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AbstractA critical function in outage management for distribution systems is to quickly detect a fault and identify the activated
protective device(s). With ongoing smart grid development, numerous smart meters and fault indicators with communication capabilities provide an opportunity for accurate and efcient outage
management. Using the available data, this paper proposes a new
multiple-hypothesis method for identication of the faulted section
on a feeder or lateral. Credibility of the multiple hypotheses is determined using the available evidence from these devices. The proposed methodology is able to handle i) multiple faults, ii) protection
miscoordination, and iii) missing outage reports from smart meters
and fault indicators. For each hypothesis, an optimization method
based on integer programming is proposed to determine the most
credible actuated protective device(s) and faulted line section(s).
Simulation results based on the distribution feeders of Avista Utilities serving Pullman, WA, validate the effectiveness of the proposed
approach.
Index TermsDistribution automation, fault diagnosis, fault indicator, multiple hypotheses, outage management, smart meter.
I. INTRODUCTION
deployment of Automated Meter Reading (AMR) systems provides a supplementary way to access the customer information
for outage management. AMR based outage management relies
on polling of AMR meters. When an outage occurs, AMR meters are polled and the response is used to determine if the meters experience an outage. Methods of polling AMR meters and
the escalation method for outage management are reported in
[3][5]. Once the fault is detected, isolation of the faulted section for service restoration can be achieved quickly by use of
remote controlled switches [6], [7].
Existing methods for fault diagnosis can be classied into two
categories: 1) estimating the precise fault location [8][13]; 2)
identifying the faulted line section [2][5]. The exact fault location can be estimated using the voltage and current information from computer relays at the substation. For the purpose of
outage management, this paper is focused on identication of
the faulted line section and reconstruction of the outage scenario
for fault isolation and service restoration.
As part of the effort in smart grid development, intelligent devices have been deployed along feeders as well as on customers'
premises. These devices include automated switches, automatic
reclosers, smart meters, and fault indicators with communication capability. These intelligent devices are valuable in identifying the fault location [14][19]. A method to locate a fault
is proposed using information provided by intelligent devices
[16]. A fault location method based on voltage sags is reported
in [17]. [18] presents an algorithm to locate a fault using smart
meters on a feeder. Identication of the faulted section using
fault indicators is proposed in [19].
Although more than 50 million smart meters have been installed in the U.S. by 2013, there is not a systematic method
that enables the use of outage notications from numerous smart
meters for outage management. In contrast with AMR meters,
smart meters have the embedded function of automatic outage
reporting. When a smart meter experiences the loss of power,
it sends the outage notication. Due to limitations of communication systems, evidence from smart meters and fault indicators
can be missing or delayed. Moreover, multiple faults and protection miscoordination may occur to make it a challenge to determine the outage scenario. To address these issues, this paper
proposes a systematic method based on multiple hypotheses
[20] for outage management. Outage reports from smart meters
serve as data input for the proposed multiple-hypothesis analysis. This method can be used to quickly determine the most
credible outage scenario using data from smart meters and fault
indicators. The contributions of this paper are:
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sampled data. Data transmission depends on device-level communication technologies, communication towers, data collection servers, and software to process the data at the operating
center. If there are issues such as rmware problems, data tampering, software failures, and/or communication network issues,
outage notications from smart meters can be missing at the operating center. Furthermore, multiple faults and protection miscoordination may occur, making it challenging to determine the
outage scenario. In an environment where the evidence from
fault indicators and smart meters is incomplete or inaccurate,
multiple outage scenarios may be supported by the same set of
outage evidence. The multiple-hypothesis method is proposed
to deal with incomplete or inaccurate evidence. Each hypothesis
may involve multiple faults, failure of fault indicators, protection miscoordination, and missing smart meter reports.
The relationship among the cause, effect, and evidence for
an outage scenario is illustrated in Fig. 2. For each scenario of a
faulted line section and an actuated protective device, fault indicator ags and smart meter notications consistent with this scenario are acquired. By comparing the evidence with the effect,
the credibility of each scenario is quantied. Thus the most credible outage scenario consisting of the faulted line section and
actuated protective device is determined by ranking the level of
credibility.
III. EXTENDED PROTECTION TREE
Upon occurrence of a fault followed by resulting actions of
protective devices to isolate the fault, numerous notications
from smart meters reporting a power outage are collected by
the control center. To organize these smart meter notications,
an Extended Protection Tree is proposed. An EPT contains information on how well each actuated protective device is correlated with smart meter notications.
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JIANG et al.: OUTAGE MANAGEMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS INCORPORATING INFORMATION FROM SMART METERS
ating center. Fault indicators detect the fault and transmit ags.
If the outage evidence is complete without failures of fault indicators or missing outage reports from smart meters, the outage
scenario with credibility index 1 is identied.
Taking the outage scenario in Fig. 1 as an example, R1 is
opened to isolate the fault. Without any abnormalities, such as
failures of fault indicators, missing outage reports from smart
meters, or protection miscoordination, the distribution operating
center would receive the complete outage evidence, i.e., the ag
from FI1 and outage notications from SM4-SM15.
1) Outage evidence from fault indicators to determine the
faulted line section
The line section, locating right downstream of the fault
indicator which sends the ag and has the high level in
EPT, is determined to be the faulted section. In the given
example,
a ag from FI
the faulted line section is between FI and of FI
Based on the evidence from fault indicators, the credibility
of the hypothesized faulted line section is
2) Outage evidence from smart meters to determine the actuated protective device
The protective device corresponding to the maximum
number of outage notications and no smart meter downstream of which fails to report the outage is the actuated
device. In this example,
notications from SM
SM
actuates to isoalte the fault
V. MULTIPLE-HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS
In practice, the fault indicator ags and smart meter notications can be missing or delayed due to hardware failures, software/rmware issues, and communication network problems.
Incomplete outage evidence increases the uncertainty for hypothesized outage scenarios. Moreover, outage data from unrelated outage scenarios, multiple faults, and miscoordination of
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protective devices can occur. Therefore, in this work, a multiple-hypothesis method is proposed to handle both simple and
complex outage scenarios.
A. Multiple Hypotheses
To handle an incomplete or inaccurate evidence set, a multiple-hypothesis method is proposed to determine how well each
outage scenario is supported by the available evidence. Hypotheses are generated automatically by various combinations
of the number of faults, number of fault indicator failures, and
number of protection miscoordination pairs. For each hypothesis, the optimization model based on integer programming is
developed to determine the most credible outage scenario supported by the evidence. The result of the most credible scenario
includes the actuated protective device(s), faulted section(s),
failure of a fault indicator, and smart meters' failure to report
a power outage. Credibility based on the available evidence is
quantied for each hypothesis using the proposed method.
B. Optimization Model
1) Objective Function: The objective is to identify the actuated protective device, which is correlated with the maximum
smart meter notications. As observed from the EPT, two protective devices with an upstream and downstream relationship
may correlate with the same number of notications from smart
meters. If these two protective devices both satisfy the constraints, the one downstream is judged to be more credible as
the actuated device. The reason is that fewer smart meters are
correlated with the protective device downstream compared to
the one upstream. Thus, the objective function, as expressed in
(1), is set to nd the protective device collecting the most smart
meter notications with the highest level in the EPT. Note that
the level is higher for a downstream node.
Maximize
(1)
where
represents the number of smart meter notications correlated with a protective device;
indicates
the level of a protective device in the EPT;
is a large number
so that the inequality
.
If two protective devices correlate with different numbers
of smart meter notications, the minimum difference of the
number of collected smart meter notications is one. Therefore,
by imposing
, the objective to identify
the protective device correlated with the maximum smart meter
notications is not compromised by
.
The binary decision variable
is used to represent
the actuation of the
protective device due to the
fault.
Otherwise,
. With the binary decision variables , the
values of
and
are given by
(2)
(3)
(5)
b) For each fault, only one line section can be faulted. The
binary decision variable
is 1 if the
line section is
the location of the
fault. Otherwise,
is 0.
is the set of line sections.
(6)
c) For each fault, the fault indicators upstream of the faulted
section should detect the fault current and be agged.
The binary decision variable
is 1 if the
fault indicator is upstream of the
fault. Otherwise,
is 0.
indicates the set of line sections downstream of the
fault indicator.
is the set of fault
indicators.
(7)
d) Since a fault indicator may be upstream of multiple
faulted sections, it should be agged if it is upstream of a
fault. The binary decision variable
is 1 if the
fault
indicator is upstream of a fault. Otherwise, is 0. is a
large number, which is chosen as any number larger than
.
(8)
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JIANG et al.: OUTAGE MANAGEMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS INCORPORATING INFORMATION FROM SMART METERS
but send overcurrent ags, and the ones that should detect
a fault current but do not report it.
is the status
of the
fault indicator collected by the control center.
is 1 if the
fault indicator sends an overcurrent
ag. Otherwise, it is 0.
is the number of fault
indicator failures.
(9)
In order to linearize (9),
associated constraints:
where
fails. With
formulated as:
fault indicator
, (9) is re-
(15)
In the proposed optimization model, the objective function
and constraints are linearly dependent on the binary decision
variables. For each hypothesis corresponding with the number
of faults, number of fault indicator failures, and number of
protection miscoordination pairs, the optimization problem is
solved to determine the most credible outage scenario based
on smart meter notications. Linearity of the proposed model
ensures the optimality of the solution for each hypothesis. For
different hypotheses, the credibility levels are calculated. The
credibility of hypotheses is intended to quantify the strength of
outage evidence to support the hypothesized outage scenario.
Multiple hypotheses are ranked by the credibility index. As
a result, the most credible hypothesis and the corresponding
outage scenario are determined.
C. Credibility of Hypotheses
(10)
is utilized to indicate
f) The binary decision variable
whether the
protective device is upstream of the
faulted section where the
fault locates. If it is,
is
1. Otherwise, it is 0.
is the set of line
sections downstream of the
protective device.
(11)
g) The decision variable
is used to indicate whether the
protective device is upstream of the actuated protective device because of the
fault or status of the actuated protective device itself.
is the set of
protective devices that are downstream of the
protective device.
(12)
h) For each fault, the corresponding actuated protective device should be upstream of the faulted section.
(13)
i) The number of protection miscoordination pairs
is expressed as the number of protective
devices that detect a fault current and are downstream of
the actuated protective device(s).
(14)
j) Multiple faults should be isolated by protective devices
in different branches (one fault should not be upstream of
any other fault).
is the set of protective
devices upstream of the
protective device.
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TABLE I
SYSTEM PARAMETERS OF FD1.
TABLE II
SMART METER NOTIFICATIONS FOR A SINGLE FAULT SCENARIO.
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JIANG et al.: OUTAGE MANAGEMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS INCORPORATING INFORMATION FROM SMART METERS
TABLE IV
SMART METER NOTIFICATIONS FOR A MULTIPLE-FAULT SCENARIO.
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TABLE VI
MULTIPLE-HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS FOR A SINGLE FAULT SCENARIO.
TABLE VII
MULTIPLE-HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS FOR A MULTIPLE-FAULT SCENARIO.
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JIANG et al.: OUTAGE MANAGEMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS INCORPORATING INFORMATION FROM SMART METERS
TABLE VIII
MULTIPLE-HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS
FOR
FD2.
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[6] Y. Xu, C. -. Liu, K. P. Schneider, and D. T. Ton, Placement of remote-controlled switches to enhance distribution system restoration capability, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., to be published.
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JIANG et al.: OUTAGE MANAGEMENT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS INCORPORATING INFORMATION FROM SMART METERS
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Yazhou Jiang (S'12) received the B.E. degree from Huazhong University of
Science and Technology, Wuhan, China, in 2011. He is currently pursuing his
Ph.D. degree at Washington State University, Pullman, WA.
His research interests include power system restoration, distribution automation, and optimization methods for power system applications.
Erik Lee received his B.S. in Electrical Engineering from Washington State
University in 2007. He currently works in Distribution System Operations. Mr.
Lee is a registered Professional Engineer in Washington.