, pushing to
deliver the necessary power, but failing due to inadequate oxygen levels available for
combustion. As a consequence, the engine gets overheated and suffers serious damage over
time.
Humidity: Humidity is the measure of water content in a given volume of air. In conditions of
extreme humidity, water vapour in the air displaces oxygen. Low oxygen levels impair ignition,
since oxygen is the element in air that is ignited in an engine for the burning of fuel.
3. Derating Generators
As discussed above, fluctuations in environmental conditions reduce the capacity of the
generator to perform at desired levels. In such cases, the design power rating of the machine
should be reduced, to take into account the effect of environmental conditions. In simple
words, to obtain the same power output, a bigger generator is needed. This technique, called
'Derating', is employed to determine the generators performance under new ambient
conditions. Derating is defined by Wikipedia as the technique employed in power electrical
and electronic devices wherein the devices are operated at less than their rated maximum
power dissipation.
Since derating depends on technical parameters of the machines design and construction,
different brands have different derating factors for estimating generator output under nonstandard ambient conditions. Therefore, most manufacturers advise to contact the dealer for
information on the appropriate derating factors for a specific model.
As a rule of thumb, a general formula can be used to estimate the output level of a generator
in non-standard conditions. Averagely, the derating factor can be estimated between 2 and
4% for every 305 m (1000 ft) above sea-level, and 0.5% for every degree over 38 C.
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(i.e. chose a bigger generator) as per the manufacturers derating formula and operate the
unit accordingly so as to avoid overburdening the generator. In low temperatures, fuel can
require winterization or use of additives. Regular maintenance and repairs must be taken care
of to enhance the life span of the generator, in accordance with manufacturers specifications.
A trained technician or experienced electrical contractor should always be consulted prior to
attempting any type of modications, in order to ensure safety, reliability, and efficiency.
5. References
IEEE Std 115, Guide for Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines
ISO Std 8528-1 (2005), Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine Drive Alternating
Current, Generating Sets
IEC 60034, International Standard for Electrical Rotating Machines, 11th edition, 2004
Cat Application and Installation Guide for Electric Power Applications, Engine and
Generator Sizing
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The operating voltage range, i.e. the range of voltage values in which the device
can be safely operated. Breakers and fuse should be selected on the basis of the
operating voltage of the installation under normal service conditions;
The breaking capacity, i.e. the value in kA of the maximum fault current that the
breaker or fuse is able to interrupt. Breakers and fuses should always be selected in
order to have a higher breaking capacity than the maximum fault current value
expected on the protected circuit.
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Such a current can be detected and interrupted through the use of a specific type of breakers,
known under the names of:
These devices operate on the basis of the magnetic field originated by currents flowing
through the conductors in the circuit, and can promptly identify and interrupt earth leakages.
In single phase circuits, RCDs monitor live phase (L) and neutral (N), or two or more live
phases when the neutral is not present. In three-phase circuits, RCDs monitor the three live
conductors (L1-3), and the neutral (N) when present. Since the circuits are closed, the sum of
currents in all the live phases and the neutral should always be zero.
RCDs compare the currents flowing through the conductors to detect a leakage, when the sum
is different from zero. It is evident that if the protective and neutral functions are combined
(like it happens in TN-C systems) RCDs would not be able to properly detect a leakage,
because fault currents would flow through the neutral (PEN) conductor as well. For this
reason, the use of TN-C systems is not recommended.
Some models of RCD allow to adjust the value of leakage current or the delay before
intervention, however common values for leakage current intensity are between 0.03 A and
0.5-1 A. It must be noted that 0.03 A (30 mA) RCDs, under certain conditions, ensure
protection from the harmful effects of electric shock (see Annex 3 on electrical safety).
RCD modules can be combined with magnetic and thermal module to form a single multifunctional breaker to provide multi-purpose protection.
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Foreword
This document intends to present suggestions for the selection of electrical designers and
installers (individuals and companies). Applicability and relevance of each of the qualification
requirements should be carefully considered on a case-by-case basis, considering the context,
purpose and terms of reference of the selection. The final list of requirements for each
selection could include mandatory and desirable requirements.
Once the requirements have been defined, qualification should be verified through document
check as much as possible, and/or through interview. For the selection of companies, past
employers can be interviewed to assess past performance.
Unfortunately, there are no international standards or qualification systems for electrical
designers and installers. However, as mentioned in the guidelines, in countries where an
official charter or qualification system exist for either designers and/or installers (individuals or
companies), possession of the necessary registration/qualifications shall be a mandatory
requirement.
The requirements presented in this document are limited to technical capacity, and therefore
do not cover all other mandatory and desirable qualifications that are necessary for hiring staff
and/or contracting companies. The reader should refer to HR and procurement processes and
procedures for those aspects.
power demand;
4. Good knowledge of one or more of the electrical codes recommended by the guidelines
(Paragraph 3.3), and/or the selected code for the installation (mandatory);
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For companies
The company shall propose a team of designers for the project(s), and present individual CVs
of team members (Mandatory);
The qualifications described above for a consultant shall be possessed by at least one of the
team members, who shall take the role of Technical Director for design and will certify the
conformity of the final design with the applicable code (Mandatory);
Past experience of the company should include at least 3 similar projects, considering the
factors listed above in point 1.3 (Mandatory).
Where applicable, depending on the context, the company should be in possession of a quality
certification (ISO 9001 or equivalent);
Where applicable, possess of specific qualification, license, registration or recognition released
by a national body, professional association or other institution/authority.
Diesel generators;
Photovoltaic systems;
Wind turbines;
Note: the candidate should have experience in one or more of the categories above
depending on the hiring managers requirements.
3. Working knowledge of one or more electrical codes (mandatory);
4. Ability to correctly size a circuit and identify the appropriate breaker for protection,
given the load (mandatory);
5. Ability to assess power demand of electrical installations based on the nominal power of
equipment (mandatory);
6. Ability to size a generator accordingly to loads power demand and function, using the
correct rating (mandatory).
7. Where applicable, possess of specific qualification, license, registration or recognition
released by a national body, professional association or other institution/authority.
For companies
1. The company should be in possession of the Management System Certifications listed
below (mandatory where applicable):
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60364-1
60364-4-41
60364-4-42
60364-4-43
60364-4-44
60364-5-51
60364-5-52
60364-5-53
60364-5-54
60364-5-55
60364-5-56
60364-6
Part 6: Verification
60364-7-701
60364-7-702
60364-7-703
60364-7-704
60364-7-705
60364-7-706
60364-7-707
60364-7-708
60364-7-709
60364-7-710
60364-7-711
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60364-7-712
60364-7-713
60364-7-714
60364-7-715
60364-7-717
60364-7-718
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