EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Starting of Cage Induction Motors

There are a number of ways of starting squirrel cage induction motors. Each method has its
own characteristics and place of correct application. The most commonly used methods are
outlined in the following paragraphs.
1.1

Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starting

At standstill, the cage-type induction motor is similar to a transformer with a shorted

secondary winding. Hence, the application of rated voltage to the stator winding causes a
high stator current of around 6 times the rated full-load value, at low power-factor. This
current quickly decreases as the machine accelerates and slip decreases. The high starting
current is generally not a problem for the motor itself, since the machine thermal time
constant is usually much greater than the rotor run-up time. However, it has to be taken
into account when choosing protection devices for the machine, such as fuses and
overloads. The protection devices are normally designed to effectively ignore this starting
characteristic.
An induction motor with a Direct-On-Line (DOL) starter is shown in Fig. 1. Note the fuse
and overload sensor (OLS) used as protection devices. The drawing of large starting
currents, in all but small machines, causes the supply voltage in the vicinity of the machine
to fall, or dip slightly. This is due to the voltage drop across the source impedance and
may be explained with reference to Fig. 1 in which the voltage at the main distribution
board is given by: V = ES - Idol ZS
The system voltage dip may lead to objectionable lamp 'flicker' if excessive or frequent.
Incandescent lamps are particularly sensitive to fluctuations of voltage magnitude in that a
fluctuation of 0.5% at a frequency of 8-Hz will cause annoying lamp flicker. Thus,
frequent starting could be particularly problematic. In addition to incandescent lamp
dimming, voltage dips can affect other motors running on the same supply, e.g. increase in
running slip or possibly stalling. This simple method is therefore used where system
capacity and stiffness is sufficient to stand the high inrush currents without excessive
voltage drop.
The following factors are to be considered while selecting the type of starting:
Size: e.g. DOL starting of pump motors up to 45-kW.
Inertia of Load: e.g. DOL starting of fan motors up to 18.6-kW.
Frequent Start: e.g. DOL starting of pump motors up to 15-kW.
It is good practice to avoid, where possible, simultaneous starting of motors, which may
lead to excessive voltage drops.
Other loads
Fuse

ZS

OLS
o o

ES ~

DOL
contactor
starter

Fig.1: Connections and equivalent circuit for DOL starting

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

1.2

Reduced Voltage Starting

- Star-Delta starting
This starting method is employed when the motor windings are connected in delta () for
normal operation and in star (Y) during start-up. Fig.2 shows a / starter in which three
contactors (RLS) per phase are used to connect the stator windings in Y and/or . At
starting, the star (S) contactors are closed while the delta contactors R are open to allow the
stator windings to be Y connected. When the motor picks up speed and current falls below
a set value, the star contactors S are de-energised and after a very short delay (to reduce
electrical transients) the delta () contactors R are energised connecting the stator winding
in delta.

Fig.2: Winding connections for Y-start -run (Y/) method

When the Y-connected motor is started, the stator phase voltage is reduced to 1 / 3 , or
58%, of its normal running value (line voltage). The star phase current is, therefore, also
reduced by 1 / 3 of its normal running delta phase value.
To consider the effect of star-delta starting on the motor line current, assume an effective
motor impedance of Z /phase, as shown in the figure below.
I Line

I Line

R
VLine

R
VP hase

I P hase

VLine

Z
Z
Y

If the motor is started in delta-connection (i.e. DOL) then:

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

I Phase

V Line
V
i.e. I Line 3 I Phase 3 Line
Z
Z

However, for the star-connected motor the starting line current is significantly reduced as
follows from:
I Line I Phase

1
VPhase VLine / 3
1 VLine
I Line I Line .

Z
Z
3
3 Z

The advantage of this scheme is that no equipment other than a / starter is needed.
However, the disadvantages are that all six ends of the stator windings must be accessible
and six 1-core cables or two 3-core cables are required between the starter and the motor.
In addition, both the starting current and torque are greatly reduced, since the
electromagnetic torque developed by the motor (at any slip) is directly proportional to the
square of the applied winding voltage (phase voltage) i.e. T k V 2 where k is a constant.
If the motor is started with delta-connection (i.e. DOL), VLine = VPhase, and therefore
2
TDOL k VLine . For Y-connected windings during start-up, VPhase VLine / 3 , so that

T k (V Line /

3 )2 meaning that:

k V Line 3
T

2
TDOL
k V Line

1
.
3

The starting torque is 1/3 of that available with DOL starting (the low torque leads to an
increased run-up time) which makes this method suitable for applications where load
torque during acceleration is low. Note that since the line current for star connection is also
1/3 of the DOL value as shown above, the Torque/Line Ampere for the machine remains
constant.
- Autotransfomer starting
In this method, an auto-transformer is placed in series with the motor during starting as
shown in Fig.3 and the corresponding single-line diagram in Fig. 4-b. The transformer
action reduces the voltage applied to the motor terminals (by transformer ratio) and the line
current is consequently less than the motor current. For this reason this method is usually
used in applications where complete motor acceleration at reduced amperes is needed.
At starting, the contactor R is open and S & Y are closed so that the stator windings are
supplied via the low-voltage taps of an autotransformer (Fig.4-b). After run-up, during
normal running, the switching states of the contactors are changed (R is closed and S&Y
are open) to allow the machine direct on-line connection.

Fig.3: Motor terminal connections for auto-transformer starting

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

I = x2 I DOL

I DOL

x I DOL

V
xV

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4: Single-line diagram for DOL (a) and auto-transformer (b) starting
In Fig. 4-a, a voltage V is directly applied to the motor, which results in a starting current
of I DOL (DOL starting). When starting by an autotransformer, each phase of the motor
windings is supplied with xV volts which results in a phase current of xI DOL . Consider
now the power-balance of the autotransformer:

V I xV x I DOL i.e. I x 2 I DOL

From the above expression it is obvious that when starting with an autotransformer at x-pu.
tapping (x is less than 1), the starting current is reduced to x2 of the DOL value.
As with the / starting, due to the lower applied voltage, the starting torque is also
reduced:

xV
TX

x2
2
TDOL
V
2

so that the Torque/Ampere is unchanged.

Three tappings are commonly provided with an autotransformer starter (e.g. 40, 60, 75 %
or 50, 65, 80 % of full voltage) but only one is used during starting. For example, if a
50% tapping is used, the motor current is reduced by a factor of 2 and the line starting
current is reduced to of that with DOL starting. Note that the starting torque is also
reduced by a factor of 4.
The main advantages of this scheme are that only a 3-core cable is required between the
starter and the motor and that the value of tapping (x) can be chosen to suit the
circumstances. Note that the motor may be either star or delta connected.
The main disadvantages are the loss in the starting torque and that the autotransformer
starter (its cost is comparable to or in excess of the / starter) is only utilised during
starting.

Effects of Source Impedance on Motor Starting

In the previous section, the effects of source impedance on starting performance of the
induction motor were ignored, i.e. the motor terminal voltage was assumed constant.
However, the flow of starting current through the source impedance creates a voltage drop,
which reduces the voltage at the terminals of the motor.
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For DOL starting the induction motor and supply system may be represented by the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig.5, where:
Zm

is the motor standstill impedance per phase and

ZS

is the source impedance.

Hence I DOL
and

VDOL

ES
ZS Zm

ZS
o

Zm
I DOL Zm
ES
ZS Zm

When starting with a / starter, the starting line

current is reduced to 1/3 of the DOL value. For
the same supply voltage ES, this is equivalent to
increasing the motor effective impedance by a
factor of 3 (i.e. 3Zm). Thus the equivalent circuit
becomes that in Fig.6, which gives:

ES ~

I DOL

ZS
o

ES ~

IY

3Z m

VY

Fig. 6: Y/ starting

3 Zm
V I 3 Zm
ES
ZS 3 Zm

With autotransformer starting, the effective

standstill impedance as seen at the terminals of the
autotransformer, shown in Fig.7, can be expressed
as:

Z in

Hence I LX

and

Zm

VDOL

Fig. 5: DOL starting

ES
I
ZS 3 Zm
and

Z
V ''
V ''
2 '' m2
I LX
x V
x
Zm

2 ''
ILX = xZ V
m

Im= xV
Zm

ZS
~ ES

Z in

V''

''

xV

''

Zm

ES
ZS

Zm
x2

V '' I LX Zin

Fig.7: Autotransformer starting

ES
ZS

Zm
x2

Zm
Zm

ES
2
x
Zm x 2 Z S

Several important observations can be made from the above expressions:

Zs Zm
1 Zm / Zs

1 i.e. the line current is generally lower for Y/

I DOL Z s 3Z m 1 3Z m / Z s
starting as compared to DOL as expected. For instance, if Z m Z s then
IY

IY 0.5I DOL and for Z m 4Z s this is only 38% of DOL current.

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Z 3Z m 1 3Z m / Z s
I LX
s

1 if 1 / x 2 3 i.e. x 1 / 3 0.58 .
Z
Z
IY
Zs m
1 m
2
x
x2Zs
Therefore, if the autotransformer tap-ratio at start-up is less than 58% then the current
loading is lower than with Y/ starting.
1 Zs / Zm
VY

1 i.e. the voltage drop on the source impedance is smaller for

VDOL 1 Z s / 3Z m
star/delta starting method due to lower starting current as shown above.

V ' ' 1 Z s / 3Z m

1 for x 0.58 . Under this tap-ratio condition, the

VY 1 x 2 Z s / Z m
autotransformer starting is better than star-delta one as it gives a higher terminal
voltage i.e. lower voltage drop.

Starting of Wound-Rotor Induction Motors

The DOL starting current of a wound-rotor motor may be reduced by connecting an

external 3-phase variable resistance in series with the rotor windings, via the slip rings. The
value of external resistances is gradually reduced as the rotor speed increases. An interlock
is usually employed to prevent main switch closure unless the starting resistances are at
their maximum values. The circuit arrangement and torque-slip characteristics of a woundrotor type induction motor with a four-point starter are shown in Fig. 8.
When the required number of resistance steps is small, the starting resistors may be
mounted on the rotor shaft and cut out using a centrifugal switch. This avoids the
requirement of slip rings and external switchgear. However, this device is complicated if
frequent starting is required, due to heat dissipation requirements, or if more than two
resistance steps are required. A motor fitted with a centrifugal switch will automatically
reset the starting resistors if stalled.

Fig.8: Starting of a wound-rotor induction motor with a four-point starter

As a remainder and for convenience of analysis, it would be useful to reproduce here the
steady-state equivalent circuit of an induction machine (Fig. 9), the corresponding
equations as well as a typical torque-slip characteristic similar to those in Fig. 8.

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Is

Vn

Im

Rs

jXs

jXr

jXm

Ir

Rr /s

Fig. 9: Steady-state per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction machine for purely

sinusoidal supply voltage (iron loss resistance not shown)
All the rotor parameters in Fig. 9 are referred to the stator winding, by means of the
transformation ratio. Symbols in bold denote phasors. The variable resistor in the rotor
circuit represents both rotor copper loss and power converted into mechanical. Recall that
the stator winding of the machine can be connected in either star or delta; the equivalent
circuit is valid for phase rather than line values, regardless of the winding connection. Thus
Vn stands for the rated phase to neutral voltage of the stator. All the reactances are given at
rated supply frequency.
The general torque-slip characteristic for a 2P-pole machine shown in Fig. 10 follows from
power flow considerations in Fig. 9, in the form:Te ( s)

Rr s
Rr s
3P 2
3P 2
Vn

Vn
2
2
2f
Rs Rr s X s X r 2f
R s R r s 2 X 2

(1)

Te
maximum (pull-out) torque

Ten
Test
operating region

sm sn 0

ns

slip
s
speed

Fig.10: Torque-speed curve of an induction machine for rated supply conditions

The operating region is restricted to slips up to typically 10%, indicating that the speed of
rotation changes with load but remains within rather narrow boundaries from no load up to
rated load. The maximum (pull-out) torque, rated torque and starting torque, as well as the
corresponding slips (indicated in Fig.10) can be calculated from the following expressions:

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

sm

Rr
Rs2 X 2

Tem Te ( s s m )
Test

Rr s m
3P 2
3P 2
1
Vn

Vn
2
2
2f
Rs Rr s m X 4f Rs Rs2 X 2

(2)

Rr
3P 2
Te ( s 1)
Vn
2f
Rs Rr 2 X 2

Ten Te ( s s n )

Rr s n
3P 2
Vn
2f
Rs Rr s n 2 X 2

Referring to the first two expressions for maximum electromagnetic torque (Tem ) and the
corresponding slip ( s m ) it is apparent that the rotor resistance ( R r ) influences s m , but not
the magnitude of the maximum torque. It is obviously possible to obtain maximum torque
at starting by adding the appropriate resistance in the rotor circuit (in series with the rotor
windings) so that sm 1 (see Fig. 11). Therefore the value of external resistance per phase
required to achieve maximum torque at start-up can be determined using the first
expression above as follows:-

sm

Rr Rext
Rs2

1 Rext Rs 2 X 2 Rr

(3)

This unique property of a wound rotor (slip ring) induction machine to achieve maximum
starting torque with relatively low supply current is its principal advantage over a cage
counterpart. It also serves as a basis for speed control of this machine (Fig. 11) as we shall
see in the following sections.
Stator

Te
Radd = 0
IM
Load torque

Rotor
Increasing Radd
Radd
1
s1
s2
sn
0
slip
Fig.11: Speed control of a WRIM by addition of resistance in the rotor winding basic
principle and torque-slip curves.
Example 1: External resistance control for maximum torque at start-up of a WRIM
A 380-V, 50-Hz, 4-pole, Y-connected slip ring induction machine is fully loaded at 5-Nm.
The stator and rotor resistance are 10- and 6.3-, respectively, while the leakage
reactances are 12- each. A magnetising reactance can be neglected.
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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

(a) Determine the slip for rated operating conditions;

(b) Calculate added resistance that will enable starting of the motor with the maximum
starting torque.
Solution:
(a)

Calculation of rated slip:

TL Ten 5 Nm = constant
Rr s n
3P 2
Ten
Vn
5 Nm
2f
Rs Rr s n 2 X s X r 2
Note that due to star connection Vn 380 3 220 V
Substituti ng all the known valu es in rated torque expression , one gets : 676s n2 1039.5s n 39.7 0
s n 0.039 3.9%
n s 60 f / P 1500 rpm

nn 1 s n nn 1441.5 rpm

Further,
Rr

sm

Rs2

X s X r

0.242 24.2%

Rr 1
3P 2
Vn
6.92 Nm
2f
Rs Rr 12 X s X r 2
Rr s m
3P 2
Tem
Vn
12.84 Nm
2f
Rs Rr s m 2 X s X r 2
(b) If the machine is to start with starting torque equal to maximum torque, then an
additional rotor resistance per phase required can be calculated as follows:Test

Tem Test s m 1
1

R r R add
R s2 X 2

R add R s2 X 2 R r 19.7

Power Electronic Control of Induction Machines

4.1

Introduction

Three-phase induction motors are the most frequently utilised electric machines in industry
(more than 70%). They are characterised with low cost, high reliability, high efficiency,
simple construction and, in the case of squirrel-cage induction motors, with virtually
maintenance-free operation. If operated with the stator three-phase voltage supply of fixed
frequency and magnitude, induction motors will run at a speed that very slightly depends
on loading.
In contrast to DC machines, where the choice of speed control methods and associated
power electronic converters that are nowadays in use is rather limited, there exists a variety
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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

of both speed control techniques and appropriate power electronic converters that are used
in conjunction with 3-phase induction motor drives. A 3-phase induction machine requires
3-phase AC supply at the stator side. In a squirrel-cage type of induction machines this is
simultaneously the only accessible winding. However, in slip-ring induction machines
there is more degrees of control freedom as the three-phase rotor winding may be
approached as well. Thus the speed of an induction machine may be controlled via the
stator voltage variations for both types of induction machines; additionally, the speed may
be controlled in slip-ring machines from the rotor side as well. Squirrel-cage induction
machines are by far the most frequently used. It is for this reason that the following
discussion will be predominantly devoted to speed control methods associated with the
alteration of the stator supply voltage. Only one method, specifically aimed at slip ring
machines, will be looked at.
If a 2P-pole induction machine is supplied with a voltage of frequency f then the so-called
synchronous speed of the stator revolving field can be expressed in rpm as:
ns = 60f / P

(4)

From this expression it follows that the synchronous speed can be altered by simply
changing the number of pole pairs - P. Assuming that the load torque is constant, if P is
doubled during operation of the machine, the synchronous speed will be halved, leading to
operation at approximately one half of the rated speed (as slip is small under normal
operating conditions). This method of speed control is used in low performance drives that
typically require operation at two distinctly different operating speed (say, a washing
machine; spinning is done at high speed, while normal washing cycle takes place at low
speed) but where control accuracy is not an imperative.
Speed control by pole pair changing requires a specially wounded stator and is usually
realised by mechanically reconnecting the stator winding from one pole pair number to
another. The linear portions of typical torque-speed characteristics for a change-over from
2-pole to 4-pole stator are shown in Fig.12. Power electronics converters are obviously not
involved in this speed control method, and its applicability is restricted to the cases where
two discrete speed values, rather than continuous speed variation, are needed. Therefore
speed control by pole pair changing will not be considered further on.
The general torque expression for an induction machine (1), suggests that, for a given
torque, the speed (slip) of an induction machine can be adjusted by changing the stator
applied voltage (V) and/or frequency (f). The two consequent methods of speed control,
universally applicable to all the 3-phase induction machines, that will be elaborated in
more detail are:
(1) the speed control by stator voltage variation and
(2) speed control by simultaneous stator voltage and frequency variation.
The former, although relatively simple, has restricted applicability for the reasons that will
be explained in the following; the latter is the most widely used method of speed control of
induction machines. Finally, a method valid for slip-ring machines only based on the
insertion of a series resistance in the rotor circuit, will be discussed as well.

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4.2

Speed Control by Stator Voltage Variation

The equation (1) shows that electromagnetic torque developed by an induction machine is
proportional to the square of the applied rms stator phase voltage (V). Thus, for a given
load torque, a reduction of voltage will lead to the operation with an increased slip, i.e.,
with a decreased speed as shown in Fig. 13. As the supply voltage is not allowed to exceed
its rated value, this method of speed control can be utilised only for reducing the speed
below rated. Note that, according to (3), the pull-out slip is not a function of the applied
voltage. Hence the motor develops maximum torque at constant slip (speed), determined
with (5), regardless of the applied voltage. However, as both maximum (pull-out) and
starting torques are functions of the voltage squared, the reduction in voltage results in the
reduction in starting torque which means that the motor will be able to start only light loads
at low speeds; also a decrease of maximum torque implies that overloading capability of
the motor is compromised. This is one of the major drawbacks of this method.
Te
load torque
A

1500
3000 speed (rpm)
Fig. 12: Speed control by changing pole pair number: drive operates either at point A or B.
Another limitation of the method is that the speed drops with reducing the voltage
incurring additional copper losses in the rotor winding due to increased slip as previously
mentioned. Regardless of these two serious shortcomings, this speed control technique is
widely used in two distinct cases. When the load torque is proportional to the speed
squared (pumps, ventilators, compressors, etc.) then even a small reduction in speed means
significant reduction in the output power, which is proportional to the cube of the speed.
For a number of applications having load torque of this type it is sufficient to vary the
speed in this narrow region. The second application is in drives that run for prolonged
periods of time with very light loads. In such a situation it is advantageous to reduce the
voltage for light load operation as this improves the efficiency of the drive. In other words,
considerable saving in electricity consumption may be achieved in this way.

Te
rated voltage

reducing voltage

operating region
slip
1
sm 0
s
Fig.13: Torque-slip characteristics of an induction machine with speed control by stator
voltage variation.
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Example 2: Speed control by stator voltage variation

A 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor drives a full load at rated slip of 3%. A stator and
rotor resistance (referred to stator) are both equal to 0.015- and a total leakage reactance
is X = 0.09-. (a) Calculate the necessary reduction in the stator supply voltage if the
induction motor is to drive the same load but with a 15% slip; (b) Compare the rotor losses
for the two operating points and comment on the results obtained.
Solution:
(a) Pull-out slip of the motor is:
Rr
sm
0.015 0.015 2 0.09 2 0.164 16.4%
2
2
Rs X
The reduction of the voltage to allow the operation with 15% slip at unchanged load torque
can be calculated as follows.
operating points : s n 0.03 and s1 0.15
Rr s1
Rr s1
3P 2
V1
V12
2f
Rs Rr s1 2 X 2
Rs Rr s1 2 X 2
Te1
1

Rr s n
Rr s n
3P 2
Ten
Vn
Vn2
2f
Rs Rr s n 2 X 2
Rs Rr sn 2 X 2
V1
s R Rr s1 2 X 2 0.15 0.015 0.015 / 0.152 0.09 2
1 s

0.39
2
2
2
2
V
s
0
.
03

R
s

X
0
.
015

0
.
015
/
0
.
03

0
.
09
n
n
s
r n
V1 0.624Vn Necessary voltage reduction is 37.6%.
This situation is illustrated in the accompanying figure.
2

Te
rated voltage
TL = Ten
62.4% of
rated voltage
0.16 0.03

slip

0.15

(b) Let us now examine an increase in rotor losses that takes place with this speed control
method. Taking the power transferred from the stator to the rotor (electromagnetic
power) to be Psr, for these two operating conditions one has

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for rated slip s n 0.03 :

Pn 1 s n Psrn Psrn

Pn
1.03Pn ; copper losses : Pcurn s n Psrn 0.031Pn
1 sn

for new slip s 0.15 at the same (rated) torque :

mechanical power : P Ten Ten 1 s s Ten n

1 s
0.876 Pn
1 sn

P
0.876 Pn / 0.85 1.03Pn Psrn
1 s
sPsr 0.15 1.03Pn 0.1545Pn

electromag netic power : Psr

copper loss : Pcur

This consideration shows that power transferred from stator to rotor is the same for the two
cases. Hence reduction in output power of 12.4% reflects itself directly on an increase in
rotor copper loss from 3.1% to more than 15% of the rated power. As this loss takes place
in the motor, it will essentially cause overheating. Needless to say, efficiency is sharply
reduced. Starting problems with reduced voltage and this increase in losses are the two
main reasons why this speed control method is not used with constant load torques. The
situation is much improved in both respects when the load torque is proportional to the
speed square as is the case in pump-like applications. Speed control by stator voltage
variation is therefore applied in conjunction with this type of load in practice.
Speed control by stator voltage variation is realised by using an AC-AC voltage controller
in each stator phase of the machine as shown in Fig.14. The firing delay angle of the
thyristors may be controlled to provide soft-starting as well in order to alleviate the
electro-mechanical starting problems of cage-type motors as will be discussed in the
following section. The same voltage controller structure is also a basic configuration used
in power systems for reactive power compensation.
It should be noted that although the principle of operation of an AC-AC controller is very
simple (to be reviewed in the following section), an analysis of the system in Fig.18 is
extremely tedious even for steady-state operation. This is due to the inductive nature of the
machine, which makes the instant of cessation of the current flow through each of the
thyristors essentially unknown. As the voltage exists as long as there is current flow, then it
is actually very difficult to evaluate the actual voltage applied across the machine under
given operating conditions. Note that the voltage value calculated in the previous example
for reduced speed operation is the required rms value of the fundamental harmonic of the
output phase to neutral voltage of the AC-AC voltage controller.
T1
R
T2
Y

IM
T3

Fig.14: Stator voltage variation of an IM using an AC-AC voltage controller

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4.3

Soft-starting of induction motors

Soft starters (also called solid state starters) are used for gentle starting and stopping of 3phase induction motors. Pumps, centrifuges, compressors, escalators, belt conveyors, mills,
fans, stone crushers and saws are typical applications. If a motor is not adequately
protected the sudden change in rotation torque and speed, which occurs on starting and
stopping will jolt the equipment linked to it. Over the long-term this can lead to increased
mechanical wear of gearboxes, clutches, transmission and conveyor systems. Abrupt
starting and stopping can also damage goods being handled by mechanical equipment. For
instance, the filling and distribution of glass bottles and containers loaded onto a conveyor
holds the potential for a minor disaster. One sudden jerk during starting and stopping and
the whole process line could be turned into a mass of broken glass and dripping liquid or
sticky product. With pumps soft starters eliminate pressure shocks in pipes and valves
when the pump starts or stops. This poses a particular safety hazard when the transfer of
volatile and/or inflammable liquids is involved.
In all the applications mentioned previously, the back-to-back converter configuration of
Fig. 14 with associated electronics (Fig. 15) can be used to chop the sine-wave system
power so that only a portion of the supply voltage is applied to the motor during starting
and/or stopping. This kind of voltage control ensures smooth acceleration and deceleration
thereby eliminating the disruptive effects of sudden starts/stops. The gradual supply of
current to a motor also eliminates unwanted tripping, erratic current supply and motor
overheating. The logic circuits (Fig. 15) can be programmed to respond to any of several
sensors to control the voltage: internal time ramp; current sensor feedback, or tachometer
feedback. In addition, most such starters also have provisions for reducing the voltage
when the loading on the motor is low, thus minimizing the no load losses of the motor and
improving its efficiency.

Fig. 15: Design of an electronically controlled soft starter for induction motors

4.4

Speed Control by Simultaneous Stator Voltage and Frequency Variation

All the speed control methods elaborated so far are characterised by relatively poor
efficiency. Additionally, stator voltage variation method leads to a decrease in maximum
torque when stator voltage is reduced. This reduction in maximum torque is a consequence
of the field weakening in the machine i.e. the fact that, when the supply voltage is reduced
while the applied frequency is kept constant, the machine flux reduces as well. From the
equivalent circuit of Fig. 9 it follows that the induced emf is:

E jX m I m V Rs jXs I s kf

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

(5)

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

i.e. it is determined as the product of the flux and frequency. Clearly, in order to maintain
flux constant, it is necessary to simultaneously alter both f and E. A wide speed control
range with an induction machine can be realised only if the stator frequency f is made
variable and reasonably high. Additionally, when f is varied, it follows from (5) that it is
necessary to simultaneously vary the rms value of the supply voltage V. Ideally, the change
of V and f should be done in such a way that E is held constant. In this case both the flux
and maximum torque of the machine will be kept constant at all operating frequencies. The
control law for constant flux operation at all frequencies can be therefore expressed as:
E/f = En /fn

(6)

In reality however it is not possible to control the machine by using the previously stated
law as the internal emf cannot be measured. Instead, control is done in such a way that the
supply voltage to frequency ratio is held constant, i.e.
V/f = Vn /fn

(7)

The consequence of this is that at low operating frequencies the stator resistance voltage
drop (RI) becomes dominant, this significantly reducing the flux and the maximum torque
of the machine. A compromise is found usually by applying a modified voltage control law
that contains the so-called voltage boost at low frequencies, i.e.
V = (Vn /fn ) f + V0

(8)

The two possible control laws are illustrated in Fig. 16.

Vn

Vn

V0
0

fn

fn

Fig. 16: Voltage vs frequency relationship for V/f = Vn /fn and V = (Vn /fn )f + V0 control
Let the ratio of operating frequency to rated frequency be a =f/fn . The original equivalent
circuit of Fig. 9 at operating frequency f now becomes as shown in Fig. 17. All the
reactances are given for the rated frequency; hence at any other frequency they become aX.
The input stator voltage is assumed to be determined using either (7) or (8).
Note that slip s in Fig. 17 is defined as per-unit (pu) value. If ns = 60fn /P is the
synchronous speed of a 2P-pole machine at rated frequency, then for operation at any other
frequency
s = (ans - n)/ans

(9)

where n denotes operating speed at this other frequency. Calculations related to V/f method
of speed control are best illustrated by means of examples.
Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

V = a Vn

Is

Rs

Im

jaXm

jaXs

jaXr

Ir

Rr /s

Fig. 17: Steady-state equivalent circuit of an induction machine at an arbitrary frequency

Example 3: V/f control of Induction machines

A 3-phase, 60-Hz, 1728-rpm induction motor has the following parameters: stator
resistance = rotor resistance = 0.024-; stator leakage reactance = locked rotor leakage
reactance = 0.12-. The motor is to be controlled according to the law V/f = const.
For an operating frequency of 12-Hz calculate:
a) The maximum torque as a ratio of its value at the rated frequency;
b) The starting torque and current in terms of their values at the rated frequency.
c) If this motor is used to drive a load of constant torque equal to rated, calculate the motor
speed for the supply frequency of 30-Hz.
Solution:
a) The purpose of this part of the example is to show that with V/f = constant law the airgap flux in the motor is not constant; hence the maximum torque at 12-Hz will be
consequently reduced in motoring with respect to the value at rated frequency.
a f / f n 12 / 60 0.2
Tem ( f n )
Tem (af n )

3P 2
1
Vn
4f n
Rs Rs2 X 2
3P 2 2
1
3P
1
a Vn

aVn2
4af n
Rs Rs2 a 2 X 2 4f n
a[ Rs / a Rs2 / a 2 X 2 ]
3P 2
1
Vn
4f n
Rs / a Rs2 / a 2 X 2

Rs Rs2 X 2
Tem ( f af n )

Tem ( f f n ) R a R a 2 X 2
s
s
Tem ( f 0.2 f n )
0.024 0.024 2 0.24 2

0.68
2
2
Tem ( f f n )
0.024 / 0.2 (0.024 / 0.2) 0.24

b) This part of the example demonstrates some additional benefits of the V/f speed control.
As will be shown, starting at low frequency gives an increased starting torque compared to
starting at rated frequency. Even better, this higher starting torque is achieved with reduced
starting current.
Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Rr
3P 2
Vn
2f n
Rs Rr 2 X 2

Test ( f f n )

Rr
aRr
3P 2 2
3P 2
a Vn

Vn
2
2
2
2af n
2f n
R s Rr a X
R s R r 2 a 2 X 2

Test ( f af n )

aRr

Test ( f af n ) Rs Rr a X

Rr
Test ( f f n )
2

0.2 x0.024
2

2
2
2
0.048 0.2 x0.24 2.6
0.024

R s R r 2 X 2

I s ( st ) ( f f n )

Vn

R s R r 2 X 2

I s ( st ) ( f af n )
I s ( st ) ( f af n )
I s ( st ) ( f f n )

0.048 2 0.24 2

aVn

R s R r 2 a 2 X 2
Rs Rr 2 X 2
R s R r 2 a 2 X 2

0.2

0.048 2 0.24 2
0.048 2 0.2 2 x0.24 2

0.72

Thus V/f control undoubtedly provides high starting torque with reduced starting current.
c) Since the motor rated speed at 60-Hz is 1728-rpm, the motor has 4 poles and the
corresponding synchronous speed is 6060/2 = 1800-rpm.
The rated slip is therefore: 1 1728/1800 = 0.04 i.e. 4%.
a f / f n 30 / 60 0.5
Ten ( f f n )
Ten ( f af n )

Rr s n
3P 2
Vn
2f n
R s R r s n 2 X 2
aRr s
3P 2
Vn
2f n
R s R r s 2 a 2 X 2

Equating the right hand sides of these two equations gives

Rr s n
aRr s

2
2
R s Rr s n X
Rs Rr s 2 a 2 X 2

26s 2 13.52s 1 0 s 0.0893 8.93%

f af n 30 Hz n s 60 f / P 900 - rpm n 1 s n s 819.63 820 - rpm

Note that at rated frequency synchronous speed and operating speed are 1800-rpm and
1728-rpm respectively; the difference of the two is 72-rpm. At 30-Hz synchronous speed
and operating speed are 900-rpm and 820-rpm respectively; the difference between the two
is now 80-rpm. Indeed, for constant load torque, difference between synchronous speed
and operating speed in rpm is constant and independent of frequency if true E/f control is
implemented. In this example V/f control is used instead, so that the difference between
synchronous and operating speed slightly varies. Nevertheless, one notes that slip in per
unit is substantially different (4% and 8.9%); this is a consequence of the change in
synchronous speed when the frequency varies.
Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Example 4: Scalar (V/f = const) control of induction machines

A 3-phase, 60-Hz, 460-V, 1746-rpm cage induction motor operates with constant V/f
speed control. Assume the motor torque-speed characteristic in the range of 0 150% rated
torque to be linear.
a) Calculate the applied voltage and speed of the fully loaded motor at 45-Hz supply
frequency.
b) If the motor drives a centrifugal pump (of approximately square torque-speed

characteristic) under rated operating conditions, determine the supply voltage and
frequency at 75% of full-load torque.
Solution:
Using a linear approximation of the torque-slip (speed) curve at small slips ( Rr / s Rs
and Rr / s X l ) the motor torque can be written in a form convenient for the analysis
under the conditions of constant V/f control :-

3 Rr
T ( s)
p
s 2f

pVL
V2
p

s
R
2f Rr
2Rr
( Rs r ) 2 X l 2
s

V
L sf
f

a) The machine is operated with constant V/f ratio, and therefore at 45-Hz supply
frequency the applied voltage is :
Vr V
f
45
V
Vr
460 345 - V (line - to - line)
fr
f
fr
60

In order to determine the rotation speed at 45-Hz one should take into account that the
machine is fully loaded, which means that the load torque is equal to the rated value. The
motor rated slip is:sr 1

nr
1746
1
0.03
ns
1800

Since the load torque is constant, the slip frequency has to be constant too as follows from
the above torque expression. This allows the speed to be calculated in the following way:-

fr
60
sr
0.03 0.04
f
45
60 45
n (1 s) ns 0.96
0.96 1350 1296 - rpm
2
s r f r sf s

b) The centrifugal load torque is proportional to the speed squared and at 75% rated torque
the corresponding speed value is:T n

Tr nr

n nr

T
1746 0.75 1512.08 - rpm
Tr

The slip frequency under the same loading conditions is now using the initial torque
expression:-

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

sf
T
0.75
sf 0.75 0.03 60 1.35 - Hz
Tr
sr f r
and the supply frequency can be obtained as :-

sf 1.35 (1

np
np
n
1512.08 2
) f (1
) f f
f 1.35
51.753 - Hz
ns
60 f
60
60

The applied line voltage required is consequently: V

4.5

f
51.753
Vr
460 396.77 - V .
fr
60

Control of Inverter-fed Induction Machines

Variable voltage, variable frequency operation of induction machines is realised utilising

autonomous inverters, in conjunction with a rectifier and a DC link circuit as shown in Fig.
18. There are two generic structures of autonomous inverters. The first one, voltage source
inverter (VSI), is the most frequently applied power supply source for control of induction
motors. The second one, current source inverter (CSI), is beyond the scope of interest here
and wont be considered. The principle of operation of a three-phase VSI is explained next.
3-ph
variable
frequency

L
3-ph
fixed
frequency
supply

Controlled
Rectifier

+
-

d.c.
link

Filter

Inverter

IM

Fig. 18: Variable speed drive system (top) and family of torque-speed curves with
V/f = const control (bottom)
The 3-phase VSI contains three inverter legs with the input voltage being provided by a
three-phase (or single-phase) bridge rectifier with a capacitor placed at the output (Fig. 18).
The capacitor provides smoothing of the DC voltage and, for sufficiently large capacitance,
the DC output voltage approaches a constant value for a given firing angle. It will therefore
be assumed that inverter input voltage is constant in the subsequent analysis.
The power circuit of a six-step voltage source inverter is shown in Fig. 19. As the inverter
itself controls only the frequency of the output AC voltage, a controllable rectifier must be
Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

used in order to provide control of the output voltage magnitude via DC voltage variations
(output voltage magnitude is proportional to the input DC voltage). Each switch in the
inverter circuit is again composed of two back-to-back connected semiconductor devices.
One of these two is normally a transistor switch (most commonly an IGBT), while the
other one is a diode. The diode is essential for the correct operation of the VSI as the
output voltage and current are out of phase due to inductive nature of the machine. It
enables current flow when one switch in a given inverter leg is turned off and the other one
turned on, while the current still flows in the previous direction. This diode is usually
called a freewheeling or feedback diode.
The three inverter legs are controlled in such a way that the corresponding voltages
constitute a 3-phase system of square-wave voltages. This means that, assuming that the
upper transistor in the leg A is fired at time instant zero, firing of upper transistor in the leg
B will take place after 120, while firing of the upper transistor of the leg C will be delayed
for another 120. The conduction of each of the six semiconductor switches is again 180
so that at any time three out of six switches are on and the remaining three switches are off.
The resulting output voltage waveforms of line-to-line voltages in Fig. 20 are quasi-square
waves, with two 60 zero intervals and two 120 non-zero intervals in which line-to-line
voltage equals plus and minus DC link voltage, respectively. A VSI operated in this 180
conduction mode is therefore usually called a six-step inverter.
The leg voltages of the inverter are given in Fig. 20 with respect to the negative pole of the
DC link. The line-to-line voltages applied to the induction machine, also illustrated in
Fig.27, are obtained directly from the leg voltages as vAB = vAn - vBn, vBC = vBn - vCn and
vCA = vCn - vAn . Finally, if the machine is star connected, it can be shown that in the
system of Fig. 19, line to neutral (phase) voltages of the machine (presented in the Fig. 20)
are determined with the following expressions:

C
VDC

Rectifier and inverter control:

rectifier controls VDC and inverter controls
output frequency so that V/f = Vn /fn or
V = (Vn /fn )f + V0.

IM

Fig. 19: 3-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) fed induction motor.

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

v A 2 / 3v An 1 / 3v Bn v Cn
v B 2 / 3v Bn 1 / 3v An vCn

vC 2 / 3v Cn 1 / 3v Bn v An

(10)

As is obvious from Fig. 20, the waveforms of line to line and line to neutral voltages are
not sine waves. Indeed, it can be verified by Fourier analysis that they contain higher odd
harmonics but not those divisible by three. The situation is quite similar with the current
harmonic content.
In the previous analysis it has been assumed that the inverter is operated in 180
conduction mode and that variation of the inverter output voltage magnitude is achieved by
rectifier control. Such a solution is nowadays rarely applied. Instead, the inverter is
operated in pulse width modulated (PWM) mode and is supplied from a diode (not
thyristor) bridge rectifier (single-phase or three-phase), so that the input DC voltage of the
inverter is constant. This operating mode allows variations of both inverter output voltage
and output frequency to be achieved by appropriate inverter switching.
The idea of PWM can be relatively easily explained using a single-phase VSI circuit of
Fig. 21. The most frequently utilised method of PWM is the so-called sinusoidal PWM
technique, in which the reference signal - a sine wave of desired amplitude and frequency is compared with a triangular carrier wave of constant amplitude and frequency. The
instants for turn-on and turn-off of semiconductors are then determined with intersections
of the reference signal and the carrier wave. Switches are turned on and off in pairs: S1 and
S2 are always together either on or off and similarly, S3 and S4 are always together either
on or off. The advantage of this approach is twofold. Firstly, the inverter now becomes
capable of controlling both the frequency and the first harmonic magnitude, so that there is
no need for application of a controllable rectifier. Instead, a diode rectifier is quite
sufficient. Secondly, switching now occurs not at line frequency, as is the case with a sixstep inverter, but at much higher carrier wave frequency. This enables significantly faster
control and, at the same time, greatly improves harmonic spectrum of the load current. The
inverter output voltage now does not contain low order harmonics (the fifth, seventh, etc.)
present with the six-step inverter. Instead, harmonics are situated around multiples of the
switching frequency (i.e., triangular carrier wave frequency). Thus, if the switching
frequency is 5-kHz (typical value nowadays), then the inverter output voltage will contain,
apart from fundamental, higher harmonics of frequencies around 5 kHz, 10 kHz, 15 kHz
etc. If the motor operates with 50-Hz fundamental frequency, then 5-kHz means that the
order of the harmonic is around 100 (rather than 5, as it is in the simple VSI discussed
previously). As the motor reactance is 100 times greater at 5-kHz than at 50-Hz, harmonic
currents in the motor will be consequently very small.
The principle of sinusoidal PWM applied to the single-phase bridge inverter of Fig. 21, is
illustrated in Fig. 22. The impact of amplitude variations of the reference signal on the
output voltage waveform is evident from the same figure. The widths of the pulses in the
two cases shown differ although output frequency and triangular carrier wave frequency
are the same. This change in pulse widths leads to subsequent difference in the values of
the first harmonic of the output voltage. It can be shown that the fundamental harmonic of
the output voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 22 equals in frequency and in amplitude the
reference signal.

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

An extension of the PWM principle from a single-phase to a 3-phase voltage source

inverter is rather straightforward. The reference sinusoidal voltage (which equals desired
fundamental voltage at the inverter output) is formed on the basis of the control law for
given operating point (say, V/f = Vn /fn law). This is further compared with the carrier
signal (again, high frequency triangular waveform) and the intersections points represent
the switching instants for the inverter legs. The 3-phase inverter however requires three
120 mutually displaced reference sinusoidal signals in order to achieve operation with
three-phase system of output voltages. If a triangular carrier frequency is sufficiently high,
one carrier may be utilised for all the three phases. It can be shown that although the output
voltage is again composed of a series of rectangular pulses, fundamental component of the
output voltage is of the same frequency and magnitude as the reference sinusoidal signal.

vAn

VDC

vAB

vBn

vBC

vCn

vCA

60

120 180 240 300 360

VDC

t []

Leg voltages
Line-to-line voltages
vA

2/3 VDC
1/3 VDC

vB

Line to neutral voltages

vC

Fig. 20: Typical voltage waveforms in a VSI fed induction machine.

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

In summary, it can be stated that the operation of a VSI in PWM mode yields two
substantial benefits, when compared to operation in 180 conduction mode. A diode
rectifier can be used instead of a controllable rectifier, since the inverter is now capable of
controlling both the frequency and the rms value of the fundamental component of the
output voltage. Additionally, higher harmonics of the voltage are now of substantially
higher frequencies, meaning that current is much closer to a true sine waveform. Due to
high control rate and improved power supply quality, the machine performance is also
generally much better and its operation can be very smooth and free of torque ripples.

Rectifier

i
S1
V

S3

v
S4

Load

S2

0<t<T/2

T/2<t<T

S1

S3

V
v

R,
L

S2

R,
L

S4

Fig. 21: Single-phase bridge inverter and its equivalent circuits in two half-periods of the
output frequency.
Example 5: Induction motors with V/f control and PWM inverter supply
A 3-phase, 415-V, 50-Hz, 1440-rpm inverter-fed cage induction motor with constant V/f
speed control drives a centrifugal pump under rated operating conditions.
a) Using the approximate equivalent circuit of the machine, derive the torque expression
stating the meanings of all the parameters used.
b) Show that the torque-slip (speed) characteristic is linear at small slips and that the
motor torque is approximately constant providing that the slip frequency is constant.
c) Use the above approximation to estimate the supply voltage and frequency required to
reduce the drive speed to 1000-rpm.
Solution:
This example is closely related to the previous and the two should be considered together.
a) The electromagnetic torque expression for a 2p-pole IM is:

3Rr I r 2 3 pRr
V2
T ( s)

s s
2 [( Rs Rr / s) 2 X 2 ]sf
Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Reference and carrier signals

High amplitude of reference

signal

v
V

Reference and carrier signals

Medium amplitude of reference

signal

v
V

Fig. 22: Sinusoidal PWM in single-phase bridge inverter for high and medium amplitudes
of the reference signal at the same output frequencies.
where I r is the rotor phase current, Rr ,s are the rotor and stator phase resistances
respectively, V is the machine phase voltage, X is the total leakage reactance (stator plus
rotor leakage), s is the slip and f is the supply frequency.
b) Linear approximation at small slips: Rr / s Rs , X
2

V
3 pRr V 2 2
3p V 2
sf
T ( s)
s

2 Rr 2 sf
2Rr f
f
Therefore if sf = rotor (slip) frequency is constant so is the motor torque.

c) Centrifugal load torque at 1000-rpm and 1440-rpm under constant V/f control:
Tload n

Trated nr

sf
1000


sr f r
1440

n
nf
np
.
)f f
p f
ns
60 f
60
The above torque ratio now becomes (the machine is 4-pole as its rated speed is 1440-rpm
i.e. the synchronous speed at 50-Hz is 1500-rpm):Slip frequency: sf (1

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

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EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

sf
60 f np
60 f 1000 p
60 f 2000
1000

f 34.3 - Hz

s r f r 60 f r nr p 60 50 1440 p
120
1440
V Vr
f
34.3
So:

const V
Vr
415 284.69 - VLL
f
fr
fr
50

Example 6: Constant Volts/Hz control of IMs using a PWM voltage source inverter
A 3-phase, 440-V, 6-pole, 50-Hz, delta-connected induction motor has the following rated
parameters per phase: stator resistance = 0.2-; rotor resistance = 0.18-; stator and rotor
leakage reactance = 0.58- each. The machine operates with constant V/f scalar control
supplied from a PWM voltage source inverter.
(a) The machine is subjected in service to a 40% fall in both voltage and frequency. What
total mechanical load torque is it safe to drive so that the machine does not stall under
these conditions?
(b) If V and f were both halved, what would be the increase in starting torque from the
normal DOL start? Compare the starting currents for these two cases and comment
upon the results obtained.
Solution:
(a) This part of the question asks effectively for the maximum torque with voltage and
frequency reduced to 0.6 of rated values. Substituting for a = 0.6 in the expression for
maximum torque derived earlier (refer to Example 12) one gets:
(aVr ) 2
3P
33
(0.6 440) 2
Tmax (af r )

4af r R R 2 a 2 X 2 4 0.6 50 0.2 0.2 2 (0.6 1.16) 2

s
s
Tmax 1800.4 - Nm.

(b) The ratio of starting torque at reduced and full voltage and frequency for a = 0.5 is:

Rs Rr 2 X 2
Tst ( f af r )
0.38 2 1.16 2

a
0.5 1.55
Tst ( f f r ) Rs Rr 2 a 2 X 2
0.38 2 0.58 2
I st ( f af r )
a
I st ( f f r )

Rs Rr 2 X 2
Rs Rr 2 a 2 X 2

0.5

0.38 2 1.16 2
0.38 2 0.58 2

0.88

Note that due to improved power factor following the reduction of reactance (because of
the lower supply frequency), the starting torque is increased by 55% relative to the DOL
value while the current required to achieve this torque rise is 88% DOL value. Therefore
the starting torque per ampere (TPA) is much higher with reduced voltage and frequency
starting and can be calculated as follows:
Tst ( f )
Tst ( f )
TPA f
Tst ( f r ) 1.55
I (f)

1.76 st

I st ( f ) 0.88
Tst ( f r ) TPA f
r
I st ( f r )
I st ( f r )
The TPA is increased by 76% compared to DOL starting. This ratio is even better at lower
frequencies.
Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic

Page 25