Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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CONTENTS
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
16.1
16.2
16.2.1
16.3
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
Cover Sheet
Introduction
Advantages of Globe Design
Types Of Trim
Body Materials
Valve Bonnets
Valve Packing Materials
Actuators
Positioners
Flow Characteristics
General Guidelines
Rangeability
Flashing & Cavitation
Choked Flow
Methods to Eliminate Cavitation
Control Valve Noise
Sources of Valve Noise
Mechanical Vibration
Aerodynamic Noise
Noise Reduction
Hydrodynamic Noise
Globe Control Valve Sizing
Preparation of Enquiry Specifications
Offer Evaluation
Inspection Of Control Valves
Control Valve Installation
Page
1
2
2
2-3
3
3
3-4
4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7
7-8
8
8-10
10
10
10-11
11
11-12
12
12
13
13
14
14
Annexure:
47 sheets
Applicable Revision:
Prepared:
Slides
Checked:
Approved:
Date:
First Edition: R0
Prepared:
Date:
Date:
Checked:
Approved:
V PADMALATA
Date:
File Name: Globe.doc
M.B. JOSHI
Date:
Server: KUMUS 206
N.C. JAIN
Date:
Directory: /var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/334892476.doc
1.0
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INTRODUCTION
A control valve is a final control element, which regulates the rate of fluid flow as the position of
the valve plug, or disc is changed by the force from the actuator.
To do this, the valve body must
In a control circuit, the following are the tasks the control valve has to perform:
2.0
Vary flow rates within a process dependent range from maximum flow to minimum flow
Produce an installed flow characteristic which is as linear as possible in order to ensure that
controller action is consistent over the entire control range
Close or open quickly in the event of actuator power source failure and rapid regulation, free
of overshoot when short stroking times are required
Reliable and long service life when carrying corrosive, abrasive, cavitating and vaporizing
fluids.
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However, the upper and lower plug diameters are different (to allow withdrawal of smaller plug
through larger port) which contributes to the unbalanced condition. Complete cancellation of these
forces is not possible due to hydrodynamic effects of the fluid that passes the plug contour at high
velocity. Fluid passing the lower seat (tending to close the plug) has a tendency to suck the plug
into seat thereby creating a dynamic imbalance between this force and the differential pressure
acting across the upper plug area.
Top and bottom guided valve has similar limitations as a double seated globe valves.
Cage Type
Advantage of these types of valves is easy trim removal because of the absence of internal
threads, which could corrode and make the removal of the trim difficult.
Variety of trim types like reduced noise trims, anti-cavitation trims can be installed and the overall
design is very rugged.
Noise level is low in cage guided valves and lower size actuators are required.
4.0
BODY MATERIALS
Valve body materials have to be chosen taking into consideration temperature, pressure ad
process compatibility.
However, for all practical purposes, we have to proceed on the same lines as the details given in
the piping specifications.
5.0
VALVE BONNETS
Extension bonnets are used for either high or low temperature service to protect valve stem
packing from the extreme temperature of process so that the packing temperature remains within
the recommended range. However, nowadays, standard bonnets of most manufacturers cater to
some extent of the negative temperature range also. It should be borne in mind that if the
manufacturer claims that their standard bonnet is suitable for a negative temperature upto say for
example 10C and if the operating temperature is 9C, then we should insist on extended
bonnet based on our past experience. In other words, a tolerance of 10 shall be considered. In
the above example, even for a temperature of 0 C, extended bonnet should be considered.
For high fluid temperatures typically above 200C, radiation fin bonnet is used to provide
sufficient radiating heat loss. Bellows seal bonnets are used when no leakage along the stem can
be tolerated. They are often used when the process fluid is toxic, volatile, radioactive or highly
expensive..
One basic disadvantage of bellows seal is their relatively low-pressure ratings. The pressure
ratings decrease with an increase in valve size. Typical ratings are 10.5 kg/cm2(g) at 315 C.
6.0
Teflon Packing
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Disadvantage of solid teflon packing are its high co-efficient of thermal expansion particularly
near room temperature and requirement for extra fine surface finishes to prevent undue friction
and wear of teflon rings.
Braided Asbestos
Braided asbestos can be made as split rings, which can be wrapped around valve stem, thus
facilitating maintenance when valve is installed. It employs mica or graphite for lubrication
particularly in high temperature service.
Maximum temperature limit is 1000 F (540C) with use of radiation bonnets, it can be used at a
higher temperature.
Graphite
Graphite is chemically inert except when strong oxidizers are handled. It has low coefficient of
friction, high temp capability upto 1000F (540C) and lower limit of 0 F (-18C). Disadvantages
are high stem friction and hence difficulty in loading the packing to give an effective stem seal.
7.0
ACTUATORS
In the catalogues of vendors like IL, MIL there is a table showing the maximum differential
pressures for different actuator models corresponding to a particular valve size and its rated Cvs.
In such cases, the values are compared with the shut off pressures mentioned in the specification
sheet and the actuator model is chosen in such a way that the max differential pressure is greater
than the shut off pressure mentioned in the specification sheet.
8.0
POSITIONERS
The positioner measures the valve stem position (to within 0.1 mm), compares that measurement
to its setpoint (the controller output signal) and, if there is a difference, corrects the error.
A positioner amplifies the controller signal to the extent required for the actuator spring.
The main purpose of a positioner is to guarantee that the valve moves to the position where the
controller wants it to be. The addition of a positioner can correct for many variations including
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changes in packing friction due to dirt, corrosion or lack of lubrication, variation in the dynamic
forces of the process, sloppy linkages(dead band) or non-linearities in the valve actuator.
Additionally, the positioner can allow for the split ranging the controller signal between more than
one valve, can increase the actuator speed or thrust by increasing the pressure and/or volume of
the actuator air signal.
9.0
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
Inherent flow characteristics
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Valves with equal percentage characteristics are used on pressure control applications, on
applications where a large percentage of the pressure drop is normally absorbed by the system
itself with only a relatively small percentage available at the control valve and on applications
where highly varying pressure drop conditions can be expected.
QUICK OPENING FLOW CHARACTERISTICS:
A valve with quick opening flow characteristics provides a maximum change in flow rate at low
travels. The curve is linear through the first 40% of valve plug travel, then flattens out noticeably
to indicate little increase in flow rate as travel approaches the wide open position. Control valves
with quick opening flow characteristics are often used for on/off applications where significant flow
rate must be established quickly as the valve begins to open.
10.0
GENERAL GUIDELINES
The following are the general guidelines for the selection of the valve characteristics.
However, in practice, very often, the characteristics to be chosen are clearly specified by the
licensor. If not, as a thumb rule, where most of the pressure drop in the system is across the
control valve, which is generally the case with level control valves, valves with linear
characteristics are chosen.
On the other hand, where relatively small % of the pressure drop is available across the valve
and where highly varying pressure drop can be expected, valves with equal percentage
characteristics are chosen.
In cases where the vendors cannot offer the customer specified characteristics, the same
is achieved through modification of the positioner cam. This should not be accepted as far
as possible since at site, very often the positioners of valves are interchanged and the
modified characteristics could create confusion.
Liquid Level systems
Application
Constant P
Decreasing P with increasing load,
P at max load > 20% of minimum
load P
Decreasing P with increasing load,
P at max load < 20% of minimum
load P
Equal percentage
Linear
Quick opening
Flow measurement
Signal to controller
Proportional to flow
Proportional to flow
Squared
Location of
Control valve
In relation to
Measuring
element
BEST INHERENT
Wide range of flow
Set point
Rev.
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CHARACTERISTIC
In series
In bypass*
In series
Linear
Linear
Linear
In bypass*
Equal percentage
Equal percentage
11.0
Equal percentage
RANGEABILITY
Rangeability is defined as the ratio between maximum and minimum controllable flow.
Typical rangeability of a globe control valve is 50:1.
12.0
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If pressure at the valve outlet remains below the vapor pressure of the liquid, the bubbles will
remain in the downstream and the process is said to have flashed.
Flashing damage is normally greatest at the point of highest velocity, which is usually at or near
the seat line of the valve plug and seat ring.
On the contrary, if downstream pressure recovery is sufficient to raise the outlet pressure of the
liquid, the bubbles will collapse or implode, producing cavitation.
As the pressure drops at constant temperature, vapor molecules agglomerate until spontaneous
generation of bubbles of critical size occurs due to meetings of the vapor molecules in large
enough quantities to overcome surface tension. These bubbles serve to nucleate further
evaporation. When the bubble is larger than the critical diameter, the process becomes
exothermic and the bubble tends to grow in size without further external energy input. Energy
associated with the forces of nucleation must be transferred to the bubble to make it grow to the
critical diameter but the bubble will give up energy while growing beyond that diameter.
As the pressure is recovered beyond the vena contracta, the surface tension force dominates and
further collapse becomes spontaneous. When the bubble implodes, it appears to form a torus with
a tiny central jet into which the entire energy of the bubble is concentrated. This creates an
extremely high pressure over a very small area whenever the jet impinges against a solid surface.
If the bubbles collapse in close proximity to solid surfaces in the valve, the energy released will
gradually tear away the material leaving a rough cinderlike surface.
Cavitation is usually coupled with vibration and a sound like rock fragments or gravel flowing
through the valve.
The pressure recovery in a valve is a function of its particular internal construction. In general, the
more streamlined a valve is, the more pressure recovery is experienced. This means increased
possibility of cavitation.
13.0
CHOKED FLOW
Apart from the physical damage due to cavitation and flashing, formation of vapour bubbles in the
liquid flowstream causes a crowding condition at the vena contracta, which tends to limit flow
through the valve. So, while the basic liquid equation implies that there is no limit to the flow
through the valve as long as the differential pressure across the valve increases, in reality, if
valve pressure drop is increased slightly beyond the point where bubbles begin to form, a choked
flow condition is reached. With constant upstream pressure, further increases in pressure drop (by
reducing downstream pressure) will not produce increased flow through the valve.
In high recovery valves, since pressure drop is higher as compared to low recovery valves and
hence there is increased possibility of cavitation.
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A reduction of operating temperature can lower the vapour pressure sufficiently to eliminate
cavitation.
Similarly, increased upstream and downstream pressures, with P unaffected, or a reduction in P
can both relieve cavitation. Therefore, control valves that are likely to cavitate should be installed
at the lowest possible elevation in the piping system and operated at minimum P. Moving the
valve closer to the pump will also serve to elevate both the upstream and downstream pressures.
If cavitating conditions are unavoidable, then it is preferred to have not only cavitation but also
permanent vaporization(flashing) through the valve. This can usually be accomplished by a slight
increase in operating temperature or by decreasing the outlet pressure. Flashing eliminates
cavitation by converting the incompressible liquid into a compressible mixture.
The multistep valves can avoid cavitation by replacing a single and deep vena contracta, as
would occur in a single port valve, with several small vena contracta points as the pressure drop
is distributed between several ports working in series.
GAS INJECTION
Another valve design variation that can alleviate cavitation is based on the introduction of noncondensable gases or air into the region where cavitation is anticipated. The presence of this
compressible gas prevents the sudden collapse of the vapour bubbles as the pressure recovers to
values exceeding the vapour pressure and instead of implosions, a more gradual condensation
process occurs.
The gas may be admitted through the valve shaft or through downstream taps on either side of
the pipe, in line with the shaft and as close to the valve as possible. Since the fluid vapour
pressure is usually less than atmospheric, the air or gas need not be under pressure.
REVISED INSTALLATION
In order to eliminate cavitation, it is possible to install two or more control valves in series.
Cavitation problems can also be alleviated by absorbing some of the pressure drop in restriction
orifices, chokes,(downstream to the valve)or in partially open block valves upstream or
downstream to the valve.
Choke is a simple and effective restriction having a rounded entrance and a long, straight throat
that can be discharged into a larger volume. Vaporization of a liquid increases the volume
tremendously and creates high velocities. So does the evolution of gas from a liquid. The fluid
can be discharged through a choke into a pool of liquid where the energy of the high velocity jet
stream will be absorbed.
Relative cavitation
Resistance index
60
Corrosion
Resistance
Fair
Cost
Low
SS316
SS410
K-Monel
SS, type 17-4 pH
SS440C
SS329,annealed
Stellite#6
Stellite#6B
15.0
160
200
300
340
400
1000
3500
3500
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excellent
good
excellent
Excellent
Fair
excellent
excellent
excellent
Medium
Medium
High
medium
High
medium
Medium
high
Sound level
dBA
8
6
4
3
2
1-1/2
1
or less
90
92
95
97
100
102
105
110
115
Decibels (dB) are a measure, which gives an indication of loudness. The A added to the term
indicates that correction accounting for the response of the human ear has been made. The
sensitivity of our ears to sounds varies at different frequencies. Applying this correction is
called A weighting and the corrected noise level is given in dBA.
The A weighting factor at any frequency is determined by how loud a noise sounds at that
particular frequency compared to the apparent loudness of sound at 1000 Hz. At 1000 hertz, the
A-weighting factor is zero so if the sound pressure level is 105 dB, we say it sounds like 105dB
16.0
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There is presently no reliable method for predicting noise generated by mechanical vibration in
control valves.
16.2
Aerodynamic Noise
Aerodynamic noise is a direct result of conversion of mechanical energy of the flow into acoustic
energy as the fluid passes through the valve restriction.
High intensity levels of noise resulting from turbulent flow are more common to valves handling
gas than to those controlling liquids. Noise resulting from turbulent flow of a gas is called
aerodynamic noise.
Sources of turbulence in gas transmission lines are: obstructions in the flow path, rapid expansion
or deceleration of high velocity gas and directional changes of the fluid stream. Specific areas
that are inherently noisy are: headers, pressure regulators, line size expansions and pipe elbows.
A.
Source Treatment
Noise is the high energy vibrations due to high velocity of fluid inside the control valve. Basically,
noise reducing methods aim at reducing the high velocity of the fluid.
There are two methods for reduction of noise:
Reduction of size of fluid jets by use of multihole cage trims and consequently, reduction of
fluid velocity.
Another method is to let the fluid pass through a number of restrictions providing a flow
pattern dissipating energy through high headloss.
Path Treatment
There are three methods of incorporating path treatment into control valve systems:
Silencers are effective provided they are installed directly downstream of the valve. But there
are some technical problems. Firstly, to be effective, they require low flow velocities so their
use is impractical especially in high capacity systems. Secondly, the acoustic elements are
not always compatible with the flowing medium.
16.3
Hydrodynamic Noise
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The major source of hydrodynamic noise (noise resulting from, liquid flow) is cavitation.
Methods to counter cavitation have already been covered earlier.
17.0
CV
Steam/Vapor
Saturated /wet steam
Pv<P1/2 P2>P1/2
1.17V/Pv
1.17Vn/514(nT/PvP2)
Pv>P1/2 P2<P1/2
1.17V/Pv
1.17Vn/(nT)/257P1
1.17m/31.6(V2/Pv)
1.17m/31.6(V2X/Pv )
1.17m/31.6(2v 2*/P1)
1.17m/31.6(2V2 *X/P1 )
Where
V liquid m3/hr
Vn gas m3/hr
M steam kg/hr
P1,P2,Pv bar
spec gravity of liquid kg/l
n density of gas at NPT Nm3/hr
V2 spec volume of steam at P2 m3/kg
V2* spec volume of steam at P1/2 m3/kg
T operating temperature in deg K
X % moisture in steam
For flashing services, calculate Cv of the liquid portion and gas portion and consider the sum for
valve sizing. This is to ensure that the valve will be able to pass both the liquid and vapor
volumes.
18.0
Line size should be specified correctly. Normally, the valve size is one size lesser than the line
size but never less than half the line size. If line size is not specified correctly, then it results in
incorrect valve sizing.
Process data should be checked thoroughly for correctness to be able to get the right size of
valve.
Flange connection should be specified correctly for it to match with the piping flange. So also
for the rating to be able to bolt the valve with the piping flange.
19.0
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Body and trim material should be compatible with the process fluid.
Bonnet type should take into account the operating temperature. Finned bonnets to be
specified for temperatures above 200 C.
Minimum actuator sizing pressure is very important since the actuator has to work
satisfactorily even if the air pressure falls to the specified minimum pressure.
All accessories have to be specified. If flameproof instruments are required, the same have to
be ensured.
IBR , NACE and other certifications, radiography requirements(if mentioned in the piping
specifications) as required to be specified.
OFFER EVALUATION
20.0
As emphasised above, the materials, flange rating and connection type, bonnet type should
be checked.
Similarly, certifications have to be checked
Check Cv calculations specifically for the correctness of process data considered. In equal
percentage valves, the normal opening should be around 60-70% and maximum opening
should be around 85%. In linear valves, the normal opening should be around 40-50% and
maximum should be around 60-70%.
Check if both liquid and vapor phases have been considered for sizing in flashing services. In
case of cavitating services, check whether anti cavitation trims have been offered. It has been
noticed that very often, vendors have to be specifically asked to quote for anti cavitation trims
specifically.
Ask vendors to calculate noise levels and if situation demands, whether low noise trims have
been ofered or not.
Accessories like limit switches, solenoid valves, AFR, volume boosters, air lock relays etc.
have to be checked in the offer
Very often vendors confirm their ability to give Cvs not listed in their catalogues to bag the
order and later express their inability to give the same. Then we are forced to compromise in
terms of the available Cvs. So caution has to be exercised in accepting non standard Cvs.
The same problem cited above holds good even for non standard actuator spring ranges. As
an example there was a case where, as per the catalog, the suitable spring range was 0.9-4
kg/cm2 and the required air supply was 4kg/cm2. But since our minimum actuator sizing
pressure was 4 kg/cm2, vendor confirmed to offer a spring range of 0.9-3.5 kg/cm2 with air
supply of 4 kg/cm2. Such modification should not be accepted.
Sometimes to meet the actuator air requirement, pilot operated solenoid valves are offered.
These are not to be accepted since problems are likely in their performance.
Check if Cv testing for valves with Cv<1 has been offered or not to avoid commercial
implications after order placement.
Solenoid valve orifice shall be minimum 2.5mm to avoid choking. However, vendor should
size the orifice to cater to the stroking time requirements mentioned in the General
Specifications for control valves or in the data sheets in case of any special requirement.
Perform 100% visual check for correctness of tag no., face-face dimensions of valve, flange
dimensions, tagplate(showing the rated Cv, air failure position, flow characteristics, leakage
class, spring range),painting, etc. The face to face dimensions of a valve should be matching
with those mentioned in the vendor drawings since the same are forwarded to the piping
department.
Check for IBR stamp on the valve as specified
Check for correctness of positioner calibration.
Check for satisfactory operation of accessories like solenoid valve, limit switches, etc.
21.0
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Perform hydrostatic test, seat leakage test and pneumatic test on actuator
Perform Cv testing if specified
Chek all the test certificates for their correctness.